10.12 Design of Rural Distribution Rural Clectrification serves the consumers by long lines with low-load density. So rural construction must be of the least-expensive type and also durable and reliable. To start designing the rural distribution system, the first requirement is to predict or know the loads in the area; these are discussed in detail in Ref. 10.6, A single-phase supply for mains supplemented by a three-phase supply available Nearby is sometimes used for rural electrification, instead of carrying the three-phase supply over long distances and thus increasing the cost of distribution, This makes the distribution system economical and at the same time reliable. The advantages of a single-phase system over three-phase system are simplicity, reduced need for maintenance, absence of balancing difficulties, better use of mains and transformers, lighter and cheaper construction, The main advantages of single-phase over three-phase distribution transformers are (e.g, upto 50 kVA, 11 kV/240 V): () capital cost 20% less, (ii) iron and copper loss 10% less, (iti) total weight 15 to 25% less, (i) better regulation, and (y) number of insulator bushings is reduced. One disadvantage of a single-phase supply is that large, motive power loads cannot be supplied. But, in the case of rural loads, most of the loads are less than 10kW. Where loads are more than 10 kW capacity, three-phase lines may be run. Phase/neutral primaries are better than phase/phase primaries for the system, With a phase/neutral system, cost of construction of distribution line is less. Small pole-mounted transformers for phase/neutral working are somewhat cheaper than designed for working on two-phase lines. The phase/neutral system offers facility for single pole switching and pole recloser. The maximum voltage regulation at any service entrance should not exceed 10%. The voltage drops allowed generally are as shown in Table 10.1. To the voltage drops allowed in table 10.1 must be added the primary system drop from the first transformer to the last, which is of the order of 3% for urban areas and upto 6% for rural areas. Secondary mains are * Tarely used in rural distribution. The drop usuelly allowed in secondary distribution mains may be allotted to the primary distribution circuit to Permit primary extension over the greater distances involved in rural areas,286 Evectricat Power System Drsicn Before the first transformer is connected in the primary circuit, the pri- mary distribution volage may be boosted up by using boosters on indivi- dual lines. Quite often, rural electrification projects have to be initially subsidised by the state to reduce cost of energy to rural consumers. Table 10.1 Part of distribution Urban area Suburban area Rural area system % % % Transformer 25 25 25 Secondary main 3.0 2.0 0 Service drop 05 0.5 0s Total 6.0 5.0 3.0 10.12.1 Rural Electrification in Indi In India, Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) has been set up to finance the rural electrification programmes by providing suitable loans for the projects. REC also closely monitors the programmes of rural electrification, finances the supporting programmes of transmission lines, strengthening of distribution system and reduction of system losses, etc. REC’s loans aim mainly at promoting agricultural production and rural industrialisation, in particular, and developing the area, in general. The Government of India recently decided that the national programme of minimum needs for rural electrification would be financed and monitored through the Corporation. In designing rural electrification schemes and in their construction, REC has prepared specifications and construction standards, as given in Tables 10.2 to 10.4. Voltage and Conductor Sizes for Lines. For subtransmission lines, 33 kV Voltage is used and the sizes of the conductors used are given in Table 10,2 (ACSR conductors are used.) Table 10.2 Code word ‘Conductor MVA kmat0.8 Pf Thermal Corre: area, mm? for 8%regulation _— capacity sponding in MVA current, A (temp. rise (Approximate) of 30°C) Rabbit 30 111.57 OS Mink 40 127.62 96 170 Raccoon 48 148.36 11.3 192 Dog 65 173.79 145 250Deston oF Distaisution Systems 7 IL KV lines are normally used for Primary or H.T. lines fication using ACSR conductors while 418 1 supply is given to the consumers. 