Metal Science and Heat Treatment Vol. 45, Nos.

7 – 8, 2003

UDC 669.715’793

EFFECT OF SCANDIUM ON THE STRUCTURE

AND PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS

V. V. Zakharov1

Translated from Metallovedenie i Termicheskaya Obrabotka Metallov, No. 7, pp. 7 – 15, July, 2003.

It is shown that the addition of scandium considerably influences the structure and properties of aluminum and
its alloys. Scandium is the strongest inoculant of the cast grain structure of aluminum alloys, the strongest sup-
pressor of recrystallization, and the strongest hardener (per 0.1% of the additive). The addition of zirconium
intensifies and stabilizes the action of scandium. Commercial aluminum alloys alloyed with scandium and zir-
conium and a technology for fabricating deformed semiproducts from them are presented. The combination of
operating properties of scandium-bearing aluminum alloys is substantially superior to that of traditional alu-
minum alloys.

INTRODUCTION transformation (655°C) differs little from the melting tem-

The interest in scandium as an alloying component for
aluminum alloys has grown markedly after publication of
patent [1] in the USA in 1971. It was shown in the patent that
a low additive of scandium (tenths of a percent) to aluminum
and aluminum alloys substantially raises their strength cha-
racteristics. For example, the introduction of 0.3% scandium
increases the ultimate rupture strength of annealed aluminum
sheets from 55 to 240 MPa, that of the Al – 1% Mg alloy
from 110 to 300 MPa, and that of the Al – 5% Mg alloy from
260 to 400 MPa. The structure of annealed sheets changes
from a fully recrystallized one (without scandium) to a non-
recrystallized one (with scandium). The data presented in the
patent spurred intense research into the effect of scandium on
the structure and properties of aluminum alloys and develop-
ment of commercial aluminum alloys with scandium for the
production of deformed semiproducts in the USSR in the
early 1970s. The research was carried out at the A. A. Baikov
Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science and at the
All-Russia Institute of Light Alloys [2 – 9]. In the present pa-
per we will generalize some of the results of these studies.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Scandium Inoculation of the Grain Structure
of Ingots of Aluminum Alloys
Scandium forms a limited-solubility eutectic diagram
with aluminum (Fig. 1). The temperature of the eutectic
1
All-Russia Institute of Light Alloys, Moscow, Russia.
perature of aluminum (660°C); the maximum solubility of
scandium in aluminum in the solid state is 0.35%, the
eutectic point corresponds to 0.55%. The inoculating action
of scandium manifests itself at a content exceeding 0.55%,
i.e., only in hypereutectic alloys. In these alloys the particles
of Al3Sc are the first to crystallize and serve as centers of
grain nucleation of the aluminum solid solution.
Scandium is the strongest inoculant of the grain structure
of aluminum alloy ingots [10 – 12]. The addition of scan-
dium to aluminum and aluminum alloys makes it possible to
obtain ingots with very fine grains (a “nondendritic” struc-
ture) by the method of continuous casting [12] (Fig. 2). The
nondendritic structure is characterized by the absence of den-
dritic pattern in the grains, though the grain size corresponds
to the dendritic parameter [13].
The strong action of the scandium additive on the grain
size in cast aluminum alloys is explained as follows. The pri-
mary particles of Al3Sc formed in the pre-crystallization pe-
riod and serving as grain nuclei for the aluminum solid solu-
tion have an Ll2 crystal structure with a unique size-and-
structural correspondence to the crystal lattice of aluminum.
We presume that this fact is decisive for the high efficiency
of the inoculating action of scandium.
The capacity of primary particles of the Al3Sc type to
form in great numbers in a unit volume of aluminum melt at
an inconsiderable excess over the eutectic content is very im-
portant.
This presumption is confirmed by the experimental de-
pendence of the size of cast grains in an Al – Sc binary alloy
on the scandium content (Fig. 3) plotted using the data of [14].

