PRIVATE PILOT

AIR LAW LECTURE

Historical Background

Legislative Act No. 3909 passed by the Philippine Legislative on November 20, 1931
created an Office under the Department of Commerce and Communications to handle
aviation matters, particularly the enforcement of rules and regulations governing
commercial aviation as well as private flying. It was amended by Act 3996 to include
licensing of airmen and aircraft, inspection of aircraft concerning air traffic rules, schedules
and rates and enforcement of Aviation Laws.

From 1932 to 1936, there were no standard procedures as to the licensing of airmen,
registration of aircraft and recording of various aeronautical activities connected with
commercial aviation. There were attempts made to register planes and their owners
without ascertaining their airworthiness and to record names of pilots, airplane mechanics
and other details.

In 1933, the office of Technical Assistant of Aviation matters was enlarged into the Aeronautics Division under the Department of
Commerce and Industry, the functions of which were embodied in Administrative Order No. 309, a joint Bulletin issued by the
Department of Public Works and Communications and the Department of Finance.

In October, 1934 Act 4033 was passed to require a franchise from the Philippine government in order to operate an air service and to
regulate foreign aircraft operations.

On November 12, 1936, the Philippine Legislative passed Commonwealth Act No. 168, better known as the Civil Aviation Law of the
Philippines which created the Bureau of Aeronautics. After the liberation of the Philippines in March, 1945, the Bureau was reorganized
and placed under the Department of National Defense. Among its functions was to promulgate Civil Aviation Regulations.

On October, 1947, Executive Order No. 94 which reorganized the government transferred Bureau of Aeronautics to the Newly created
Department of Commerce and Industry and renamed Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA).

On June 5, 1948, Republic Act 224 created the National Airports Corporation which was charged with the management and operations
of all national airports.

On June 20, 1952, Republic Act No. 776, otherwise known as the Civil Aeronautics Act of the Philippines reorganized the Civil
Aeronautics Board and the Civil Aeronautics Administration. It defined the powers and duties of both agencies including the funds,
personnel and the regulations of Civil Aviation.

On October 19, 1956, Executive Order No. 209 placed the Civil Aeronautics Administration under the administrative supervision and
control of the Department of Public Works, Transportation and Communications.

On January 20, 1975, Letter of Instruction No. 244 transferred to the Department of Public Highways the responsibilities relative to
airport plans, designs, construction, improvement, maintenance as well as site acquisition. The responsibilities related to location ,
planning design and funding were later returned to the CAAP.

On July 23, 1979, Executive Order No. 546, the CAA was renamed the Bureau of Air Transportation (BAT) and placed under the
Ministry of Transportation and Communications.

On April 4, 1987, Executive Order No. 125 renamed the Bureau of Air Transportation the Air Transportation Office headed by the
Assistant Secretary of Air Transportation.

In 1998, A bill has been filed in the Senate and House of Representatives to convert the ATO into a Civil Aviation Authority of the
Philippines (CAAP), a single aviation body that will have regulatory and operational mandate. When approved, this will enable the CAAP
to pursue with renewed vigor our vision of a globally competitive Philippine civil aviation.

On March 4, 2008, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo signed into law Republic Act 9497 - the CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY Act of 2008.
This law stands to update and strengthen the international framework of the country's civil aviation industry.
 PPL AIR LAW LECTURE
R.A. 9497 – THIS ACT SHALL BE KNOWN AS THE CIVIL AUTHORITY ACT OF 2008.

- AN ACT CREATING THE CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY OF THE PHILIPPINES (CAAP)

AUTHORIZING THE APPROPRIATION OF FUNDS THERFOR, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.

- FOR THIS PURPOSE, THE EXISTING AIR TRANSPORTATION OFFICE (ATO) CREATED UNDER THE
PROVISION OF REPUBLIC ACT NO. 776, AS AMENDED, IS HEREBY ABOLISHED.

- NOTWITHSTANDING THE FOREGOING, NOTHING IN THIS ACT SHALL DIMINISHED THE POWERS
AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CIVIL AERONAUTICS BOARD (CAB) AS PROVIDED FOR UNDER REPUBLIC
ACT NO. 776,(SERIES OF 1952) ALSO KNOWN AS “THE CIVIL AERONAUTICS ACT OF THE
PHILIPPINES”, AS AMENDED.

Definitions of PCAR Part

Part 1 General Policies, Procedures, and Definitions
Part 2 Personnel Licensing
Part 3 Approved Training Organizations
Part 4 Aircraft Registration and Marking
Part 5 Airworthiness
Part 6 Approved Maintenance Organization
Part 7 Instruments and Equipment
Part 8 Operations
Part 9 Air Operator Certification and Administration
Part 10 Commercial Air Transport by Foreign Air Carriers
with Republic of the Philippines
Part 11 Aerial Work and Non-certificated Aircraft:
Operating Limitations
Part 18 Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air

CAR PART 2- PERSONNEL LICENSING SERIES OF 2008 (AMENDING A.O. NO. 60 SERIES OF 2001).

AIR LAW PCAR PART 2

2.3.3 Pilot Licenses, Instrument and Instructor Ratings
2.3.3.1 STUDENT PILOTS
(a) Age. The applicant for a student pilot Authorization shall be not less than 16 years of age.
(b) Knowledge. The applicant for a student pilot Authorization shall receive and log ground training from an authorized
instructor on the following subjects:
(1) applicable sections of Part 2 and Part 8;
(2) airspace rules and procedures for the airport where the student will perform solo flight; and
(3) flight characteristics and operation limitations for the make and model of aircraft to be flown.
(c) Pre-solo flight instruction. Prior to conducting a solo flight, a student pilot shall have:
(1) received and logged flight training for the maneuvers and procedures as listed in IS 2.3.3.1.
(2) demonstrated satisfactory proficiency and safety, as judged by an authorized instructor, on the maneuvers and
procedures as listed in IS 2.3.3.1.
(d) Solo flight requirements: A student pilot shall not fly solo:
(1) unless holding at least a Class 2 Medical Certificate; and
(2) with the authority of an authorized flight instructor.
2.3.3.2 PRIVATE PILOT LICENSE - AIRPLANE

