Human Tooth Wear, Tooth Function and

Cultural Variability * 3

STEPHEN MOLNAR
D e p a r t m e n t of Anthropology, W a s h i n g t o n University, Saint Louis,
Missouri 63130

ABSTRACT Among primitive peoples dental attrition appears to be a natural

phenomenon. Often the degrees and kinds of tooth wear vary from population to
population. This variability is possibly related to certain material aspects of cul-
ture such as diet, food preparation techniques and tool usage. In order to learn
more about these relationships, extensive cross cultural comparisons must be
made.
This paper reports on a study of dental attrition among skeletal remains of
North American Indians from three areas: California, the Southwest and the
Valley of Mexico. A method of comparing worn teeth of these populations was
devised so several characteristics of the teeth and supporting bone could be ex-
amined by population. This study showed significant differences in type and
degree of wear among the three groups as well as differences between sexes
within each population.
A positive correlation between tooth wear and cultural factors was found.
Dietary specialization and division of labor appear to be responsible for the de-
gree and type of wear found in this sample. Further studies of this type are
planned to expand the sample size and, if the new data support these correla-
tions, valuable information about human-environmental relationships can be
gained.

It has been recognized for some time
now that many of the functions of the
primate dentition have gradually shifted
to the hands (DuBrul, '64:lB). Food col-
lecting and feeding-foraging activities in
general have caused certain major alter-
ations to occur in the primate face and
dentition during evolution. The degree of
change and the extent of environmental
influence on relative sizes of the primate
jaw mass and teeth are perhaps some of
the most important questions involved in
a study of the earliest fossil hominids.
A change in feeding habits or a developing
reliance on tools are believed to be prime
causes for the reduction in tooth size in
family Hominidae (Simons and Ettel,
'70:82; Washburn, '59:31). The increased
use of mechanical methods in food prepa-
ration gradually shifted food reduction
from inside the mouth to the outside, and
this was a major factor in modifying the
lower part of the face (Campbell, '39,
part 11:53).
Even after the time of the reduction of
the canines and the shift of the tool-de-
fense functions of the dentition to the
hand-held implement the teeth played an
important role in the survival of the in-
dividual (Dahlberg, '63:172). The evidence
for survival value of a large oro-facial
complex is provided by the heavily worn
teeth of many prehistoric skeletal popu-
lations. The heavy dental attrition among
prehistoric groups and even in many liv-
ing primitive populations suggest that the
1 This is a revision of a manuscript delivered as part
of the symposium T e e t h as Tools: Some N e w Dimen-
sions in Dental Anthropology at the annual meetings
of the American Association of Physical Anthropolo-
gists, March 1970.
2 This study was assisted in part by funds from the
Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Washington
University and by Biomedical Sciences Support grant
FR-07054.