246
0026-0673/03/0708-0246$25.00 © 2003 Plenum Publishing Corporation
Effect of Scandium on the Structure and Properties of Aluminum Alloys 247

a+L Al3Sc + L
a a + Al3Sc

Al ~ 0.55 Sc, % Fig. 2. Nondendritic structure of a continuously cast ingot of alloy

1970 134 mm in diameter, ´ 200.
Fig. 1. Phase diagram of the Al – Sc system.

d, mm
As the scandium content increases within the specified
0.8
solubility in the solid solution, the grains virtually do not dis-
integrate. They start to become smaller from the moment of
0.6
appearance of the eutectic, i.e., from the moment of appear-
ance of the Al3Sc phase that enters the eutectic. When the
0.4
amount of scandium exceeds the eutectic content and, conse-
quently, there appear primary particles of the Al3Sc phase,
0.2
the grains disintegrate to the finest possible size. The grain
size becomes equal to the dendritic parameter. Experience in
the use of aluminum alloys with scandium shows that the 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 Sc, %
transition from a dendritic structure to a nondendritic one oc-
curs at a scandium content exceeding a certain critical value Fig. 3. Grain size in cast alloy of the Al – Sc system as a function
of the scandium content [14].
by 0.01 – 0.015%. For binary alloys of the Al – Sc system
such a critical value is the eutectic point in the metastable
Al – Sc phase diagram; the 0.01 – 0.015% Sc goes for the
formation of primary Al3Sc particles, the amount of which is grains disintegrate to the finest possible size virtually imme-
sufficient for maximum disintegration of the grains. diately after attainment of the eutectic concentration of scan-
Evaluation shows that with the introduction of 0.015% dium, and further growth in the scandium content (whatever
Sc into the alloy, 0.037 wt.% Al3Sc aluminide forms. With the steepness of the liquidus) does not affect the grain size.
allowance for its specific weight this amounts to 0.036 vol.%. Scandium is introduced into commercial aluminum al-
loys together with zirconium. In the presence of zirconium
At a mean size of nondendritic grains equal to 50 mm and un-
the inoculating action of scandium manifests itself at lower
der the condition that every grain bears one nucleus in the
concentrations starting from 0.18% (Fig. 4). The nuclei of
form of Al3Sc particles, the size of this nucleus should be
1.8 mm. In fact, when the melt attains the eutectic tempera-
ture at which crystallization of grains of aluminum solid so- d, mm
lution begins, a volume of the melt equal to the volume of a
future grain contains many particles of Al3Sc. However, the
crystallization begins on one particle, which later occupies 150
the center of the grain, and the other particles seem to be
Nondendritic
squeezed by the crystallization front to the boundary of the structure
grain [15]. In this connection, the actual size of the nucleus 100 Dendritic
particle is less than 1.8 mm. structure
The increase in the scandium content and the corre-
sponding increase in the number of particles of Al3Sc do not 50 Dendritic
cause further disintegration of the grains, and their sizes are parameter
determined only by the cooling rate of the ingot in the range d
of crystallization temperatures [13]. The steepness of the
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 Sc, %
liquidus, which indicates the efficiency of the inoculating ac-
tion of other transition metals (Ti, Zr, Ta, V, etc.), has no im- Fig. 4. Dependence of the grain size in an ingot of zirconium-bear-
portance for the case of scandium alloying, because the ing continuously cast alloy 1970 on the content of scandium [16].
248
aluminum grains are particles of a Al3(Sc1 – x , Zrx ) phase
that has the form of a solid solution of zirconium in Al3Sc,
where a part of the scandium atoms is replaced by zirconium
atoms. The particles of Al3(Sc1 – x , Zrx ) have the same crys-
tal lattice (Ll2 ) as the particles of Al3Sc and preserve their
capacity to serve active crystallization centers for grains of
the aluminum solid solution.
Ingots up to 800 mm in diameter fabricated from com-
mercial aluminum alloys with an additive of scandium
(about 0.2%) combined with zirconium (about 0.1%) (for
example from alloy 1570) by the method of continuous cast-
ing have a nondendritic structure, which provides a lower
susceptibility to formation of casting cracks and an elevated
ductility in pressure treatment.
Formation of Supersaturated Solid Solution
of Scandium in Aluminum in Ingots Obtained
by the Method of Continuous Casting
The most important aspect in the entire process of manu-
facturing of deformed semiproducts from aluminum alloys