(a) Age. The applicant for a PPL(A) shall be not less than 17 years of age.
(b) Knowledge. The applicant for a PPL(A) shall:
(1) Receive and log ground training from an authorized instructor on the following subjects:
(i) Air law: rules and regulations relevant to the holder of a PPL(A); rules of the air; appropriate air traffic services
practices and procedures
(ii) Aircraft general knowledge:
(A) Principles of operation of airplane power-plants, systems and instruments;
(B) Operating limitations of airplanes and power-plants: relevant operational information from the flight manual or other
appropriate document;
(iii) Flight performance and planning:
(A) effects of loading and weight distribution on flight characteristics; weight and balance calculations;
(B) use and practical application of take-off, landing and other performance data;
(C) pre-flight and en-route flight planning appropriate to private operations under VFR; preparation and filing of air
traffic services flight plans; appropriate air traffic services procedures; position reporting procedures; altimeter setting
procedures; operations in areas of high-density traffic;
(iv) Human performance: human performance relevant to the PPL(A)
(v) Meteorology: application of elementary aeronautical meteorology; use of, and procedures for obtaining,
meteorological information; altimetry
(vi) Navigation: practical aspects of air navigation and dead-reckoning techniques; use of aeronautical charts:
(vii) Operational procedures:
(A) use of aeronautical documentation such as AIP, NOTAM, aeronautical codes and abbreviations;
(B) appropriate precautionary and emergency procedures, including action to be taken to avoid hazardous weather,
wake turbulence and other operating hazards;
(viii) Principles of flight: principles of flight relating to airplanes;
(ix) Radiotelephony:
(A) radiotelephony procedures and phraseology as applied to VFR operations; action to be taken in case of
communication failure;
(B) as listed in IS 2.3.3.2 Appendix A;
(2) have received an endorsement for the knowledge test from an authorized instructor who:
(i) conducted the training on the knowledge subjects;
(ii) certifies that the person is prepared for the required knowledge test; and
(3) pass the required knowledge test on the knowledge areas listed in IS 2.3.3.2 Appendix A.
(b) Experience
(1) The applicant for a PPL(A) shall have completed not less than 40 hours of flight time as pilot of airplanes, a total of
5 hours may have been completed in a flight simulator or flight procedures trainer.
(2) The applicant shall have completed in airplanes not less than 10 hours of solo flight time under the supervision of
an authorized flight instructor, including 5 hours of solo cross-country flight time with at least one cross-country flight
totaling not less than 270 km (150 nm) in the course of which full-stop landings at two difference aerodromes shall be
made.
(3) The holder of pilot licenses in other categories may be credited with 10 hours of the total flight time as pilot-in-
command towards a PPL(A).
(c) Flight Instruction.
(1) The applicant for a PPL(A) shall receive and log not less than 20 hours of dual instruction from an authorized
instructor on the subjects listed in IS 2.3.3.2 Appendix B. These 20 hours may include 5 hours completed in a flight
simulator or flight procedures trainer. The 20 hours of dual instruction shall include at least 5 hours of solo cross-
country flight time with at least one cross-country flight totaling not less than 270 km (150 NM) in the course of which
full-stop landings at two different aerodromes shall be made.
(2) The instructor shall ensure that the applicant has operational experience in at least the following areas to the level
of performance required for the private pilot:
(i) pre-flight operations, including mass and balance determination, airplane inspection and servicing;
(ii) aerodrome and traffic pattern operations, collision avoidance precautions and procedures;
(iii) control of the airplane by external visual reference;
(iv) flight at critically slow airspeeds; recognition of, and recovery from, incipient and full stalls;
(v) flight at critically high airspeeds; recognition of, and recovery from, spiral dives,
(vi) normal and cross-wind take-offs and landings;
(vii) maximum performance (short field and obstacle clearance take-offs, short field landings;
(viii) flight by reference solely to instruments, including the completion of a level 180 degrees turn:
(ix) cross-country flying using visual reference, dead reckoning and, where available, radio navigation aids;
(x) emergency operations, including simulated airplane equipment malfunctions; and
(xi) operations to, from and transmitting controlled aerodromes, compliance with air traffic services procedures,
radiotelephony procedures and phraseology as further specified in IS 2.3.3.2 Appendix B.
(3) If the privileges of the PPL(A) are to be exercised at night, the applicant shall have received 4 hours dual
instruction in airplanes in night flying, including take-offs, landings and 1 hour of navigation and that information shall
be endorsed on the license.
Note 1: Training can be performed by an individually authorized flight instructor, by an authorized flight instructor in a
flying club, or in an Aviation Training Organization.
(d) Skill. The applicant for a PPL(A) shall:
(1) have received an endorsement from an authorized instructor who certifies that the person is prepared for the
required skill test; and
(2) have demonstrated by passing a skill test the ability to perform as pilot-in command of an airplane, the areas of
operation described in IS 2.3.3.2 Appendix B, with a degree of competency appropriate to the privileges granted to the
holder of a PPL(A), and to
(i) operate the airplane within its limitations;
(ii) complete all maneuvers with smoothness and accuracy;
(iii) exercise good judgment and airmanship;
(iv) apply aeronautical knowledge; and
(v) maintain control of the airplane at all times in a manner such that the successful outcome of a procedure or
maneuver is never seriously in doubt.
(e) Medical fitness. The applicant for a PPL(A) shall hold a current Class 2 Medical Certificate.
(f) Privileges. Subject to compliance with the requirements specified in this Part, the privileges of the holder of a PPL
(A) shall be to act, but not for remuneration, as pilot-in- command or co-pilot of any airplane engaged in non-revenue
flights.
(g) Validity. Subject to compliance with the requirements specified in this Part, the validity period of the license is 2
years. For renewal of the license see 2.2.3.