AM. J. PHYS. ANTHROP..34: 175-190. 175

176 STEPHEN MOLNAR
wearing away of tooth surface is a natural
biological process (see Goose, '63 : 128;
Klatsky, '39:73, Sicher, '53:310, and
Sognnaes, '63 :93-94). From the Neolithic
to the present day there has been a wide
range of differences, both attritional and
morphological, in the dentition of various
human populations. While some kinds of
dental wear may indicate that the teeth
had been used for purposes other than
eating, few studies of tooth wear among
primitive people have been made. In ad-
dition, to my knowledge, no systematic
attempt has been made to correlate the
degree of pattern of attrition with tooth
usage, either dietary or non-dietary.
The planes formed on the occlusal sur-
faces of the teeth by the wear patterns
need to be thoroughly studied. Not only
should this study reveal details about
tooth usage but, in addition, it will yield
information which will aid in the descrip-
tion of the motions and forces that had
been applied to the dental arches. In ef-
fect, chewing activities that were engaged
in by the individual during life are par-
tially preserved in the skeletal record by
the wear patterns. If the distribution of
forces and motions over the mandible
during mastication is understood then
evolutionary development of the dental
apparatus of the family Hominidae can
be more effectively described. T h i s de-
scription could be in terms of the selective
pressures on the entire oral anatomy and
especially the change in certain of these
pressures as the "tool" functions shifted
from the mouth to the hand.
It is probable that the kinds and de-
grees of tooth wear are related to the
culture of the population, for certain
studies have shown that dental attrition
decreased with increasing urbanization
(Davies and Pedersen, '55:43; Brothwell,
'63a:279; Greene et al., '67). Brothwell
noted that even in dry, sandy environ-
ments, where extensive dentine exposure
commonly occurs, there is a decrease in
this tooth destruction which is correlated
with an increase in cultural development.
In a Mesolithic population from the Su-
dan, Greene, et al.,('67:52) found a mix-
ture of types of occlusions which they at-
tributed to the transitional nature of the
cultural phase. In addition, Anderson,
('65:49649-7), in a survey of the skeletal
material found in Tehuacan, Mexico,
stated that there were relationships be-
tween changing dental wear patterns and
the economy. This covariation of wear
patterns and attrition with culture was
emphasized when Moorrees, ('57: 133)
noted the limited usefulness in estimating
age by comparing degrees of attrition,
and Brothwell, ('63b:61) also listed sim-
ilar difficulties in estimating age by use
of worn teeth. In addition, Campbell ob-
served a marked change in the degree
of attrition between certain Australian
Aborigines which he believed was due to
the fact that some of them were as he
put it, ". . . living under civilized condi-
tions, ('38:128)."
Moorrees, ('57: 129) defined dental
attrition as the frictional wear of the
teeth, and abrasion was described as the
result of abrasive material food. Much of
the loss of the occlusal surface is a result
of a combination of several factors and
these include the frictional and abrasive
causes listed above, but the use of teeth
as tools can account for a large amount
of attrition in certain populations. The
various sources of tooth wear will be con-
sidered and the term attrition will be
used to describe all forms of enamel and
dentine reduction.
Taking into account all of these factors
of tooth usage and anatomical variation,
the argument presented here is that a
meaningful correlation can be made be-
tween human dental attrition patterns
and the way in which the teeth were
used during the individual's life. Typi-
cally, this usage is a function of the kind
of food in the diet, and of the methods of
food preparation as well as certain manip-
ulatory functions for which the teeth are
frequently used. With the aid of such cor-
relations, the examination of skeletal
remains gained by archaeological excava-
tions can yield many valuable data relat-
ing to the former activities of the individ-
uals. Such methods can be expected to
provide a feedback of information between
osteological and archaeological materials
which can lead to a broader understand-
ing of the technology and environmental
conditions involved. Some of the informa-
tion thus gained might demonstrate a
sexual division of labor, variation in diet,
the effects of dental pathologies, and the
 HUMAN TOOTH WEAR
influences of various craft specializations.
Viewed in this way, cross-population com-
parisons of dental wear then should show
significant differences that are related to
the cultures under study.
However, one of the major handicaps
to any cross-cultural comparison of dental
attrition has been the lack of a suitable
method for recording various features of
tooth wear and associated alveolar bone
lesions. Formerly, methods used by Broca
and HrdliEka established a graded series
for human molar wear and ignored the
rest of the dental arch. Recently dental
studies have used new categories for re-
cording wear (see Brothwell, ’63b;
Greene, et al., ’67). But all of these stud-
ies, the earlier analyses of human teeth
as well as more recent reports, concerned
themselves only with the degree of wear
and so were based on gradients of dentine
exposure. No record was made of the form
of the occlusal surfaces that were the
result of wear. Since the shape of the
wear planes along these surfaces varies
from population to population then this
information must be described in some
way so cross-cultural comparisons can be
made. The following discussion outlines
a method of recording these occlusal sur-
face differences that will permit compari-
sons of unlimited numbers of populations
or of individuals.
Tooth wear evaluation method
There are several problems involved in
recording tooth wear. Though the degree
of wear can be indicated, by using a series
of numerals to represent the wear, no
single series can be applied in the same
way to record wear on all types of teeth,
i.e., incisors, canines, premolars and
molars. Recognizing this difficulty, a
method was used that took into account
the degree and kinds of wear to which
each type of tooth is subject. The canines
and incisors were evaluated together and
the various degrees of wear were assigned
categories (see fig. 1) on the basis of the
criteria on dentine exposure. The direc-
tion of wear (fig. 2) and occlusal surface
form (fig. 3) were evaluated separately
by assigning numbers ranging from 1 to
8 and appropriate for recording in single
column on electronic data-processing
177
cards. The criteria are discussed in
greater detail below where the molars
are considered.
Setting up recording procedures for the
molars was relatively easy because of
their multiple-cusp form. Therefore, the
criteria for attritional evaluation were
more precise and less arbitrary than those
for the canines and incisors. l’he abrasion
of the cusps and the appearance of den-
tine patches were used as a basis for
evaluation as illustrated in figure 1. This
system follows quite closely that of Broth-
well’s with a n assist from Murphy’s pre-
cise classification, (‘59).
The premolars proved to be the most
difficult to record and their wear ratings
were usually much more subjective than
either of the other kinds of teeth. How-
ever, using the same type of diagramming
technique applied to the molars proved to
be a great aid. Additionally, the premolar
tooth proved to be the most variable in
its wear patterns and degrees; at least in
the samples used here.
This rating technique, which utilized
wear diagrams for different teeth, pro-
vides an improved method over other
systems, but it is essential to consider the
wear planes in addition to the degree. In
order to record the wear planes accu-
rately, consideration must be given to all
of the possibilities or variants in form and
angle that the occlusal surface assumes
with wear.
The type of wear must be described in
two parts; first, the direction of the oc-
clusal surface must be considered as in
the case of obliquely worn molars; second-
ly, the surface form itself must be noted.
Surface forms can be flat and smooth, or
concave, giving the appearance of having
been scooped out or “cupped,” (see fig. 3).
After a n inspection of several hundred
sets of dentition from California and
Southwestern Indian remains it was found
that there are several forms of worn oc-
clusal surfaces for each kind of tooth.
Certain of these types of wear appear
more frequently and these types were
used to establish the method for evalua-
tion. These wear types can be recorded
by a two place number system in which
each place uses any one of nine digits.
The direction of the occlusal surface
will be considered first. Each of the pos-
178 STEPHEN MOLNAR
Category
of Wear Incisor and Canine Premolar Molars
1 Unworn. Unworn. Unworn.
2 Wear facets minimal Wear facets, no Wear facets, no
in size. observable dentine. observable dentine.
3 Cusp pattern obliterated, Cusp pattern partially o r Cusp pattern partially
small dentine patches completely obliterated. o r completely obliterated.
m a y be present. S m a l l dentine patches. S m a l l dentine patches.
<------I

