TOPIC 1:

3. Road transport completely offer a freedom to road users to transfer the vehicles from one lane to another and to
from one road to another according to the need and convenience. This flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed
and timings of travel is not available to other modes of transport.

4. In particular for short distance travel, road transport saves time. Trains stop at junctions and main stations for
comparatively longer time.

5. Speed of movement is directly related with severity of accident. The road Safety decreases with increase dispersion in
speed. Road Transport is subjected to high degree of accidents due to flexibility of movements offered to the user.
Derailment of railway locomotives and airplanes and air crashes are not uncommon. They are in fact more disastrous.

7. Road transport is the only means of transport offer itself to the whole community.

Scope of Highway and Traffic Engineering

Roads are generally constructed on small embankments, slightly above the general ground level in order to avoid
difficult drainage and maintenance problems. Such roads are therefore termed as highway and the science and

technology dealing with roads are called highway engineering.

Highway engineering is the process of design and construction of efficient and safe highways and roads. This

requires detailed drawings with complete design for drainage systems, pavement foundations,

SCOPE OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

1. Pavement structural design,

construction & maintenance.

2. Materials

3. Rehabilitation

4. Geometric design

Traffic Engineering is that phase of engineering which deals with the planning, and traffic, operations of roads, streets
and highways, their networks, terminals, abutting lands and relationships with other modes of transportation for the
achievement of safe, efficient, and convenient movement of persons and goods.

SCOPE OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

1. Traffic characteristic

2. Traffic studies and analysis (i.e: flow, speed, density)

3. Traffic operations (i.e: controls and regulations)

4. Planning and analysis (i.e: queuing, traffic signal,

intersection)

5. Transportation system

6. Administration and management (i.e: parking, tolling)

7. Research
TOPIC 2 : HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

Brief History of Roads - The invention of vehicles led to the development of roads or highways, the first trace of road
network is believed to have existed in Mesopotamia in 3500 B.C. Another stone surface roads were found in
Mediterranean island of Crete, similarly, constructed as those in the Western Hemisphere by the Mayans, Aztecs and
Incas of Central South America.

The early road systems were constructed primarily for the following purposes:

1. For the movement of armies in their conquest or for defense against invasion.

2. For transport of food and trade of goods between towns and cities.

HISTORY OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION

ROMAN ROADS

Purpose of military movement (400 B.C to 200 A.D)

Road constructed by Roman in 312 B.C

Main characteristics

1. Thickness of the road from about 0.7 m to 1.2m

2. They were straight without gradient (use for army).

3. Road were not built on soft soil formation but on hard

stratum reached after excavation

PIERRE TRESAQUET’s ROADS ( FRENCH ROADS)

 Mr. Pierre Tresaquet was inspector general of road in France (1775 to 1785) and was known as the “Father of
Modern Road Building”
 He developed an improved method of road construction.
 Thickness of the road 30 cm
 Made consideration of subgrade moisture and drainage from the road surface.
 Need for continuous maintenance of road
 Developed in France mainly for use of military

THOMAS TELFORD ROAD

 a Scottish Engineer born in Westminster Abbey, he is the president and founder of the Institute of Civil Engineer.
 He introduced some improvements in the construction methods of Piere- Marie-Jerome Tresaguet by analyzing
stone thickness, road traffic, road alignment and gradient slopes.
 Formation level is horizontal.
 Camber is constructed by changing the foundation layer thickness from 3” or 4” on the side to 7” or 8” in the
middle.

JOHN MACADAM ROAD

John Louden Mac Adam ( 1755-1836), anotherfamous Scottish Engineer road builder and contemporary of Telford ,
established the Macadam road concept that was widely accepted during their time

McAdam realized that the best stone for road surfacing needed to be angular in shape , crushed and then graded to a
constant size.
The first two layers were a maximum size of 75mm and were laid to a total depth of 200mm.

The third layer had a maximum size of 25mm and was laid to a depth of 25mm.

Each layer was compacted using a heavy roller. The centre of the road was built higher than the edges to assist
rainwater in running off to drains built either side of the road.

JOHN MACADAM ROAD

 The whole of the surface was then rolled flat to bind the stones together.
 This gave a hard road surface, free from ruts and one which was capable of carrying heavy carts and stage
coaches.
 MacAdam’s roads was used not only in Britain but all around the world.
 Later, road surfaces were bound together using coal tar and were commonly known as Tarmacadam roads.
 Modern roads are still built largely on MacAdam’s system and his name has become synonymous with roads.

Classification of Roads in the Philippines

Based on Department of Public Roads and Highways’ (DPWH) “Road Safety Manual Book 1” the main classification of the
road is whether the road is to be used for movement or access.