bearing scandium is the formation of supersaturated solid so-
lution of scandium in aluminum during continuous casting of
the ingots. This very circumstance determines the substantial
advantages of semiproducts from scandium-bearing alumi-
num alloys over semiproducts from conventional aluminum
alloys.
Experimental and operational results obtained for scan-
dium-bearing aluminum alloys show that scandium tends to
form supersaturated solid solutions in the crystallization of
the melt in the process of continuous casting of ingots, in-
cluding rather large ones (for example, 800-mm ingots). In a
correctly organized process of melting and casting, over 90%
of the introduced scandium enters the solid solution, and the
remaining part (below 10%) segregates in the pre-crystalliza-
tion period in the form of primary particles of the Al3Sc type
required for inoculation of the grain structure of the ingots.
Under the cooling rates used in the process of continuous
casting the melt crystallizes in accordance with the diagram
of metastable equilibrium. Any cooling rate is characterized
by its own metastable diagram. A diagram of metastable
equilibrium of the Al – Sc system for a cooling rate of
100 K/sec is presented in [14]. This rate corresponds to cool-
ing of ingots 80 mm in diameter in the process of continuous
casting. The region of solid solutions in the diagram of
metastable equilibrium is twice wider than that in the equi-
librium diagram. The maximum solubility of scandium in-
creases from 0.35 to 0.6%. Thus, supersaturated solid solu-
tions, where the scandium content exceeds its maximum so-
lubility in the equilibrium phase diagram, may form under
the conditions of continuous casting of ingots from
scandium-bearing aluminum alloys.
Crystallization of scandium-bearing aluminum alloys is
accompanied by a very interesting phenomenon, namely, the
presence of zirconium in aluminum solid solution under the
conditions of metastable equilibrium does not lower the dis-
V. V. Zakharov
t, °C
600
500
60%
400
5% 10% 20%
300
5% 10% 20% 40% 60%
200
10 102 103 104 105 106 107 t, señ
10 señ 1 min 10 min 1 h 1 day 1 month t
Fig. 5. C-curves of decomposition of the solid solution in ingots
of Al – 0.4% Sc (&) and Al – 0.6% Mn (() [6]. The percentage
of the decomposition is indicated at the curves.
solution of scandium in aluminum and, on the contrary, the
presence of scandium in the solution does not lower the dis-
solution of zirconium in aluminum. The maximum joint sol-
ubility of scandium and zirconium in aluminum under meta-
stable equilibrium occurs at a Sc-to-Zr proportion equal to
unity [17]. In our opinion, this regularity is very important
for practical purposes and is the basis for creating new pro-
mising alloys and processes.
Special Features of the Decomposition
of Supersaturated Solid Solution of Scandium in Aluminum
During in-process heating of scandium-bearing aluminum
ingots the solid solution of scandium in aluminum, which has
been formed in continuous casting, decomposes. The decom-
position yields particles of Al3Sc or Al3(Sc1 – x , Zrx ) phases,
which directly or indirectly determine the many advantages
and high operating characteristics of deformed semiproducts
from scandium-bearing aluminum alloys. In this connection,
the process of decomposition of the solid solution and its
special features (the kinetics of the decomposition, the mor-
phology of the decomposition products) are very important
for providing the requisite operating properties, which makes
it necessary to rigidly control the temperature and time pa-
rameters of the process of manufacturing of semiproducts.
Decomposition kinetics. The solid solution of scandium
in aluminum is very unstable and rapidly decomposes during
heating to 250°C and higher temperatures [6, 18]. For exam-
ple, at 450 – 500°C (the temperature range of homogenizing
annealing of ingots) the incubation period before the decom-
position of the solid solution in an ingot of Al – 0.4% Sc is
equal to 10 sec, which is three orders of magnitude lower
that in Al – 0.6% Mn and four orders of magnitude lower
than in Al – 0.3% Zr. The mean rate of decomposition of the
solid solution in alloys of the Al – Sc system is four orders of
magnitude higher than in alloys of the Al – Mn system.
The C-curves presented in Fig. 5 give a general notion of
the kinetics of decomposition of the solid solution in alloys
Al – 0.4% Sc and Al – 0.6% Mn (for comparison). The low
Effect of Scandium on the Structure and Properties of Aluminum Alloys
HV
90 250°C
300
70
350
50
400
500°C
450
30
0 10 102 103 104 105 106 ti. h , señ
0 10 señ 1 min 10 min 1 h 1 day 1 month ti. h