1 For 11 kV, the size of conductors S for rural electri« 240 V three-phase four-wire L.T. -T. lines use all-aluminium conductors, used are given in the Table 10.3, Table 10.3 Code word Conductor, = MVA km at O.8 PE Thermal Corres area, mint for 8, regulation capacity sponding InMVA current, A (temp. rise (Approximate) of 30°C) Weasel 2 87 16 84 Ferret 25 10.85 Ly 100 Rapbit 30 12.82 2 12s Munk 0 14.47 32 170 Raccoon 8 10.70 38 2 Dog 65 20.13 9.0 250 Generally the following conductors are standardised for use in rural electritication: 72.39 mm (20 mm? copper area) and 7/3.35 mm (30 mm? copper area) for ACSR 11 KV lines as well as for L.T. lines where ACSR conductors are used. Electrical properties of AAC d ACSR Conductors as per REC Standards Table 10.3 A Nominal Nominal Strands and Calculated Caleulated copper area, aluminium —_wire diameter ance resistance mm? area, mm? = Al st at 20°C Qfkm DJkm 16 23 7/2.21 - 1,071 1.1995 30 $0 — O.s444 0.6097 13 20 eral wrt Lama 1.5388 20 30 6/2.59 12.59 0.9116 * 1.0209 » 50 6/3.35 1/335 0.5449 0.6103at | 288 ELECTRICAL POWER System DesiGn Table 10.3 B Size of Reactance per Reactance per Reactance &/km conductor km vertical km horizontal for triangular formation 415 V formation formation of equipment. 415 V equip- 11 KV equipment. Spacing 378 mm ment. Spacing Spacing 910 mm 466 mm 16 mm? AAC. 0.318 0.3200 * 30mm? AAC 0.298 0.3107 - 13 mm? ACSR 0.3358 0.2492 0.3915 j 20 mm? ACSR_ 0.3278 0.3402 0.3820 30 mm? ACSR 0.3185 0.3294 0.3720 [AAC = all-aluminium conductors. ! ACSR = alumin‘um core steel reinforced.} 7/2.21 mm (16 mm? copper area) and 7/3.10 mm (30 mm? copper area) AAC are used for L.T lines. Oatdoor-Type Taree-Phase Distribution Transformers The standard ratings used for distribution transformers are 25, 63 and 100 KVA, no-Icad voltage ratios are 11 000/433-250 V; primary is delta connected and the secondary winding is star connected; vector symbol Dy 11. Recommended percentage impedance is 4.5% at 75°C, The no-load and load losses should not exceed the values given in Table 10.4. Table 10.4 KVA rating, No-load losses Load losses at (fixed loss) watts 78°C watis 25 110 720 63 200 1300 100 290 1850 The voltage regulation limits for distribution lines are as follows: As per REC As per LE. rule Trans- 33 kV 12.5% former on- ky 46% 109% load tap LT +6% changing (OLTO)Deston or Distainution Systems 289 The lengths of the distributors and. the loadings on them at various loading points are known, Having chosen the size of the conductor, the Voltage drop and hence the voltage at the various loading points is found; Wis checked that the voltage at the last consumer's point is within the Permissible limit, The losses are also checked and maintained within Himit, say 10%) in the system, 10.12.2 Singte-Wire-Farth-Return System (SWER) Electrification of sma and isolated villages, where electric loading is light And not likely to increase substantially in the near future, that are suffi- ciently far away from the existing H.V. distribution lines is not economi- cally viable if three-phase distribution is adopted. The economical way of Sulfation of such villages is by SWER bigh voltage distribution at ky, The SWER system comprises a single high-voltage conductor erected on Poles, and using the earth as the return path, supplying distribution transformers which have primary windings connected between the single wire and the earth. Some of the important advantages, economic benefits, disadvantages, etc. of the SWER H.V. distribution system over three-phase H.V. distri- bution system are mentioned below. Advantages 1. Savings of two overhead conductors, two insulators and one cross arm, 2. Only one H.Y. bushing is required on distribution transformers, 3. The insulator can be placed on the top of the pole to provide added ground clearance with advantage to adopt longer spans. 4. In most cases, smaller size (i.e. 13 mm*) ACSR conductor would be adequate for H.V. line. 5. Single-phase distribution transformers of smaller sizes, i.e. 10, 16 and 25 kVA would generally be adequate to meet the requirement of loads in the area. 6. Distribution transformers, being small, can be erected on single pole structures, 7. Reduction in cost. 8. Savings in energy ‘osses in the system. Disadvantages 1. As the HV earthing system carries heavy current under fault con- ditions, dangerous potential may develop at the point of earthing. Therefore, extensive earthing system is required for safety. 2. It results in unbalanced loading in the system; hence isolating trans- formers for more balanced loading may be required. 3. Great care is required to ensure that the telecommunication lines arg not harmfully affected,i | 290 ELECTRICAL PoweR SYSTEM DESIGN 4, The system is not considered safe and suitable for where the soil resistivity is more than 200 2 m. the use in areas The SWER system has been extensively used in Australia and New Zealand and, to some extent, in Canada. In India, Karnataka State has introduced a few such schemes under REC. 10.13 Planning and Design of Town-Electrification Schemes When planning electrification scheme for a town, the following procedures may be adopted and executed step-by-step: 1. 