IS 2.3.3.2 APPENDIX A: PRIVATE PILOT LICENSE (A) - KNOWLEDGE

(a) The knowledge instruction and test for the private pilot license - airplane shall include
at least the following subjects:

(1) Air law (CAR)

(i) Relevant parts of ICAO Convention and Annexes 2, 7, 8, 11 and 14
(ii) ICAO Document 4444: General provisions, Area control service, Approach
control service, Aerodrome control service, Flight information and alerting
service;
(iii) National law
(2) Aircraft General Knowledge ( A/C POWERPLANT & INSTRUMENTS)
(i) Airframe: Airframe structure and loads
(ii) Power-plant: engines general, engine cooling, engine lubrication, ignition
systems, carburetion, aero engine fuel, fuel systems, propellers, engine
handling
(iii) Systems: electrical system, vacuum system
(iv) Instruments: Pitot/static system, Airspeed indicator, Altimeter, Vertical speed
indicator, Gyroscopes, Turn indicator, Altitude indicator, Heading indicator,
Magnetic compass, Engine instruments, Other instruments
(v) Airworthiness
(3) Flight Performance and Planning (A/C PERFORMANCE AND WEIGHT & BALANCE)
(i) Mass and balance
(ii) Performance: Take-off, Landing, In-flight
(4) Human performance: ( MEDICAL FACTORS OF FLIGHT)
(i) Basic physiology: Concepts, Effects of partial pressure, Vision, Hearing,
Motion sickness, Flying and health, Toxic hazards
(ii) Basic psychology: The information process, the central decision channel,
stress; judgment and decision making
(5) Meteorology (METEOROLOGY)
(i) The atmosphere. Pressure, density and temperature, Humidity and
precipitation, Pressure and wind; Cloud information, Fog, mist and haze,
Airmasses, Frontology, Ice accretion, Thunderstorms; Flight over
mountainous areas, Climatology, Altimetry, The meteorological organization,
Weather analysis and forecasting, Weather information for flight planning,
Meteorological broadcasts for aviation
(6) Navigation (AIR/RADIO NAVIGATION & FLIGHT COMPUTER)
(i) Form of the earth, mapping, conformal orthomorphic projection (ICAO
1.500.000 chart), Direction, Airplane magnetism, Distances, Charts in
practical navigation, Chart reference material/map reading, Principles of
navigation, The navigation computer, Time, Flight planning, Practical
navigation
(ii) Radio navigation: Ground direction finding (D/F), automatic direction finding
 (ADF), including associated beacons (non directional beacons (NDBs) and
use of the radio magnetic indicator (RMI). VHF omni-directional
range/distance measuring equipment (VOR/DME), GPS, Ground radar;
Secondary surveillance radar
(7) Operational Procedures (ATC & EMERGENCY PROCEDURES)
(i) Relevant parts of ICAO Annex 6, Part II; Annex 12, 13 and 16 (relevant parts),
Contravention of aviation regulations
(8) Principles of Flight (PRE-FLIGHT FACTS & THEORY OF FLIGHT)
(i) The atmosphere, Airflow around a body, sub-sonic, Airflow about a two
dimensional aerofoil; Three dimensional flow about an aerofoil; Distribution of
the four forces, Flying controls, Trimming controls, Flaps and slats, The stall,
Avoidance of spins, Stability, Load factor and maneuvers, Stress loads on the
ground
(9) Communications (ATC)
(i) Radio telephony and communications, Departure procedures, En-route
procedures, Arrival and traffic pattern procedures, Communications failure,
Distress and urgency procedures
 Private Pilot
Civil Aviation Regulations
Reviewer

4.1 14 CFR PART 1

1.1 GENERAL DEFINITIONS

1. Night means the time between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of
morning civil twilight, as published in The Air Almanac, converted to local time.
a. Note that for “recency of experience” (14 CFR 61.57), night is defined as from 1
hr. after sunset to 1 hr. before sunrise.
b. Be careful; there are questions on both definitions.
2. Aircraft categories (for certification of airmen) -- broad classifications of aircraft.
a. Airplane
b. Rotorcraft
c. Glider
d. Lighter-than-air
3. Airplane classes (for certification of airmen).
a. Single-engine land
b. Multi-engine land
c. Single-engine sea
d. Multi-engine sea
4. Rotorcraft classes (for certification of airmen).
a. Helicopter
b. Gyrocopter
5. Lighter-than-air classes (for certification of airmen).
a. Airship
b. Balloon
6. Note the previous category and class definitions are for certification of airmen purposes.
For certification of aircraft there are different definitions:
a. Category (for certification of aircraft purposes) is based on intended use or
operating limitations.
1. Transport
2. Normal
3. Utility
4. Limited
5. Restricted
6. Acrobatic
7. Provisional
 b. Classes as used for certification of aircraft are the same as, or very similar to,
categories for certification of airmen, e.g., airplane, rotorcraft, glider, lighter-than-
air.
7. Air traffic control (ATC) clearance means an authorization to proceed under specific
traffic conditions in controlled airspace.

1.2 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

1. VFE means maximum flap extended speed.

2. VLE means maximum landing gear extended speed.
3. VNO means maximum structural cruising speed.
4. VA means design maneuvering speed.
5. VS0 means the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing
configuration.
6. VX means speed for best angle of climb.
7. VY means speed for best rate of climb.

4.2 14 CFR PART 21

21.181 DURATION OF AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATES

1. Airworthiness certificates remain in force as long as maintenance and alteration of the

aircraft are performed per the Federal Aviation Regulations.

4.3 14 CFR PART 39

39.3 DEFINITION OF AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES

1. Airworthiness Directives (ADs) are issued under 14 CFR Part 39 by the FAA to require
correction of unsafe conditions found in an airplane, an airplane engine, a propeller, or
an appliance when such conditions exist and are likely to exist or develop in other
products of the same design.
a. Since ADs are issued under 14 CFR Part 39, they are regulatory and must be
complied with, unless a specific exemption is granted.

39.9 WHAT IF I OPERATE AN AIRCRAFT OR USE A PRODUCT THAT DOES NOT

MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF AN AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVE?

1. No person may operate a product to which an AD applies except in accordance with the
requirements of that AD.
a. Thus, you may operate an airplane that is not in compliance with an AD, if such
operation is allowed by the AD.

4.4 14 CFR PART 43

 43.3 PERSONS AUTHORIZED TO PERFORM MAINTENANCE, PREVENTIVE
MAINTENANCE, REBUILDING, AND ALTERATIONS

1. A person who holds a pilot certificate (e.g., private pilot) may perform preventive
maintenance on any airplane owned or operated by that pilot that is not used in air
carrier services.