Fig. 6. Microhardness of continuously cast ingots of Al – 0.4% Sc
alloy 134 mm in diameter as a function of isothermal hold (ti.h ) at
various temperatures [6].
stability of the solid solution of scandium in aluminum can
be explained by the easiness of homogeneous nucleation of
particles of the new Al3Sc phase in the aluminum matrix and
by the low mean diffusion path of scandium atoms in the alu-
minum matrix during the decomposition as a result of a very
high number of Al3Sc particles in unit volume. This is the
reason for the short incubation period and the high rate of de-
composition at the early stages, when the density of particles
in unit volume of the matrix is high, i.e., before the coales-
cence. After the particles become larger and the distance be-
tween them increases, the decomposition markedly decele-
rates, as can be seen from the C-curves presented in Fig. 5.
The addition of zirconium to alloys of the Al – Sc system
does not affect the early stages of the decomposition and no-
ticeably decelerates the late stages [18]. Taking into account
that the solid solution of scandium in aluminum is about five
times less stable than the solid solution of zirconium in alu-
minum, we may assume that only the solid solution of scan-
dium in aluminum decomposes in the early stages, yielding
particles of Al3Sc. Zirconium is preserved in the supersatu-
rated slid solution. In later stages the total diffusion flow due
to the decomposition of the solid solution is enriched with
zirconium atoms. Zirconium atoms diffuse into the formed
particles of Al3Sc from the aluminum solid solution and dis-
solve in them, forming an Al3(Sc1 – x , Zrx ) phase.
Hardening during decomposition. The decomposition
of the solid solution of scandium in aluminum causes strong
hardening (Fig. 6). The microhardness of alloy Al – 0.4% Sc
in the ingot increases from 34 to 90 HV. This strong harden-
ing is a result of the high dispersity of particles of Al3Sc.
Since the decomposition of the solid solution of scandium in
aluminum occurs at a very high rate, the maximum micro-
hardness is attained very rapidly. For example, at 500 –
450°C the microhardness attains a maximum during seconds,
at 400 – 350°C the maximum is attained during minutes, and
then follows rapid softening due to coarsening of the parti-
cles of Al3Sc. With the introduction of zirconium into
Al – 0.4% Sc the kinetics and the intensity of the hardening
249
HV
65
55
45
35
25
0 10 102 103 104 105 ti. h , señ
0 10 señ 1 min 1h 1 day 1 month ti. h
Fig. 7. Microhardness of Al – 0.2% Sc (() and Al – 0.2% Sc –
0.15% Zr (&) alloys in continuously cast ingots 92 mm in diameter
as a function of isothermal hold (ti.h ) at 400°C [5].
do not change, but the softening decelerates markedly [5].
The particles of Al3(Sc1 – x , Zrx ) are less susceptible to coag-
ulation than the particles of the Al3Sc phase.
Zirconium added to the Al – 0.2% Sc binary alloy
changes the kinetics and the intensity of the hardening; the
rate and value of hardening increase substantially (Fig. 7).
It should be noted that even in the presence of zirconium
it is not always possible to keep the hardening effect of the
particles of Al3(Sc1 – x , Zrx ) in ready semiproducts from
commercial aluminum alloys. After the in-process heating
operations, particles of the Al3(Sc1 – x , Zrx ) phase are enlar-
ged and their contribution to the hardening of the semipro-
ducts is inconsiderable.
Special Features of Recrystallization
of Alloys of the Al – Sc System
The addition of scandium to aluminum and aluminum al-
loys markedly increases the recrystallization temperature of
deformed semiproducts [8, 19, 20]. Comparing the effi-
ciency of the anti-recrystallization action of scandium and
other well-known anti-recrystallization additives like zirco-
nium, manganese, and chromium, we can infer that, firstly,
scandium increases the recrystallization temperature much
more than the other known anti-recrystallization additives
and, secondly, in contrast to the other additives, scandium
raises the recrystallization temperature not only of hot-de-
formed semiproducts but also of cold-deformed ones
(Fig. 8). The strong action of scandium on recrystallization
of aluminum alloys is caused by the high dispersity of the
products of decomposition of the solid solution of scandium
in aluminum (particles of Al3Sc), which hinder the
recrystallization. The addition of zirconium, which hinders
coagulation of secondary particles in the in-process heating
operations, intensifies the anti-recrystallization effect of
scandium. The anti-recrystallization effect of scandium be-
comes so strong that the recrystallization temperature of
250 V. V. Zakharov