4 Dentine patch (Minimal). Two o r m o r e dentine T h r e e o r m o r e small

.-**-.-. patches, one of l a r g e s i z e . dentine patches.
D - ?

5 Dentine patch (Extensive), Two o r m o r e dentine Three or more large

patches, secondary dentine dentine patches, secon-
-
,-- - -? m a y b e slight. d a r y dentine, none to
i : slight.

6 Secondary dentine E n t i r e tooth still surrounded Secondary dentine

(Moderate t o Extensive). by enamel, secondary dentine m o d e r a t e t o extensive,
I
.- - ._ _ t m o d e r a t e to heavy. e n t i r e tooth completely
1 , I surrounded by enamel.

7 Crown (enamel) w o r n Crown (enamel) w o r n away, Crown (enamel) worn

away on at l e a s t one on at l e a s t one side, ex- away on a t least one
side, extensive secon- tensive secondary dentine. side, extensive secon-
d a r v dentine. dary dentine.
,,-. .-.

8 Roots functioning in Roots functioning in Roots functioning in

occlusal surface. occlusal surface. occlusal surface.
Fig. 1 Degree of wear.

sible directions is listed and assigned a 3 oblique (lingual-buccal direction)

number. The direction, in the case of a n
oblique surface, is considered to run from
the highest point to the lowest point on
the occlusal surface (see fig. 2). The cate-
gories and their representative wear di-
rections are listed below.
Category
1 natural form
2 oblique (buccal-lingual direction)
4 oblique (mesial-distal direction)
5 oblique (distal-mesial direction)
6 Horizontal (perpendicular to the long
axis of the tooth)
7 Rounded (buccal-lingual direction)
8 Rounded (mesial-distal direction)
Once the direction of the occlusal plane
is recorded then the form of the surface
 HUMAN TOIOTH WEAR 179
must be considered. Since there is a dif- surface wear partially concave 3
ference in hardness between the enamel
and dentine, the dentine, when exposed,
will wear faster than the surrounding
enamel of the crown. This differential
density frequently results i n the develop-
ment of a concave or “cupped surface, I Prn M
But there are at least two variations Unique Wear Forms
which must be considered and provided
for in the category. These are the crowns Notched wear -type and form