43.7 PERSONS AUTHORIZED TO APPROVE AIRCRAFT, AIRFRAMES, AIRCRAFT

ENGINES, PROPELLERS, APPLIANCES, OR COMPONENT PARTS FOR RETURN
TO SERVICE AFTER MAINTENANCE, PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE, REBUILDING,
OR ALTERATION

1. To approve the airplane for return to service, after preventive maintenance was done by
a pilot, the pilot must hold at least a private pilot certificate.

43.9 MAINTENANCE RECORDS

1. After preventive maintenance has been performed, the signature, certificate number,
and kind of certificate held by the person approving the work, the date, and a
description of the work must be entered in the aircraft maintenance records.

43 APPENDIX A. MAJOR ALTERATIONS AND REPAIRS AND PREVENTIVE

MAINTENANCE

1. Preventive maintenance means simple or minor preservation operations and the

replacement of small standard parts not involving complex assembly operations.
Examples include replenishing hydraulic fluid and servicing landing gear wheel bearings.

4.5 14 CFR PART 47

1. A Dealer’s Aircraft Registration Certificate is another form of aircraft registration.

a. It is valid only for flights within the United States by the manufacturer or a dealer
for flight testing or demonstration for sale.
2. Effective March 31, 2008, 14 CFR 47.41(b) requires the removal of the original aircraft
registration certificate once the aircraft is sold.
a. The back side of that registration must be filled out with the appropriate
information from the sale as well as the new owner’s name. The certificate must
then be mailed back to the FAA Registry in Oklahoma City.

4.6 14 CFR PART 61

61.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR CERTIFICATES, RATINGS, AND AUTHORIZATIONS

1. When acting as a pilot in command or as a required pilot flight crewmember, you must
have a valid pilot certificate and a current and appropriate medical certificate in your
personal possession or readily accessible in the airplane.
2. You must present your pilot certificate or medical certificate upon the request of the
Administrator of the FAA or his or her representative; the NTSB; or any federal, state, or
local law enforcement officer.

61.15 OFFENSES INVOLVING ALCOHOL OR DRUGS

1. Each person holding a certificate under Part 61 shall provide a written report of each
motor vehicle action involving alcohol or drugs to the FAA’s Security and Hazardous
Materials Safety Office no later than 60 days after the motor vehicle action.

61.23 MEDICAL CERTIFICATES: REQUIREMENT AND DURATION

1. A person must hold

a. A first-class medical certificate when exercising the privileges of an ATP
certificate
b. At least a second-class medical certificate when exercising the privileges of a
commercial pilot certificate
c. At least a third-class medical certificate
1. When exercising the privileges of a private, recreational, or student pilot
certificate
2. When exercising the privileges of a flight instructor certificate if the CFI is
acting as PIC
3. Prior to taking a practical test for a recreational, private, commercial, or
ATP certificate or rating
2. Duration of a Medical Certificate
a. A first-class medical certificate expires at the end of the last day of
1. The 12th month after the date of examination for operations requiring an
ATP certificate if the person is under age 40
2. The 6th month after the date of examination for operations requiring an
ATP certificate if the person is age 40 or older
3. The 12th month after the date of examination for operations requiring only
a commercial pilot certificate
4. The period specified in item c. below for operations requiring only a private,
recreational, flight instructor (when acting as PIC), or student pilot
certificate
b. A second-class medical certificate expires at the end of the last day of
1. The 12th month after the date of examination for operations requiring a
commercial pilot certificate
2. The period specified in item c. below for operations requiring only a private,
recreational, flight instructor (when acting as PIC), or student pilot
certificate
c. A third-class medical certificate for operations requiring a private, recreational,
flight instructor (when acting as PIC), or student pilot certificate expires at the end
of the last day of
1. The 60th month after the date of examination if the person has not reached
his or her 40th birthday on or before the date of the examination
 2. The 24th month after the date of examination if the person has reached his
or her 40th birthday on or before the date of examination
3. BasicMed allows a pilot to conduct certain operations using a U.S. driver’s license
instead of a medical certificate as long as the pilot meets the following conditions:
a. Has held an FAA medical certificate at any time after July 14, 2006, the most
recent of which
1. May have been a special issuance medical
a. A one-time special issuance medical must be obtained for certain
cardiovascular, neurological, and mental health conditions.
2. May be expired
3. Cannot have been suspended, revoked, withdrawn, or denied
b. Completes an approved medical education course in the preceding 24 calendar
months in accordance with 14 CFR Part 68
c. Receives a comprehensive medical examination from a state licensed physician
in the previous 48 months in accordance with 14 CFR Part 68
1. The exam is not required to be conducted by an Aviation Medical
Examiner (AME).

61.31 TYPE RATING REQUIREMENTS, ADDITIONAL TRAINING, AND

AUTHORIZATION REQUIREMENTS

1. To act as pilot in command of a complex airplane, you must receive and log ground and
flight training and receive a logbook endorsement.
a. A complex airplane is defined as an airplane with retractable landing gear, flaps,
and a controllable pitch propeller.
2. To act as pilot in command of a high-performance airplane, you must receive and log
ground and flight training and receive a logbook endorsement.
a. A high-performance airplane is defined as an airplane with an engine of more
than 200 horsepower.
3. A person may not act as pilot in command of any of the following aircraft unless (s)he
holds a type rating for that aircraft:
a. A large aircraft (i.e., over 12,500 lb. gross weight)
b. A turbojet-powered airplane
c. Other aircraft specified by the FAA through aircraft type certification procedures

61.51 PILOT LOGBOOKS

1. A recreational pilot must carry his or her logbook with the required authorized instructor
endorsements on all solo flights
a. That exceed 50 NM from the airport at which training was received,
b. Within airspace that requires communication with air traffic control,
c. Conducted between sunset and sunrise, or
d. In an aircraft for which the pilot does not hold an appropriate category or class
rating.
 61.56 FLIGHT REVIEW

1. A flight review must have been satisfactorily completed within the previous 24 calendar
months to act as pilot in command of an aircraft for which that pilot is rated.
a. A flight review consists of a minimum of 1 hour of flight training by an authorized
instructor and 1 hour of ground training.
2. The expiration of the 24-month period for the flight review falls on the last day of the
24th month after the month of the examination date (i.e., 24 calendar months).