tr , °C
600 Sc
500
400
Zr
Mn
Cr
300
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 AE, %
Fig. 8. Recrystallization temperature (50% recrystallization) of
cold-rolled sheets of binary alloys of Al – Mn, Al – Cr, Al – Zr, and
Al – Sc systems as a function of the content of transition metal
(AE) [8].
some alloys bearing scandium and zirconium grows to the
solidus temperature and sometimes (for alloys of the
Al – Zn – Mg – Sc – Zr system) fusion occurs before the be-
ginning of recrystallization.
The strong anti-recrystallization action of scandium
makes it possible to produce any kind of deformed and
heat-treated semiproduct from aluminum alloys, including
semiproducts obtained with the help of cold deformation and
possessing a stable nonrecrystallized (polygonized) structure.
On the whole, the thermal stability of the nonrecrystal-
lized structure of semiproducts fabricated from commercial
alloys containing scandium is high. At the same time, de-
pending on the base system of the commercial alloys their
recrystallization resistance can vary in a wide range. For ex-
ample, commercial alloy 1970 (Al – Zn – Mg – Sc – Zr sys-
tem) possesses a very high recrystallization temperature, and
any kind of semiproduct, including strongly deformed sheets
of 1 mm thickness, preserves the nonrecrystallized structure
without the slightest trace of recrystallization after heating
for hardening. Alloys based on the Al – Mg – Sc – Zr system
have a lower recrystallization temperature, which depends to
a great degree on the magnesium content. With increase in
the content of magnesium the recrystallization temperature
decreases, and when its amount attains about 6% in commer-
cial alloys of type 1570 of the Al – Mg – Sc – Zr system, it
becomes quite hard to fabricate thin cold-rolled sheets with a
thermally stable nonrecrystallized structure from the latter.
The goal is attained by using special techniques directed at
increasing the concentration of scandium and zirconium in
the solid solution during casting of the ingots and by control-
ling the decomposition process in the subsequent in-process
heating operations. In addition, the deformation and temper-
ature modes of the rolling are chosen so as to decrease the
deformation energy accumulated in the metal, which is the
driving force of the recrystallization.
Preservation of a nonrecrystallized structure in heat-
treated semiproducts is the main problem in choosing the
composition of the alloy and developing the process for fab-
ricating semiproducts, because it is the nonrecrystallized
(polygonized) structure that provides high strength charac-
teristics.
Hardening of Deformed Semiproducts
from Scandium-Bearing Aluminum Alloys
Semiproducts from aluminum alloys containing scan-
dium possess higher strength characteristics than semipro-
ducts from similar aluminum alloys without scandium. The
difference is especially great for non-heat-hardened alloys
based on the Al – Mg system (Table 1).
The strength characteristics of sheets from scandium-
bearing alloys, especially from those with a low content of
magnesium, are substantially higher. The increase in the
strength of semiproducts from scandium-bearing aluminum
alloys is due to two factors, namely, by the direct hardening
with dispersed particles of the Al3Sc type and by the sub-
structural hardening due to preservation of a nonrecrystal-
lized structure. In our opinion, the latter factor is the deter-