of certain molars which are only partially

cupped; that is, in cases where the den-
tine has been exposed in only a part of
the tooth. l n these instances approxi-
mately one-half of the surface will be
cupped. This feature appears frequently
in the case of the lingual cusps of the
maxillary first molars. In addition, special Rounded wear-type and form

tooth functions often will cause rather

unique patterns of wear, and these pat-
terns sometimes appear as “notched” or
rounded, especially in the case of the
incisors. The rating for the occlusal sur-
face form will then appear as listed below. Fig. 3 Wear types-form of surface wear.
(See fig. 3).
Certain of these forms listed above will
Occlusal surface form (figs. 2, 3 ) more commonly appear on par-
Category ticular teeth. The molars will be “cupped’
1 Natural form more frequently when heavily worn, while
2 Flat surface the incisors and canines are usually
3 One-half of surface cupped rounded when they reach a certain degree
4 Entire surface cupped of wear. Adding together the ratings for
5 Notched the degree of wear and the types of wear,
6 Rounded three digits can be used to describe the
tooth i n various stages of attrition. The
Mesial View -Wear Plane Types 2 , J a n d 6
application of these numbers allows for
many different combinations and offers
flexibility while still maintaining a con-
siderable amount of accuracy in assessing
dental attrition. The accuracy is increased
further by providing different criteria of
wear degree for each tooth. An incisor
Buccal L-- Lingual that has lost less than one-fifth of its
(Labial) crown through wear and has a minimal
dentine patch would be rated as a 4. If
Buccal View (or Labial)-Wear Plane Types 4,5 and 6
its occlusal surface is flat in a horizontal
direction it would be a 62. However, in
order to fully describe the tooth a com-
bination of all three of these digits would
code the tooth as 624. If a molar was de-
scribed as a 624 then the degree or num-
. . ber 4 would indicate that it had three or
I Pm M more small dentine patches. But the type
of wear would be the same as the incisor
Mesial- ’Distol or 62 which indicates a horizontal flat
Fig. 2 Wear types-direction of surface wear. occlusal surface.
180 STEPHEN MOLNAR
Once the description of the worn tooth
has been accomplished the next step must
be to record this description in a way
which allows for the most efficient ma-
nipulation of the data. The standard 80
column card provided a ready system.
Because of the space requirements, four
cards were used to record the teeth from
a single skull, two cards for each dental
arch.
The individual teeth were grouped on
each card according to their functional
relationships. Therefore, the maxillary
incisors and canines were placed on one
card while the molars were recorded on
the other. It was decided to place the first
premolar with the incisor-canine group
and the second premolar with the molars.
More is involved in the consideration
of each tooth than merely an appraisal of
its wear patterns, and certain of these
data were included on each card: de-
scriptions of the condition of the alveolar
bone, presence or absence of dental caries,
and tooth eruption. Age, sex, arch widths,
and kind of occlusion were also recorded.
The inclusion of this information in the
data record for each skeleton made it
possible for extensive cross-population
comparisons to be made as described
below.
The sample
Dental attrition information was col-
lected from several populations in order
to examine the possibility that patterns
and degrees of tooth wear are related to
diet and tooth use. Several North Amer-
ican Indian skeletal collections were care-
fully examined and those individual skulls
with fairly complete dentitions were se-
lected. This reduced the sample size but
a careful selection was necessary in order
to obtain as complete a record as possible
in order to evaluate the method described
above. The skeletal collections were from
the following areas.
I. California
11. Southwest
a. Gran Quivira, New Mexico
b. Cibecue, Arizona (The Grasshop-
per site)
111. Valley of Mexico
a. Tlatilco
b. Cuicuilco
A total of 317 sets of dentition from the
three groups were studied. All were eval-
uated and photographed and 162 were
recorded on data processing cards. The
following is a brief summary of the cul-
tural affinities of each group.
CaZifornia-(39 dentitions)
This group consists of a collection of
skeletal materials recovered during an
excavation of a California Central Valley
site, 4sJo17 located east of Stockton. The
site is dated as “Middle Horizon” or
2,000-3,000 years B.P. on the basis of the
artifactural assemblages and the burial
styles (Heizer and Fenenga, ’39). The
absence of red ocher and arrow heads and
the presence of numerous large pestles
and harpoon points were the major items
that identified the groups as “Middle
Horizon.”
The population had been non-agricul-
tural but apparently subsisted well in an
area which had an abundance of game
and wild plant foods. Lance points and
numerous animal bones indicate a quan-
tity and variety of meat in the diet, prin-
cipally elk, deer, duck and geese. The
presence of harpoon points and many