61.57 RECENT FLIGHT EXPERIENCE: PILOT IN COMMAND

1. To carry passengers, you must have made three landings and three takeoffs within the
preceding 90 days.
a. All three landings must be made in aircraft of the same category, class, and, if a
type rating is required, type as the one in which passengers are to be carried.
1. The categories are airplane, rotorcraft, glider, and lighter-than-air.
2. The classes are single-engine land, single-engine sea, multi-engine land,
and multi-engine sea.
b. The landings must be to a full stop if the airplane is tailwheel (conventional)
rather than nosewheel.
2. To carry passengers at night, you must, within the last 90 days, have made three
takeoffs and three landings to a full stop at night in an aircraft of the same category,
class, and type, if required.
a. Night in this case is defined as the period beginning 1 hr. after sunset and ending
1 hr. before sunrise.

61.60 CHANGE OF ADDRESS

1. You must notify the FAA Airmen Certification Branch in writing of any change in your
permanent mailing address.
2. You may not exercise the privileges of your pilot certificate after 30 days from moving
unless you make this notification.

61.69 GLIDER AND UNPOWERED ULTRALIGHT VEHICLE TOWING: EXPERIENCE

AND TRAINING REQUIREMENTS

1. Any person may tow a glider if that person has

a. At least a private pilot certificate
b. 100 hr. of pilot in command time in the aircraft category, class, and type, if
required, that the pilot is using to tow a glider
c. A logbook endorsement from an authorized instructor certifying that the person
has received ground and flight training in gliders
d. Within the preceding 24 months
1. Made at least three actual or simulated glider tows while accompanied by
a qualified pilot or
 2. Made at least three flights as pilot in command of a glider towed by an
aircraft

61.113 PRIVATE PILOT PRIVILEGES AND LIMITATIONS: PILOT IN COMMAND

1. Private pilots may not pay less than an equal (pro rata) share of the operating expenses
of a flight with the passengers.
a. These operating expenses may involve only fuel, oil, airport expenditures, or
rental fees.
2. Private pilots may operate an aircraft carrying passengers on business only if the flight
is incidental to that business or employment and the pilot is not paid as a pilot.
a. For example, a CPA who is a private pilot might fly an aircraft carrying CPAs to a
client. Such flight is incidental to the CPA’s professional duties or business.
3. A pilot may act as a pilot in command of an aircraft used in a passenger-carrying airlift
sponsored by a charitable organization for which passengers make donations to the
organization if
a. The responsible FAA Flight Standards office is notified at least 7 days before the
flight;
b. The flight is conducted from an adequate public airport;
c. The pilot has logged at least 500 hours;
d. No aerobatic or formation flights are performed;
e. The aircraft holds a standard airworthiness certificate and is airworthy;
f. The flight is day-VFR; and
g. The flight is non-stop, begins and ends at the same airport, and is conducted
within a 25-NM radius of that airport.
4. The pilot in command of an aircraft operating under BasicMed must adhere to
the following limitations:
a. The aircraft may
1. Not be certificated to carry more than 6 occupants
2. Not have a maximum certificated takeoff weight of more than 6,000 lb.
NOTE: Certain Piper PA-32 series aircraft (Cherokee 6, Lance, and Saratoga) are
certificated to carry a maximum of 5, 6, or 7 occupants. Under BasicMed, you may
fly certain PA-32 aircraft that were converted to the 7-seat configuration, but only if
the 7th seat conversion kit was removed and that removal has been documented
in the aircraft’s maintenance records.

• Certain PA-32 aircraft are also required to have the removal of the 7th seat
documented on FAA Form 337.
• Alternatively, an STC is available through AOPA to make Piper PA-32s
BasicMed compliant. More information can be found by
contacting pilotassist@aopa.org.
• You may not fly a PA-32 aircraft that is certificated or converted to carry
7 occupants if the 7th seat is merely removed.
b. No portion of the flight may be
0. Carried out above 18,000 ft. MSL
1. Conducted outside the United States unless authorized by the country in
which the flight is conducted
 2. Carried out at an indicated airspeed greater than 250 kt.
c. The pilot must have available in his or her logbook (in paper or electronic format)
the
0. Completed medical examination checklist
1. Medical education course completion certificate

4.7 RECREATIONAL PILOT RELATED FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS

61.101 RECREATIONAL PILOT PRIVILEGES AND LIMITATIONS

NOTE: This section is not tested on the Private Pilot Airplane (PAR) or Private Pilot-
Airplane Transition (PAT) knowledge test.

1. A recreational pilot may carry only one passenger.

a. A recreational pilot may not pay less than the pro rata (equal) share of the
operating expenses of a flight with a passenger, provided the expenses involve
only fuel, oil, airport expenses, or aircraft rental fees.
2. A recreational pilot may act as pilot in command of an airplane
a. Only when the flight is within 50 NM of an airport at which the pilot has received
ground and flight training from an authorized flight instructor
1. The pilot must have in his or her possession a logbook endorsement that
permits flight within 50 NM from the departure airport.
b. When the flight exceeds 50 NM if (s)he receives ground and flight training on the
cross-country training requirements for a private pilot and has his or her logbook
endorsed certifying proficiency in cross-country flight by an authorized instructor
3. A recreational pilot may not act as pilot in command of an aircraft
a. Certificated for more than four occupants, with more than one engine, with an
engine of more than 180 horsepower, or with retractable landing gear
b. Classified as a multi-engine airplane, powered-lift, glider, airship, or balloon
c. Carrying a passenger or property for compensation or hire
d. In furtherance of a business
e. Between sunset and sunrise (e.g., night time)
f. In airspace in which communication with ATC is required
g. At an altitude of more than 10,000 ft. MSL or 2,000 ft. AGL, whichever is higher
h. With flight or surface visibility of less than 3 SM
1. In Class G airspace, the cloud clearance requirements are
a. Clear of clouds when 1,200 ft. AGL or less and
b. 1,000 ft. above, 500 ft. below, and 2,000 ft. horizontally from clouds
when more than 1,200 ft. AGL, but less than 10,000 ft. MSL.
i. Without visual reference to the surface
j. On a flight outside the U.S. unless authorized by the country in which the flight is
conducted
k. To demonstrate that aircraft in flight to a prospective buyer
l. Used in a passenger-carrying airlift and sponsored by a charitable organization
m. Towing any object
4. A recreational pilot may not act as a required pilot flight crewmember on any aircraft for
which more than one pilot is required.
5. A recreational pilot who has logged fewer than 400 flight hr. and who has not logged
pilot in command time in an aircraft within the preceding 180 days may not act as pilot in
command of an aircraft until the pilot has received flight training from an authorized
flight instructor who certifies in the pilot’s logbook that the pilot is competent to act as
pilot in command.
6. The recreational pilot certificate states, “Holder does not meet ICAO requirements.”
7. For the purpose of obtaining additional certificates or ratings, while under the
supervision of an authorized flight instructor, a recreational pilot may fly as sole
occupant of an aircraft
a. For which the pilot does not hold an appropriate category or class rating
b. Within airspace that requires communication with air traffic control
c. Between sunset and sunrise, provided the flight or surface visibility is at least 5
SM
d. In excess of 50 NM from an airport at which flight instruction is received
NOTE: For any of these situations, the recreational pilot shall carry the logbook that has
been properly endorsed for each flight by an authorized flight instructor.