TABLE 1. Mechanical Properties of Deformed Semiproducts from New Al – Mg – Sc Alloys and Traditional
Al – Mg Alloys [21]
Mean content sr , MPa s0.2 , MPa
System Alloy d, %
of base alloying components, wt.%
Al – Mg AMg1 Al – 1.5Mg 120 50 28
Al – Mg – Sc 1515 Al – 0.15Mg – 0.3Sc – 0.1Zr 250 160 16
Al – Mg AMg2 Al – 2.2Mg – 0.4Mn 190 90 23
Al – Mg – Sc 1523 Al – 2.1Mg – 0.3Sc – 0.15Zr 270 200 16
Al – Mg AMg4 Al – 4.2Mg – 0.65Mn – 0.06Ti 270 140 23
Al – Mg – Sc 1535 Al – 4.2Mg – 0.3Sc – 0.1Zr 360 280 20
Al – Mg AMg5 Al – 5.3Mg – 0.55Mn – 0.06Ti 300 170 20
Al – Mg – Sc 1545 Al – 5.2Mg – 0.3Sc – 0.1Zr 380 290 16
Al – Mg AMg6 Al – 6.3Mg – 0.65Mn – 0.06Ti 340 180 20
Al – Mg – Sc 1570 Al – 5.8Mg – 0.4Mn – 0.25Sc – 0.1Zr 400 300 15
Effect of Scandium on the Structure and Properties of Aluminum Alloys 251