salmon bones suggest that fish were also
an important part of the diet. The fre-
quent occurrence of pestles indicate seeds
of various grasses and most likely acorns
were eaten in quantity.
Further elaboration on the environment
of this group will have to await the mono-
graph now in preparation by the archae-
ology staff at California State College at
Long Beach but some impressions can be
offered. Even though this population sub-
sisted on a variety of foods, apparently of
high nutritive value, they suffered from
a high incidence of dental decay, and
many pathological lesions were seen on
the alveolar bone. Compared to coastal
populations which I have studied, the
Central Valley group was more subject to
disease and had less tooth wear. It would
fit between California coastal populations
and Pueblo groups in terms of frequency
of dental caries and degree of tooth wear.
The Southwest
A . Gran Quivira, New Mexico+41
dentitions). This group is tentatively
 HUMAN TOOTH WEAR
placed as Pueblo IV. The material from
this site appears to cover three periods
from 1315-1672 A.D., but most of the
skeletons used in this study are placed in
the “Middle” period or 1400-1550 A.D.
The location and the date of this site
place it within the well known Pueblo
archaeological sequences of which many
accounts have been published.
The quantity of information describing
Pueblo life emphasizes their dependence
on maize, beans and squash. Large num-
bers of manos and metates and pottery
suggest preparation techniques that may
have differed considerably from hunting
and gathering groups i n California.
B. Grasshopper site, Cibecue, Arizona-
(39 dentitions). This group consists of
material recovered from levels dated be-
tween 1275-1400 A.D. which is a bit ear-
lier than Gran Quivira and would place
it in Pueblo 111 cultural period. The arti-
facts identify i t as a prehistoric “Western
Pueblo” or “Late Mogollon.”
The quantity of animal bones and plant
remains, together with the artifacts, in-
dicate the dietary base of a n agricultural
population. The presence of large quan-
tities of pottery and metates of greater
hardness than any seen in California
areas suggest differences i n food prepara-
tion and probably a smaller amount of
abrasive material ended up in the food.
In any case, this group together with
Gran Quivira had significantly less dental
attrition than the California sample. How-
ever, dental caries and alveolar lesions
were more frequent. Dental anomalies
also occurred at a higher rate. The rea-
sons for these differences will have to be
considered in a future paper because of
the limited space available here.
Valley of Mexico---(43 dentitions)
A. Tlatilco and Cuicuilco Both sites
will be considered together here due to
their closeness in time and space. Most
of the material used in this study was
from Tlatilco I11 and IV, 1100-600 B.C.
and CuicuiIco dates from about 600-100
B.C. Ignoring differences in certain art
motifs, patterns, styles, etc., the two sites
will be considered as if they were a single
culture in terms of their diet.
The refuse at Tlatilco contains remains
of deer and water fowl bones. These and
181
many other local animals were probably
used together with fish from the nearby
lake. By this period, Middle-Preclassic
agriculture had improved considerably
over earlier periods and probably a n im-
proved strain of maize was i n use. The
food products on which this culture de-
pended were likely to have been similar
to the Pueblos in the North, particularly
in the techniques of preparation and
amount of wild foods as compared to do-
mesticated varieties.
Groups I1 and I11 would have been
much more similar to each other than
either was to the California culture. These
similarities also appear to exist in terms
of the frequency of dental pathologies or
congenital abnormalities. Degrees of
wear also seemed to be similar.
RESULTS
The total data acquired from the study
of the three skeletal populations described
above were analyzed by a computer pro-
gram which computed the frequency of
occurrence of wear types and degree of
wear for each tooth. These results were
graphed to illustrate contrasts between
the three groups (see figs. 4-11).
Degree of wear
Mandibular I1 to Pml (fig. 4). Consid-
ering only the most extensive wear (group
3 ) , significant differences (at the 0.01
level determined by the X’ formula with
Yates’ correction) are found between Cali-
fornia and Mexico in the case of the
canines. On the first premolars there is
significant variation between California
and the Southwest as well as between
California and Mexico. The contrasts be-
tween California and the Southwest
found in group 1 on the incisors and
canine are all at the 0.01 level.
Mandibular Pmz to M s (fig. 5). Group
3 differences found on Pm2 and MI and
M2 are all significant a t the 0.01 level for
California vs. Southwest and California
vs. Mexico. For group 1, all the differ-
ences found between California and Mex-
ico are significant at the 0.01 level. Group
2 differences on MI and Mz are also sig-
nificant.
Maxillary I1 to Pml (fig. 6). These
teeth showed the widest range of variabil-
ity. In group 3 all contrasts between Cali-
182 STEPHEN MOLNAR