8. When flying a transponder-equipped aircraft, a recreational pilot should set that

transponder on code (squawk) 1200, which is the VFR code.

4.8 14 CFR PART 91: 91.3 – 91.151

91.3 RESPONSIBILITY AND AUTHORITY OF THE PILOT IN COMMAND

1. In emergencies, a pilot may deviate from Federal Aviation Regulations to the extent
needed to maintain the safety of the airplane and passengers.
2. The pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority
as to, the operation of that aircraft.
3. A written report of any deviations from Federal Aviation Regulations should be filed with
the FAA upon request.

91.7 CIVIL AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS

1. The pilot in command is responsible for determining that the airplane is airworthy prior
to every flight.
a. The pilot in command shall discontinue the flight when unairworthy conditions
(whether electrical, mechanical, or structural) occur.

91.9 CIVIL AIRCRAFT FLIGHT MANUAL, MARKING, AND PLACARD

REQUIREMENTS

1. The airworthiness certificate, the FAA registration certificate, and the aircraft flight
manual or operating limitations must be aboard.
2. The acronym ARROW can be used as a memory aid. The FCC (Federal
Communications Commission), not the FAA, requires the radio station license. As of
January 1, 1997, the radio station license is required only for international flights.
A irworthiness certificate
R egistration certificate
R adio station license (FCC requirement for international flight)
O perating limitations, including
W eight and balance data

3. The operating limitations of an airplane may be found in the current FAA-approved flight
manual, approved manual material, markings, and placards, or any combination thereof.
a. An exception exists in the case of aircraft issued an experimental airworthiness
certificate or a special light-sport airworthiness certificate.
1. The operating limitations for these aircraft are attached to the airworthiness
certificate, which is carried on board the aircraft.

91.15 DROPPING OBJECTS

1. No pilot in command of a civil aircraft may allow any object to be dropped from that
aircraft in flight that creates a hazard to persons or property.
a. However, this section does not prohibit the dropping of any object if reasonable
precautions are taken to avoid injury or damage to persons or property.

91.17 ALCOHOL OR DRUGS

1. No person may act as a crewmember of a civil airplane while having .04 percent by
weight or more alcohol in the blood or if any alcoholic beverages have been consumed
within the preceding 8 hr.
2. No person may act as a crewmember of a civil airplane if using any drug that affects the
person’s faculties in any way contrary to safety.
3. Operating or attempting to operate an aircraft as a crewmember while under the
influence of drugs or alcohol is grounds for the denial of an application for a certificate,
rating, or authorization issued under 14 CFR Part 91.
a. While experiencing a hangover, a pilot is still under the influence of alcohol and
will have impaired motor and mental responses.
4. A pilot may not allow a person who is obviously under the influence of alcohol or drugs
to be carried aboard an aircraft except in an emergency or if the person is a medical
patient under proper care.

91.103 PREFLIGHT ACTION

1. Pilots are required to familiarize themselves with all available information concerning the
flight prior to every flight, and specifically to determine,
a. For any flight, runway lengths at airports of intended use and the airplane’s
takeoff and landing requirements, and
b. For IFR flights or those not in the vicinity of an airport,
1. Weather reports and forecasts,
 2. Fuel requirements,
3. Alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be completed, and
4. Any known traffic delays.

91.105 FLIGHT CREWMEMBERS AT STATIONS

1. During takeoff and landing, and while en route, each required flight crewmember shall
keep his or her safety belt fastened while at his or her station.
a. If shoulder harnesses are available, they must be used for takeoff and landing.

91.107 USE OF SAFETY BELTS, SHOULDER HARNESSES, AND CHILD

RESTRAINT SYSTEMS

1. Pilots must ensure that each occupant is briefed on how to use the safety belts and, if
installed, shoulder harnesses.
2. Pilots must notify all occupants to fasten their safety belts and shoulder harnesses, if
installed, before taxiing, taking off, or landing.
3. All passengers of airplanes must wear their safety belt and shoulder harness, if installed,
during taxi, takeoffs, and landings.
a. A passenger who has not reached his or her second birthday may be held by an
adult.
b. Sport parachutists may use the floor of the aircraft as a seat (but still must use
safety belts).

91.111 OPERATING NEAR OTHER AIRCRAFT

1. No person may operate an aircraft in formation flight except by prior arrangement with
the pilot in command of each aircraft in the formation.

91.113 RIGHT-OF-WAY RULES: EXCEPT WATER OPERATIONS

1. Aircraft in distress have the right-of-way over all other aircraft.

2. When two aircraft are approaching head on or nearly so, the pilot of each aircraft should
turn to his or her right, regardless of category.
3. When two aircraft of different categories are converging, the right-of-way depends upon
who has the least maneuverability. Thus, the right-of-way belongs to
a. Balloons over
b. Gliders over
c. Airships over
d. Airplanes or rotorcraft
4. When aircraft of the same category are converging at approximately the same altitude,
except head on or nearly so, the aircraft to the other’s right has the right-of-way.
a. If an airplane of the same category as yours is approaching from your right side,
it has the right-of-way.
5. When two or more aircraft are approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the
aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way.
a. This rule shall not be abused by cutting in front of or overtaking another aircraft.
6. An aircraft towing or refueling another aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine-driven
aircraft.