1. Expressways - These roads are the longer distance routes for motorized traffic. They provide transportation link
between regions and provinces. The primary function is movement and not access.
2. National Roads - These roads are continuous in extent that form part of the main trunk line system; all roads
leading to national ports, national seaports, parks, or coast- to-coast roads.
3. Provincial Roads - These are roads connecting municipality with another, all roads extending from a municipality
or from a provincial roads or national roads to public wharf or railway station.
4. A. City Roads - These are roads or streets in urban area of the city to be designated as such by the Sangguniang
Panglungsod.
B. Municipal Roads - These are roads or streets in urban area of the city to be designated as such by the
Sangguniang Bayan.
5. Barangay Roads - These are rural roads located either outside the urban area of a city or outside industrial,
commercial, or residential which act as a feeder farm-to-market roads and which are not otherwise classified as
national, provincial, city or municipal roads.

ROAD PATTERNS - The study of road patterns is essential in the development of a city or place. It is significant to make
sure that roads are interconnected properly.

1. Rectangular or Block Pattern - In this pattern the whole area is divided into rectangular blocks. The streets or
branch of roads intersect with each other at right angle. The main road always passes through the center, must
be wide enough and should be provided with direct access outside of the city. Branch roads may be narrow as
compared to main roads.
2. Radial or Star and Block Pattern - It is a combination of star and block pattern. The entire area is divided into a
radial of network of roads radiating from the center outwardly with block networks in between the radial main
streets.
3. Radial or Star and Circular Pattern - It is the pattern in which many main roads ( radial roads) radiates from the
central point and are connected together with concentric roads ( ring roads) that are also radiating outwardly.
4. Radial or Star and Grid Pattern - The radial network of road radiates from the center outwardly. Then, the main
radial streets are interconnected by providing a grid pattern.
5. Hexagonal Pattern - In this pattern, the entire area is divided into hexagonal patterns. Three roads meet the
built-up area bounded by the sides of the hexagons at every corner of the hexagon which can be further divided
into suitable sizes.
 6. Minimum Travel Pattern - In this, the city center is connected with suburban centers and neighbor centers with
the shortest roads. To make road short, road alignment is made straight.

HIGHWAY PLANNING - Planning is the basic requirement for any new project or an expansion program particularly when
the demands are high but funds available are limited.

There are three inseparable inputs involved in highway planning:

1. Economic – deals with the question of resources.

2. Financial – who will pay or spend for the project. How much is the project cost and where will the fund will be taken.

3. Political and Administration- this involves decision making.

Planning Objectives

 A highway network having maximum benefit to the community of the region within the available resources.
 A system capable of expansion and improvements according to the anticipated economic progress of region in
the future.
 A strategy for carrying out the improvements with the least inconvenience to the community, and within a
specified time.

PLANNING SURVEYS

1. Fact- finding survey

This should be executed using following documents and details:

 Published Reports
 Survey Maps
 Measurements and observation
 Data gathered by personal interview on a representative sample of the community.

This survey should include the following studies:

Financial studies -these studies are carried out to determine the increase in income to the investing organization as a
result of the road development scheme.

Economic studies- these studies are carried out to determine the economic justification of the expenditure to be
incurred for the project.

Engineering studies – to arrive at a planned program of development based on the existing topography and the geology
of the area. These studies must include the topographical survey, material surveys (location of the sources of materials),
natural drainage facilities like rivers & canals, and possible areas that could be developed for housing, agriculture, and
industry.

Traffic and Road use studies- to determine the present and the future needs in transport facilities.

2. Interpretation of data

Details of fact- finding survey should be processed and presented in the form of index maps, and these map should
indicate the following details.

 Topography
 Natural Drainage structures
 Population centers with densities of population.
 Agricultural areas; nature and quantities of produce.
  Industrial areas; nature and quantities of produce.
 Commercial Areas
 Existing Highway network with traffic flow statistics.
 Areas that could be developed for agricultural,
 Industrial, commercial and residential purposes
 Areas that are presently under traffic congestion and requiring immediate additional highways.

3. Preparation of the master plan

The preparation of master plan for a given location or region is the process of selection of a single system of roads which
would serve the region best.

STEPS:

 Data Collection
 Preparation of draft plan
 Revision of draft plan
 Comparison of various alternate proposals of road system and finding out the sequence in which the master
plan will be implemented.

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENTS AND SURVEYS

The position or the layout of the center line of the highway on the ground is called the alignment. It includes horizontal
alignment which are straight path, horizontal deviation and curves. Also, vertical alignment which are changes in
gradient and vertical curves.

Requisites of an Ideal Alignment

An ideal alignment between two stations should offer maximum utility by serving maximum population and products.

Ideally, they should possess the following requirements:

1. Short- it is desirable to have short alignment between two stations. A straight path between two terminals would
provide this.

2. Easy – it should be easy to construct and main the road with minimum problems and also the alignment should be
easy for vehicle to operate with easy gradient and curves

3. Safe – it should be safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view point of stability of natural hill
slopes, embankment and cut slopes. It should be safe for the traffic operation with safe geometric figures.

4. Economical – the road alignment could be considered economical if the total cost including the initial cost,
maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost is at lowest.

Engineering Surveys for Highways

1. Map Study - By careful study of topographical map, it is possible to have an idea of several possible alternate routes
so that further details of these may be studied later at the site.

2. Reconnaisance Survey - It is to examine the general character of the area deciding the most feasible routes for
detailed studies. Simple engineering survey instruments are used like abney level, barometer or GPS.