TABLE 2. Mechanical Properties of Nonrecrystallized (Poly- TABLE 3. Mechanical Properties of Forgings and Rolling Rings
gonized) Sheets from AMg6 and 1570-Type Alloy after from AMg6 and 1570 Alloys in the Tangential Direction
Low-Temperature Annealing at 250°C (data of V. I. Dobat-
sr , MPa s0.2 , MPa d, % sr , MPa s0.2 , MPa d, %
kin, M. E. Drits, L. S. Toropova, et al.) Alloy
Forging Rolling ring
Grade of alloy sr , MPa s0.2 , MPa d, %
AMg6 370 270 17 AMg6 340 180 20 340 180 21
AMg6 + 0.3% Sc 380 280 16 1570 380 250 23 380 250 22

mining one. This is confirmed by the following experimen-
tal fact.
If we managed to keep a nonrecrystallized structure
in sheets from alloy AMg6, for example, due to hot-cold roll-
ing or low-temperature (pre-recrystallization) annealing, the
properties of the sheets from alloys AMg6 (Al – 6% Mg
without Sc) and 1570 (Al – 6% Mg with scandium) were
close (Table 2).
The structure of the sheets from both alloys was
nonrecrystallized (polygonized), and the level of the proper-
ties was determined by the solid solution (of magnesium in
aluminum) hardening and by the substructural hardening.
The hardening effect of the Al3Sc particles proper mani-
fested itself very weakly due to their coarsening in the
in-process heating operations. The hardening due to the
Al3Sc particles amounted to Dsr = 10 MPa, Ds0.2 = 10 MPa.
Table 3 presents typical mechanical properties of mas-
sive forgings and rolling rings from alloys AMg6 and 1570.
The structure of the forgings and the rings from alloy
AMg6 is fully recrystallized; in parts from alloy 1570 the
structure is nonrecrystallized (polygonized) and has large
subgrains. The differences in the strength of forgings from
the compared alloys (Dsr = 40 MPa, Ds0.2 = 70 MPa) is
caused by the additional hardening provided in forged semi-
products from alloy 1570 by the subgrain hardening and by
the hardening with dispersed particles of Al3(Sc1 – x , Zrx ). It
is hard to differentiate correctly the contributions of the hard-
ening of the subgrain structure and of the particles them-
selves. Taking into account that the difference in the proper-
ties of forgings from the two alloys is not very high, we may
assume in the first approximation that half of the hardening
is provided by the substructure and the other half is provided
by the particles. In this case the hardening due to the Al3Sc
particles will be Dsr = 20 MPa, Ds0.2 = 35 MPa. This seems
to be a conservative estimate. The use of the data of Table 2
gives a more correct estimate. However, even the overesti-
mation implies that the hardening provided by the particles is
inconsiderable. The subgrain hardening is also low due to the
large size of the subgrains in forged semiproducts.
The hardening due to coarse particles of type Al3Sc is in-
considerable and depends little on the kind of semiproduct.
The substructural hardening, on the contrary, strongly de-
pends on the kind of semiproduct and on the method of its
manufacturing. With increase in the degree and rate of defor-
mation, with decrease in the deformation temperature, and
TABLE 4. Mechanical Properties of 1-mm-Thick
Annealed Sheets from AMg6 and 1570 Alloys in the
Transverse Direction. Data of [21]
Alloy sr , MPa s0.2 , MPa d, %
AMg6 340 160 22
1570 450 350 21
with the use of pressure treatment the substructural harden-
ing increases due to the disintegration of the subgrains in
heat-treated semiproducts.
Maximum hardening of alloys of the Al – Mg – Sc sys-
tem is provided by cold rolling of sheets at a high total reduc-
tion. The final annealing yields a fine subgrain structure in
the sheets. The higher the total reduction during the cold roll-
ing of the sheets, the finer are the grains after the subsequent
annealing and the higher are the strength characteristics. Ta-
ble 4 presents the properties of annealed sheets from alloys
AMg6 and 1570 with a thickness of 1 mm.
It can be seen that the sheets from alloy 1570 have better
strength characteristics than the sheets from alloy AMg6,
namely, Dsr = 110 MPa, Ds0.2 = 190 MPa. The advantage is
mainly due to substructural hardening, i.e., Dsr = 110 – 10 =
100 MPa, Ds0.2 = 190 – 10 = 180 MPa. The particles of
Al3(Sc1 – x , Zrx ) play a secondary role in the hardening of the
sheets (Ds = 10 MPa).
Thus, the enhanced strength characteristics of semipro-
ducts from scandium-alloyed aluminum alloys as compared
to semiproducts from similar alloys bearing no scandium are
primarily provided by preservation of the nonrecrystallized
(polygonized) structure.
Commercial Scandium-Bearing Aluminum Alloys
Today we possess a great number of commercial deform-
able scandium- and zirconium-bearing aluminum alloys in
the Al – Mg [21 – 23], Al – Zn – Mg [24, 25], Al – Mg – Li
[26], and Al – Cu – Li [27 – 29] systems. A process has been
developed for manufacturing deformable semiproducts from
scandium-bearing aluminum alloys. The process is based on
the fact that almost the whole of the introduced scandium is
fixed in the supersaturated solid solution during continuous
casting of ingots; its decomposition is rigidly controlled in
the subsequent in-process heating operations. Some of the al-
252
loys are in the stage of pilot production and others have been
converted at a commercial scale.
Commercial alloys based on the Al – Mg – Sc system.
This group of scandium-bearing commercial alloys is the
most developed [21 – 23]. Their main advantages are the
high corrosion resistance, the excellent weldability, and,
what is most important, the higher strength with respect to
similar alloys without scandium (see Table 1). With allow-
ance for the still high cost of scandium the use of alloys of
the Al – Mg – Sc system is expedient today only in astronau-
tics and rocket engineering. The replacement of alloy AMg6
with s0.2 = 180 MPa by alloy 1570 with s0.2 = 300 MPa
markedly decreases the mass of a welded structure and corre-
spondingly increases the payload.
In the recent years designers have been working at