91.115 RIGHT-OF-WAY RULES: WATER OPERATIONS

1. When aircraft, or an aircraft and a vessel, are on crossing courses, the aircraft or vessel
to the other’s right has the right-of-way.

91.117 AIRCRAFT SPEED

1. The speed limit is 250 kt. (288 MPH) when flying below 10,000 ft. MSL.
2. The speed limit within Class B airspace is 250 kt. (288 MPH).
a. When flying under Class B airspace or in VFR corridors through Class B airspace,
the speed limit is 200 kt. (230 MPH).
3. When at or below 2,500 ft. AGL and within 4 NM of the primary airport of Class C or
Class D airspace, the speed limit is 200 kt. (230 MPH).

91.119 MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDES: GENERAL

1. Over congested areas (cities, towns, settlements, or open-air assemblies), a pilot must
maintain an altitude of 1,000 ft. above the highest obstacle within a horizontal radius of
2,000 ft. of the airplane.
2. The minimum altitude over other than congested areas is 500 ft. AGL.
a. Over open water or sparsely populated areas, an airplane may not be operated
closer than 500 ft. to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure.
3. Altitude in all areas must be sufficient to permit an emergency landing without undue
hazard to persons or property on the surface if a power unit fails.

91.121 ALTIMETER SETTINGS

1. Prior to takeoff, the altimeter should be set to the current local altimeter setting. If the
current local altimeter setting is not available, use the departure airport elevation.
2. The altimeter of an airplane is required to be set to 29.92 at or above 18,000 ft. MSL to
guarantee vertical separation of airplanes above 18,000 ft. MSL.

91.123 COMPLIANCE WITH ATC CLEARANCES AND INSTRUCTIONS

1. When an ATC clearance is obtained, no pilot may deviate from that clearance, except in
an emergency, unless an amended clearance is obtained or the deviation is in response
to a traffic alert and collision avoidance system resolution advisory. If you feel a rule
deviation will occur, you should immediately advise ATC.
2. If you receive priority from ATC in an emergency, you must, upon request, file a detailed
report within 48 hr. to the chief of that ATC facility even if no rule has been violated.
3. During an in-flight emergency, the pilot in command may deviate from Federal Aviation
Regulations to the extent necessary to handle the emergency.
a. The pilot should notify ATC about the deviation as soon as possible.
b. If priority is given, a written report (if requested) must be submitted in 48 hours.

91.151 FUEL REQUIREMENTS FOR FLIGHT IN VFR CONDITIONS

1. During the day, Federal Aviation Regulations require fuel sufficient to fly to the first point
of intended landing and then for an additional 30 min., assuming normal cruise speed.
2. At night, sufficient fuel to fly an additional 45 min. is required.

4.9 14 CFR PART 91: 91.159 – 91.519

91.159 VFR CRUISING ALTITUDE OR FLIGHT LEVEL

1. Specified altitudes are required for VFR cruising flight at more than 3,000 ft. AGL and
below 18,000 ft. MSL.
a. The altitude prescribed is based upon the magnetic course (not magnetic
heading).
b. The altitude is prescribed in ft. above mean sea level (MSL).
c. Use an odd thousand-foot MSL altitude plus 500 ft. for magnetic courses of 0° to
179°, e.g., 3,500, 5,500, or 7,500 ft.
d. Use an even thousand-foot MSL altitude plus 500 ft. for magnetic courses of 180°
to 359°, e.g., 4,500, 6,500, or 8,500 ft.
e. As a memory aid, remember “East is odd; west is even odder.”

91.203 CIVIL AIRCRAFT: CERTIFICATIONS REQUIRED

1. No person may operate a civil aircraft unless the aircraft has a U.S. airworthiness
certificate displayed in a manner that makes it legible to passengers and crew.
2. To operate a civil aircraft, a valid U.S. registration issued to the owner of the aircraft
must be on board.

91.207 EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTERS

1. ELT batteries must be replaced (or recharged, if rechargeable) after 1 cumulative hr. of
use or after 50% of their useful life expires.
2. ELTs may only be tested on the ground during the first 5 min. after the hour. No
airborne checks are allowed.
3. ELTs are required to be inspected every 12 months for proper installation, battery
corrosion, operation of the controls and crash sensor, and the presence of a sufficient
signal radiated from its antenna.

91.209 AIRCRAFT LIGHTS

 1. Airplanes operating (on the ground or in the air) between sunset and sunrise must
display lighted position (navigation) lights, except in Alaska.

91.211 SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN

1. All occupants must be provided with oxygen in an airplane operated at cabin pressure
altitudes above 15,000 ft. MSL.
a. Pilots and crewmembers may not operate an airplane at cabin pressure altitudes
above 12,500 ft. MSL up to and including 14,000 ft. MSL for more than 30 min.
without supplemental oxygen.
b. Pilots and crewmembers must use supplemental oxygen at cabin pressure
altitudes above 14,000 ft. MSL.

91.215 ATC TRANSPONDER AND ALTITUDE REPORTING EQUIPMENT AND USE

1. All aircraft must have and use an altitude-encoding transponder when operating
a. Within Class A airspace
b. Within Class B airspace
c. Within 30 NM of the Class B airspace primary airport
d. Within and above Class C airspace
e. Above 10,000 ft. MSL except at and below 2,500 ft. AGL
2. To enter Class B airspace, you must submit a request for a deviation from the
controlling ATC facility at least 1 hr. before the proposed flight.