2 Survey the area to be supplied with electricity for existing layout of streets, etc. Plot the map. Predict the loads or survey the loads that would be available in the area with regard to their magnitude, time of occurrence, maximum demand and location. The methods for studying these are discussed in detail in Ref. 10.6. Sort out the types of load into residential, commercial, municipal, industrial, etc. Separate the areas if possible into ‘residential area’, ‘commerical area’, ‘industrial area’ and ‘rural area’ if there is one in the vicinity. Work out the load densities and make preliminary guess regarding the type of distribution system that can be used suitable to the load densities. Figure 10.21 shows a general economic study of the annual cost versus load density for choosing the voltage. voutace’s, YOUIAGE b ANNUAL COST LOAD DENSITY Fig. 10.21 Annual cost versus load density Check the source of power supply available in the vicinity, and the voltage of the transmission lines of the grid system nearby. Fix the location of transmission substation and choose the voltage of subtransmission. In some cases, subtransmission lines may be available directly, e.g. 33 KV or so. Locate the main distribution substations, preferably separate for each type of load in the respective areas, to step down the subtransmission voltage to the primary distribution voltage. ChooseDesion oF Distminurion Systems 294 the primary distribution voltage to be used, e.g. 11, 6.6 of 3.3 kV three-phase three-wire overhead or underground. 9. Find the total load of each type in the separate areas, and using the demand factor and diversity factor, calculate the expected maximum demand in the areas, 10. Choose the capacity of transformer or transformers in the main distribution substations. Plan the layout and details of the substa- tions required. Me. Find the loads which are to be supplied at primary-distribution Voltage and their locations, Design primary-distribution system type, (radial, loop or ting type or primary network) depending on the number of distribution substations required in the particular area. 12. Choose the size of conductors and show the layout on the map. Check voltage drops and make sure that the primary distribution system satisfies the conditions regarding the permissible voltage at the last consumer's premises: 13. The primary distribution system will also supply various transformer substations which will step down the voltage from the primary distribution voltage level to the distribution voltage level of the secondary distribution system, e.g. 415/240 V three-phase four-wire. 14. Show the loads in cach area on the map and subdivide the area indicating approximately the centre of gravity of the loads in sub- areas. Locate the transformer substations near the load centres as far as possible. Choose the size of transformers. Find out substa- tion layouts of the transformer stations. 15. Show the layout of the secondary distributors on the map. Work out the size of conductors used for the secondary distribution system, Choose the type of secondary system used, viz. whether radial, loop or ring system or secondary network, as the case may be. This de- pends on the load density in the area and the type of the load supplied. The secondary distributors have to be designed mainly for voltage drops permissible in the situation. The limits of the per- missible voltage drops in the primary distributor, transformers, secondary distributor and service in particular country should be checked and the distributors designed accordingly. 16. Keep provision for easy addition or expansion of the distribution system. 17, Study the requirement of any shunt-capacitors and their location; if necessary, for improvement of regulation as well as power factor of the system. Use necessary methods of voltage regulation in the distribution system. 18, Avoid lamp flicker and keep sudden voltage fluctuations within the limit of 2 to 2.5%. Study the use of series capacitor on the line, if necessary,292 ELECTRICAL POWER SysTEM DESIGN 19. Check the capital cost of the equipment and the lines in the whole system including subtransmission lines, primary-distribution system, equipment in substations, secondary-distribution systems and finally decide the location, size and type of the system and for the most economical working and planning. 20. There are various factors to be considered in arriving at the best solution. These have been discussed in the chapter so far. Check the losses in the distribution system. Work out the cost per kW h sold to different types of consumer and find the tariff rates. The distribution engineer should try to make the whole scheme as economical! as possible. In modern times, the systems and the load growth get so complicated that it is often necessary to make use of computers to study the system design and system economics. Figure 10.22 shows a general division of the system into different zones and the distribution system components encountered in electrification schemes. TR LINES Css. PRIMARY OISTRISUTION SYSTEM AREA INDUSTRIAL ESTATE SECONDARY NETWORK COMMERCIAL AREA Fig. 10.22 A general arrangement indicating electrification scheme S.S-Substation; T.S.S.—Transmission substation