Some of The following details are collected:

 Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, hills, permanent structure and other obstruction along the route which are
not available in the map.
 Approximate values of gradient, length, and radius of curves of alternate alignments.
  Number of types of cross-drainage structures, maximum flood level and natural ground water level among
probable routes.
 Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries.
 When the alignment passes through hill, additional details like type of rocks, deep of strata, seepage flow.

3. Preliminary Survey - This survey can be done by either conventional approach or aerial survey if the area is extensive.

Objectives:

a) To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and to collect all necessary physical
information and details of topography, drainage and soil.

b) To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of good alignment.

c.) To estimate quantity of earth work materials and other constructions aspects and work out the cost of alternate
proposals.

d.) To finalize the best alignment from all considerations.

4. Final Location and Detailed Survey –

a. The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be located on the field by establishing
the center line.

b. The centerline of the road finalized is to be translated on the ground during the location survey.

c. The center line stakes are driven at suitable intervals, say 50 meters in plain and rolling terrains and 20 meters in hilly
terrain.

d. Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 m and at all drainage underpass structures.

e. The levels are taken at longitudinal section and cross- section at every 50-100 meter intervals. The cross- section
should be taken at curves and where is a gradient change.

f. The data collected during the detailed survey should be elaborate and complete for preparation of detailed plans,
design and estimate of the project.

TOPIC 3: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS

 In order to design a highway including its alignment and cross section, it is important to know and have an
understanding of the basic design controls and criteria associated with the highway.
 Design controls and criteria must be met because these govern the key aspects of highway design and are
essential for safety and efficiency.

DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA OF A HIGHWAY

The physical design of a new highway is controlled by many factors:

1. Topography of the area - The topography of the area mainly affects the geometric design of the highway. The
design standards varies in different areas. For a plain terrain, it is very easy to construct the highway as per
standards. In hilly areas, it is necessary to allow for steeper gradient and sharper horizontal curves. As the
terrain and gradient increases the construction cost will increase for a specific design speed.

TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION:

1. Level Terrain – the condition where highway sight distances are governed by both horizontal and vertical
restrictions. These are generally long or could be made without construction difficulty or major expenses.
 2. Rolling Terrain – the condition where the natural slopes consistently rise above and fall below the road or street
grade and where occasional steep slopes offer some restriction to normal horizontal and vertical roadway
alignment.

3. Mountainous Terrain- the condition where the longitudinal and transverse changes in the elevation of the ground
with respect to the road or street are abrupt and where benching and side hill excavation are frequently required to
obtain acceptable horizontal and vertical alignment.

2. Design Speed - It is the selected speed used to determine the various geometric features of the roadway. This
assumed design speed should be logical one with respect to the topography, anticipated operating speed, the adjacent
land use, and the functional classification of the highway. ( AASHTO,2004)

The design speed chosen for a highway is a major factor in selecting super elevation rates, radii of the curves, sight
distance, and the length of crest and sag vertical curves. Roads with higher travel speeds requires sweeping curves,
steeper curve banking, longer sight distances, and more gentle hill crests and valleys. Lower speed roads can have
sharper curves, less banking, less sight distance, and sharper hill crests and valleys.

IS DESIGN SPEED SAME AS SPEED LIMIT?

NO

The design speed is the maximum safe speed under favorable vehicle, highway, and weather conditions. The speed
limit is typically 5-10 mph lower than the design speed to provide an appropriate factor of safety for the driver.

3. Traffic Factors

a. Design vehicles - There are four general classifications of design vehicles which may affect the design of the road
namely passenger car, buses, trucks and recreational vehicles. In design of a highway, the designer should consider the
largest vehicle likely to use the facility with considerable frequency or a design vehicle with special characteristics
appropriate to a particular intersection in determining the design of such critical features as radii at intersections and
radii of turning roadways.

b. Human Factor - It is essential in proper highway design and operation to know the behavior or characteristics of the
road users. When drivers use a highway designed to be compatible with their capabilities and limitations, their
performance is aided. If not, the chance of driver errors may increase, and inefficient operation and accidents may
occur.

WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCEOF PEDESTRIANS IN HIGHWAY DESIGN?

The pedestrians’ interaction with traffic is also a major consideration in highway planning and design. Since they are a
part of every roadway environment, attention should be paid to their presence in rural as well as urban areas.

Urban pedestrian, being far more prevalent, more often influences roadway design features than the rural pedestrian

does. Pedestrian facilities like sidewalks, crosswalks, traffic control features and curb cuts (depressed curbs and ramp
facilities) and ramps for the elders and persons with mobility impairment must be a provision in every road design.

4. Environment and other factors - The highway location and design decisions have an effect on the development of
adjacent areas, it is important that environmental variables be given full consideration like natural, synthetic and
sociologic variables. Also, it must be exercised in designing highway and roads that applicable local environmental
requirements are met.

5. Economic Analysis - The design adopted in highway and roads should be economical as far as possible. It should
match with the funds allotted for capital cost and maintenance cost.