91.225 ADS-B OUT EQUIPMENT AND USE

1. No person may operate an aircraft in the following airspace unless the aircraft has the
appropriate ADS-B Out equipment installed:
a. Within Class A airspace
b. Within and above Class B airspace
c. Within 30 NM of the Class B airspace primary airport
d. Within and above Class C airspace
e. At and above 10,000 ft. MSL except at and below 2,500 ft. AGL
f. At and above 3,000 ft. MSL over the Gulf of Mexico from the U.S. coastline out to
12 NM
2. These requirements do not apply to any aircraft not originally certificated with an
electrical system or that has not subsequently been certified with such a system
installed.
3. Requests for ATC-authorized deviations from these requirements must be made to the
appropriate ATC facility
a. At any time for an aircraft with an inoperative ADS-B Out
b. At least 1 hr. before the proposed operation of an aircraft that is not equipped
with ADS-B Out
 91.227 ADS-B OUT EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS

1. ADS-B Out is a function of an aircraft’s onboard avionics that periodically broadcasts

the aircraft’s state vector (3-dimensional position and 3-dimensional velocity).
2. Aircraft operating in Class A airspace are required to have ADS-B Out equipment
installed that operates on the frequency of 1090 MHz.
3. Aircraft operating in airspace designated for ADS-B Out, but outside of Class A airspace,
must have ADS-B Out equipment installed that either
a. Operates on the frequency of 1090 MHz or
b. Operates using a universal access transceiver (UAT) on the frequency of 978
MHz.

91.307 PARACHUTES AND PARACHUTING

1. With certain exceptions, each occupant of an aircraft must wear an approved parachute
during any intentional maneuver exceeding
a. 60° bank or
b. A nose-up or nose-down attitude of 30°.
2. Parachutes that are available for emergency use must be packed within a specific time
period, based on the materials from which they are constructed.
a. Parachutes that include a canopy, shrouds, and harness that are composed
exclusively of nylon, rayon, or other similar synthetic fibers must have been
repacked by a certificated and appropriately rated parachute rigger within the
preceding 180 days.
b. Parachutes that include any part that is composed of silk, pongee, or other
natural fiber or materials must be repacked by a certificated and appropriately
rated parachute rigger within the preceding 60 days.

91.313 RESTRICTED CATEGORY CIVIL AIRCRAFT: OPERATING LIMITATIONS

1. Restricted category civil aircraft may not normally be operated

a. Over densely populated areas,
b. In congested airways, or
c. Near a busy airport where passenger transport is conducted.

91.319 AIRCRAFT HAVING EXPERIMENTAL CERTIFICATES: OPERATING

LIMITATIONS

1. No person may operate an aircraft that has an experimental or restricted certificate over
a densely populated area or in a congested airway unless authorized by the FAA.

91.403 GENERAL

1. The owner or operator of an aircraft is primarily responsible for maintaining that aircraft
in an airworthy condition and for complying with all Airworthiness Directives (ADs).
2. An operator is a person who uses, or causes to use or authorizes to use, an aircraft for
the purpose of air navigation, including the piloting of an aircraft, with or without the right
of legal control (i.e., owner, lessee, or otherwise).
a. Thus, the pilot in command is also responsible for ensuring that the aircraft is
maintained in an airworthy condition and that there is compliance with all ADs.

91.405 MAINTENANCE REQUIRED

1. Each owner or operator of an aircraft shall ensure that maintenance personnel make the
appropriate entries in the aircraft maintenance records indicating the aircraft has been
approved for return to service.

91.407 OPERATION AFTER MAINTENANCE, PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE,

REBUILDING, OR ALTERATION

1. When aircraft alterations or repairs change the flight characteristics, the aircraft must be
test flown and approved for return to service prior to carrying passengers.
a. The pilot test flying the aircraft must be at least a private pilot and rated for the
type of aircraft being tested.

91.409 INSPECTIONS

1. Annual inspections expire on the last day of the 12th calendar month after the previous
annual inspection.
2. All aircraft that are used for compensation or hire, including flight instruction, must be
inspected on a 100-hr. basis in addition to the annual inspection.
a. 100-hr. inspections are due every 100 hr. from the prior due time, regardless of
when the inspection was actually performed.

91.413 ATC TRANSPONDER TESTS AND INSPECTIONS

1. No person may use an ATC transponder unless it has been tested and inspected within
the preceding 24 calendar months.

91.417 MAINTENANCE RECORDS

1. An airplane may not be flown unless it has been given an annual inspection within the
preceding 12 calendar months.
a. The annual inspection expires after 1 year, on the last day of the month of
issuance.
2. The completion of the annual inspection and the airplane’s return to service should be
appropriately documented in the airplane maintenance records.
a. The documentation should include the current status of airworthiness directives
and the method of compliance.
3. The airworthiness of an airplane can be determined by a preflight inspection and a
review of the maintenance records.
 91.421 REBUILT ENGINE MAINTENANCE RECORDS

1. A new maintenance record, without previous operating history, may be used for an
aircraft engine rebuilt by the manufacturer or by an agency approved by the
manufacturer.

91.519 PASSENGER BRIEFING

1. The pilot in command is responsible for ensuring that all passengers have been orally
briefed prior to takeoff. The areas that should constitute this briefing are
a. Smoking,
b. Use of safety belts and shoulder harnesses,
c. Location and means of opening the passenger entry door and emergency exits,
d. Location of survival equipment,
e. Ditching procedures and the use of flotation equipment, and
f. Normal and emergency use of oxygen equipment if installed in the airplane.

4.10 NTSB PART 830

830.5 IMMEDIATE NOTIFICATION

1. Even when no injuries occur to occupants, an airplane accident resulting in substantial

damage must be reported to the nearest National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)
field office immediately.
2. The following incidents must also be reported immediately to the NTSB:
a. Inability of any required crewmember to perform normal flight duties because
of in-flight injury or illness
b. In-flight fire
c. Flight control system malfunction or failure
d. An overdue airplane that is believed to be involved in an accident
e. An airplane collision in flight
f. Turbine (jet) engine failures

830.10 PRESERVATION OF AIRCRAFT WRECKAGE, MAIL, CARGO, AND

RECORDS

1. Prior to the time the Board or its authorized representative takes custody of aircraft
wreckage, mail, or cargo, such wreckage, mail, or cargo may not be disturbed or moved
except to
a. Remove persons injured or trapped,
b. Protect the wreckage from further damage, or
c. Protect the public from injury.
 830.15 REPORTS AND STATEMENTS TO BE FILED

1. The operator of an aircraft shall file a report on Board Form 6120.1/2 within 10 days
after an accident.
a. A report must be filed within 7 days if an overdue aircraft is still missing.
2. A report on an incident for which immediate notification is required (830.5) shall be filed
only when requested by an authorized representative of the Board.