100
0 Calif.
90
0 So.West
80 Mexico

70

60

degree 1 2 3 1 ! 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
of wear
11 I2 C Pm1
Teeth
Fig. 4 Mandibular incisors-frequency of degree of wear.

O Calif.
LZ! So.West
= Mexico

of wear

Fig. 5
3 1 2

Mandibular molars- -frequency of degree of wear.

fornia and the other samples were tested

and found significant for all four teeth.
Mexico vs. Southwest showed a significant
Mexico in group 1.
Maxillary P m z to i
L
I
k
1

M3

nificant contrasts between Southwest and

W (fig. 7). The

2 3

difference for Pm'. All California vs. premolars showed variability between
Mexico and Southwest contrasts for California and the other populations in
group 1 were significant for each tooth, group 3. Significant differences were
but only the Canine and Prn1 showed sig- found between California and Southwest
 HUMAN TOOTH WEAR 183
10
0 Calif.
9 &,West
8
W Mexico

% 5

1
I

degree 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1
ot wear I’ I2 C Pm
Teeth
Fig. 6 Maxillary incisors-frequency of degree of wear

0 Calif.
So.West
Mexico

ot wear pmz
r 1 2
M’ M=
L
I
1 2
M3
3

Teeth
Fig. 7 Maxillary molars-frequency of degree of wear.

in group 2 wear on M1 and M2. All dif-
ferences between California and South-
west and Mexico were significant for Pm2,
MI, M2 in group 1.
Sex differences in degree of wear. Few
differences were found between the sexes
in the Southwest and Mexico populations,
and these were so minimal that the re-
sults seem to demonstrate that both sexes
i n these populations wore their teeth at
approximately the same rate. However,
in the California sample, considerable
184 STEPHEN MOLNAR

Calif.
100 a &.West
90 Mexico

80

6 2 3 4 5
C
Teeth
Fig. 8 Mandibular incisors--frequency of wear type.