choosing the composition for an Al – Mg – Sc alloy and the
process for fabricating sheets from the latter for aircraft fuse-
lage sheeting. This requires solution of several problems
connected with the enhancement of the characteristics of
crack resistance and cyclic durability and lowering of the
anisotropy of mechanical properties of the sheets, as well as
the development of a process for shaping the sheets.
Specialists are working at developing sparingly alloyed
Al – Mg – Sc alloys with about 0.1% Sc, which preserves
many advantages of Al – Mg – Sc alloys with about 0.25%
Sc including the high strength characteristics. Due to their
good weldability and corrosion resistance these alloys can be
used in the automotive and railroad industries and in the
building industry for bearing structures.
Commercial alloys of the Al – Zn – Mg – Sc system.
Commercial Al – Zn – Mg alloys have many advantages,
i.e., the possibility of attaining a high strength without wors-
ening the ductility, a high general corrosion resistance, a
good weldability, and a high adaptability to metallurgical
processes, especially pressing. However, these alloys are not
used on a wide scale because of their susceptibility to stress
corrosion. Their susceptibility of stress corrosion can be de-
creased substantially by adding a low amount of copper into
the composition, but this markedly increases the possibility
of formation of welding cracks, and the alloys become virtu-
ally not weldable. The use of scandium as an alloying ele-
ment in the Al – Zn – Mg system has made it possible to
neutralize the negative effect of copper. The positive action
of scandium is based on the considerable disintegration of
grains in the weld, which considerably decreases the suscep-
tibility of the alloy to formation of hot cracks. In this connec-
tion, the weldable alloy 1970 based on the Al – Zn –
Mg – Cu system was alloyed with scandium [24, 25].
At the present time alloy 1970 is the best Russian
high-strength weldable aluminum alloy. It has a strength of
500 MPa combined with high ductility and fracture tough-
ness. The fatigue characteristics of the alloy are not inferior
to those of the best long-life alloys 1163 and 1161. The alloy
is well weldable; its susceptibility to crack formation in
welding is lower than that of alloy AMg6; the weld strength
V. V. Zakharov
amounts to 0.8 – 0.9 of the strength of the base metal; the
critical stress of a weld tested for stress corrosion exceeds
225 MPa.
Sheets from alloy 1970 possess natural superplasticity.
Due to the high stability of the solid solution and the wide
temperature range of its existence, which coincides with the
temperature range of superplasticity, the sheets can be hard-
ened by cooling in still air from the temperature of
superplastic shaping and then hardened by natural or artifi-
cial aging.
Alloy 1970 has been used as a base for developing a new
sparingly alloyed grade 1975 differing from 1970 by a lower
scandium content. It is planned to use alloy 1975 in the form
of pressed shapes and high-load structures of bridge girders,
transmission line poles and towers, and in the automotive
and railroad industries.
Commercial alloys based on the Al – Mg – Li – Sc sys-
tem. Scandium is introduced into commercial alloys of the
Al – Mg – Li system in order to raise the strength of de-
formed semiproducts due to preservation of nonrecrystal-
lized structure and in order to improve the weldability. Two
commercial alloys (1421 and 1424) are produced in the
Al – Mg – Li – Sc system [26, 27]. Their advantages include
low density (2.5 tons/m3 ), high modulus of elasticity
(E = 77 – 80 GPa), high enough strength at a satisfactory
ductility, high crack resistance characteristics, especially cy-
clic fatigue strength, good corrosion resistance, and satisfac-
tory weldability. These alloys are the most suitable for space-
craft and aircraft engineering and do not yet have any alter-
native in this respect. However, the presence of lithium in
their composition creates serious problems both in metallur-
gical production during fabrication of semiproducts and in
machine building during assembly of the crafts. Since many
of the problems remain unsolved, the alloys have limited use.
Commercial alloys based on the Al – Cu – Li – Sc sys-
tem. Alloys 1460 and 1464 based on the Al – Cu – Li – Sc
system belong to the strongest weldable aluminum alloys
[28, 29]. Due to the scandium additive, semiproducts from
these alloys have a nonrecrystallized structure and hence an
elevated strength. As in other aluminum alloys, scandium
noticeably decreases their susceptibility to welding cracks.
The ultimate rupture strength of these alloys attains 600 MPa
at a diminished density and elevated modulus of elasticity.
These alloys can serve at the temperature of liquid nitro-
gen [30]. Their use for fuel tanks gives a considerable gain in
the weight.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Scandium has a considerable influence on the struc-
ture and properties of aluminum and its alloys, being the
strongest inoculant of the cast grain structure, the strongest
recrystallization suppressor, and the strongest hardener of
aluminum alloys.
Effect of Scandium on the Structure and Properties of Aluminum Alloys
2. Almost all the scandium introduced into an aluminum
alloy remains in the supersaturated solid solution during cas-
ing of ingots. In subsequent in-process heating operations the
solid solution decomposes. The products of the decomposi-
tion determine virtually all the advantages of semiproducts
from scandium-bearing aluminum alloys.
3. Commercial aluminum alloys with scandium have
been created and the principles of scandium alloying of alu-
minum alloys have been developed. This process for fabri-
cating deformed semiproducts from these alloys makes max-
imum use of scandium. The use of such semiproducts is lim-
ited by the high cost of scandium.
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