a Calif
100 So. West
Mexico
90

80

70

60

% 50

40

30

20

10

wear 2 3 4 $ 2 3 4 6 2 3 4 6 2 3 4

Pm2 Ml M2 h43
Teeth
Fig. 9 Mandibular molars--frequency of wear type.
 HUMAN TOOTH WEAR
variability was seen between male and
female dentition in the degree of wear.
The most extensive contrasts in wear
degree were found on the maxillary teeth
which were the most heavily worn teeth
of either sex in any skeletal collection
studied.
W e a r types
The wear type as used in this paper
described the angle formed by the worn
occlusal plane of each tooth. These angles
are illustrated in figures 2 and 3 , and
occur with varying frequency on each
tooth depending on the position of the
tooth in the dental arch and on the kind
of masticatory motions. The following de-
scription considers the results of cross-
population comparisons made i n this
study.
Mandibular I1 to Pml (fig. 8). There
are few differences i n wear types for these
when the three populations are compared,
but significantly more lateral incisors are
worn in type 6 pattern in the California
group than in the Southwest. For the
canine, significant differences exist be-
tween California and the Southwest and
California and Mexico i n the case of type
4 wear. At type 6, wear on the canines of
California vs. the Southwest is significant.
Wear type 4 on the Pml shows differences
in California vs. Southwest and California
vs. Mexico significant at the 0.01 level.
Finally, California differed from both
Mexico and the Southwest in frequency
of type 6.
Mandibular Pmz to Ms (fig. 9). NO
significant differences were found on
these teeth for any wear type though
some variability was seen for types 3 and
6. The most frequent wear for the man-
dibular molars was type 3 except for MS
which was worn most frequently as type 6.
Maxillary I 1 to Pm’ (fig. 10). The
wear types proved to be the most variable
on these teeth and almost all population
differences were significant. California
differed significantly from the Southwest
i n the frequency of occurrence of type 2
wear on I1 and California vs. Mexico on
I’, I2 and canines tested at the 0.01 level.
California vs. Mexico was significant for
wear type 4 on the first incisor and type 5
on the second incisors. California vs.
the Southwest was significant for type 5
185
wear on 12, and Pm’ showed no significant
variability between the three samples for
any type of wear.
Maxillary Pm2 to i f 3 (fig. 11). No sig-
nificant differences were seen between
populations. The most frequently occur-
ring wear was type 2, and type 6 (hori-
zontal wear) became the more frequent
type on M1 and M3.
Male and female differences in wear
types. Little difference was seen i n wear
types when male and female dentition
were compared. California showed the
most difference between the sexes i n wear
types, and these contrasts frequently oc-
curred on the maxillary incisors.
Unique wear forms. There are several
kinds of wear patterns that are rather
unique and three of the most commonly
occurring types are sketched in figure 3.
The wear type that produces a rounded
occlusal surface occurred on the teeth i n
the incisor group at a frequency of about
0.04. The rounded wear type appeared
with equal frequency i n both sexes. The
“notched” wear type (code 65) appeared
more rarely and always on the central
and lateral incisors. Except for two cases
this type of wear appeared only on female
dentitions.
Since the teeth function more fre-
quently as a unit than individually, wear
types on adjacent teeth were examined
in seeking patterns that might be the
result of tool functions of the teeth. For
example, if some type of tough fibrous
material is frequently pulled between two
teeth the wear patterns eventually result-
ing would produce wear planes that would
angle towards each other as in figure 12.
The result would be a tell-tale groove
worked into the tooth row. A number of
cases of this type combination were found,
always on the maxillary incisors, either
the central or a central and lateral.
Mostly, these patterns appeared on female
dentition. Whenever a unique type of
wear is determined by the numerical code
close inspection of the teeth or photo-
graphs provide evidence to support such
interpretations. This procedure was fol-
lowed i n the above examples, and clearly
the appearance of the occlusal surfaces
are such that they could not have been
produced by normal dietary mastication.
186 STEPHEN MOLNAR

O Calif.
IZJ So West
Mexico

5 6 2 4 5 6 2
LlL
4 5

I2 C Pm'

Teeth
Fig. 10 Maxillary incisors-frequency of we= type.

O Calif.
So West

'"I
= Mexico

wear 6
PNt2 M' M2 M3
Teeth
Fig. 1 1 Maxillary molars-frequency of wear type.
 H U M A N TOOTH WEAK
I
I
I west in the sample are much more similar
I
Fig. 12 Wear planes on maxillary incisors.
CONCLUSIONS
Dental attrition and wear type corre-
lations with their frequency of occurrence
in each population are but a few of the
data than can be gleaned from these
collections. The frequency of dental car-
ies, bone lesions, malpositioned teeth,
occult teeth, and arch sizes are other vari-
ables that will undoubtedly have a bear-
ing on types and degrees of wear correla-
tions. Also age and sex relationships
mentioned earlier should not be neglected.
Information on all these items is avail-
able in the form of photographs and ma-
terial recorded by the method described
above. Some of these additional variables
have already been analyzed; however, the
additional results are still tentative and
are outside the scope of the present paper.
This paper is mainly the test of a
method of analysis that makes possible
broad cross-cultural comparisons. I n that
sense I feel that the method has proven
to be a valuable tool and well worth the
time and effort expended, which actually
is small compared to the amount of infor-
mation gained. This information will be
presented fully i n descriptive papers on
each of the populations studied.
Several things were learned from this
analysis. The results showed that when-
ever significant differences existed be-
tween population samples, the differences
were most often between California and
the Southwest or California and Mexico.
The Southwest and Mexico were similar
throughout and few significant contrasts
were seen. The tentative explanation of-
fered here is that cultural differences
such as food preparation techniques and
technological activities are among the
basic factors accounting for the variation
in the amount of dental attrition. There
is every indication that the cultures of
the groups from Mexico and the South-
187
to each other than either is to the culture
of the California group. Types of wear
planes most nearly reflected this condi-
tion, especially i n the maxillary incisors;
where differences existed they were be-
tween California and the Southwest-
Mexico groups. Also the range of variabil-
ity of tooth wear illustrated in figures 4-7
demonstrates that a heavier burden was
placed on certain teeth, especially the
maxillary teeth.
The contrasts seen here are probably
related to the distinctions between the
material culture of the agriculturists as
compared to the non-agricultural hunting
and gathering group. The wide assortment
of foods used by the hunting and gather-
ing group plus a difference in tool assem-
blage may have been responsible for the
heavier tooth function and more rapid
rate of wear. Such factors have been sug-
gested before when human evolution has
been discussed, and the results of this
study seem to support this assumption.
The reasons for differences i n wear
types and degrees of wear on male and
female dentitions are by no means clear;
and whether or not the dental wear pat-
terns represent a division of labor is not
certain. However, some differences were
seen as noted above i n the results. These
contrasts are found i n the California
group and not in either of the other popu-
lations sampled. This would suggest that
there is tt contrast between male and fe-
male activities in hunting and gathering
cultures which does not exist at the agri-
cultural levels, such as those represented
in this study. The more unusual wear pat-
terns were highly correlated with females
which possibly could be related to their
basket making or other activities that
involved holding or pulling fibrous ma-
terial with the teeth. In addition, the
teeth that are worn in a way that is dif-
ferent from the typical pattern required
explanation, as in the case of the type 6
wear for Maxillary MI (see fig. 11). A few,
10-15% , are worn this way while the ma-
jority are type 2. More thorough study of
all the variables is necessary, as discussed
above, before explanation of these devia-
tions can be offered.
The speculations, offered here in a n
effort to explain population differences
188 STEPHEN MOLNAR
are aided by comments and notes scat-
tered throughout the ethnographic liter-
ature. Thorough, carefully documented
studies on tooth usage and diet in living
peoples need to be done if a basis is to be
provided for the interpretation of man’s
skeletal record. A great deal of time and
energy has been expended on activities
aimed at reconstructing human prehis-
tory but little has been done with ethno-
graphic investigations of primitive tech-
nologies and few studies have been made
of tooth wear among primitive peoples.
Just as the artifact assemblage present
at any site provides evidence of past cul-
tures, the skeletal system gives testimony
to past activities and should be studied
with just as much care; but unfortunately
the skeletal remains are seldom examined
in order to investigate these questions.
The dentition may well provide a direct
record of conditions under which the
individual lived. The state of his health,
his diet, age, and certain aspects of his
material culture are indicated by the
appearance of the teeth and the support-
ing bone. The problem is how to read this
record. Information from the living is
needed, just as a more extensive investi-
gation of dentitions from skeletal remains
is required.
In preceding parts of this paper sug-
gestions were offered to explain the dif-
ferences graphed, and on the basis of data
available they were probably warranted.
When more data are collected it is proba-
ble that new explanations will be offered
and more details can be provided; until
then the method of analyzing human
dental attrition seems to work and should
provide a valuable tool for further studies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank:
Mr. Todd Olson of the Department of
Paleontology, University of California,
Berkeley, for assisting me in devising
this method.
Mr. Franklin Fenanga of the Depart-
ment of Anthropology, California State
College at Long Beach, for access to the
California skeletal collection.
Dr. Christy Turner for making the Gran
Quivira collection available to me for
study during June 1969.
Mr. Walter Birkby for permitting me
access to the collections in the Human
Osteology Laboratory, State Museum of
Arizona for study.
Dr. Roberto Romano, Director of The
Museo de Antropologia e Historia, Mexico
City, and his assistant Professora Jaen
for allowing me to use the excellent col-
lections and facilities of this fine museum.
Mr. Steven Le Blanc, Department of
Anthropology, Washington University,
for developing a computer program that
would handle my rather unusual data.
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 HUMAN TOOTH WEAK 189
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