Thermodynamics 1

- It is a science that deals with energy transformation, conservation of heat into work
or electrical energy.
Properties of Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space, has mass and weight
Mass – the amount of matter in the substance (kg)
Volume – the space occupied by the substance (m3)
Weight – the force exerted on gravitation by a given mass, newton or kN.
Weight and mass Relationship
W=Mg
g= local acceleration due to gravity = 9.806m/s2 = 32.2ft/s2
Force and Weight Relationship
F = Ma
F = W/g (a)
F = W = Newton
Weight-Mass and volume relationship
(A) Mass density ρ = the mass per unit vol
ρ=M/V = kg/m3 Density of water =1000kg/m3

(B) Specific volume

ν=V/M = m3/kg

Weight Density - SI
Specific Weight – English δ = weight per unit volume
For water δ = 9.806 kN/m3
δ = W/V = N/m3 or KN/m3
but W=mg
δ = Mg/V δ =ρg = kg/m3 x m/s2 = N/m3
 Volume Conversion:
English MKS SI
1FT3 = 7.48gal 1 gal = 3.785liters 1000L = 1m3
1 barrel = 42 gal
1 drum = 55 gals
SPECIFIC Gravity – English
Relative Density – SI
It is the ratio of the weight of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of
water
Specific Gravity = Ws/WH2O
= (vs x δs)/ (vh2o x δh20)
= δs/δh20 or ρs / ρh2o
Pressure Fundamentals
Absolute Pressure = gauge pressure + barometric pressure
Pabs= Pg + Pbaro
If actual barometric pressure is not given then:
Pabs= Pg + Patm
If vacuum Pressure is given, Pvac
Pabs= Pbaro – Pvac
If Pbaro is not given in the problem
Pabs= Patm – Pvac

• Standard values of atmospheric pressure above sea level at a temp of 15.6

degrees Celsius
= 101.325 kpa = SI
= 14.7 psi = English
= 1.03 kg/cm2 MKS
= 760 mm Hg
= 34 ft of water
= 29.9 inches of mercury
= 760 torr
= 1.013 barr

Ideal gas equation

PV=MRT
P=pressure exerted by gas – kpa
V= Volume of gas - m3
M=mass of gas – kg
R=gas constant kJ/kg°K
T=Temperature of gas °K
SP
Calculate the density and specific weight of air at standard condition.
Solution: @ standard condition above sea level
P= 101.325kpa OR kN/m2
T=15.6°C + 273 = 288.6°K
R=.287kJ/kg°K or kNm
ρ=M/V
M=?
V=?
PV=MRT (manipulate)
M/V =P/RT
ρ= P/RT

ρ= 101.325 kN/m2/(0.287 kNm/ kg°K )(288.6°K)

ρ = 1.22 kg/m3

δ = W/V = Mg/V = ρg
δ = ρg
δ = 1.22 kg/m3 (9.806m/sec2)
δ = 11.96 N/m3

SP2
A cylindrical tank made of steal at 16inches in diameter, 1.2 meters in height is filled with
oxygen gas at 550kpa absolute at a temperature of 18°C. Calculate how many kg of oxygen
is inside the tank.

Given: D =16 inches

H=1.2 meters
P=550 kpa abs
T = 291°K
D= 16inches (2.54cm/1 inch) = 40.64 cm(1m/100cm) =
0.4064m

V =𝜋/4 D2H
V = .7854(.4064m)2(1.2m)
V= 0.15566m3
By ieal gas equation:
M = PV/RT
P=550 kpa abs = KN/m2
R=0.2598 kJ/kg°K for oxygen
T = 291°K

M= (550 kN/m2)( 0.15566m3)/ (0.2598kNm/kg°K)( 291°K)

M= 1.13kg
Pressure Fundamentals
Hydro Static Pressure – Pressure on confined Liquid
Prin. 1: Pressure at a point below that of a surface exposed to the atmosphere is equal to
the product of the vertical distance (z) and the specific weight of the fluid (δf)
Illustration: Liquid inside an open container
P2= Z(δf) = gauze pressure
P2= Patm + Z(δf) = Abs pressure

Prin.2: Pressure is independent on the shape and size of the container. At equal elevation
or depth, pressure acts with the same intensity or magnitude.
Illustration: Fluid inside the different shape and size of the container

P1= Patm is atmospheric pressure

P2= PA= PB= PC= PD = Z(δf) = gauze pressure
P2= Patm + Z(δf) = Abs pressure
SP3
An open Manometer is shown in figure. Calculate the pressure at A.
PA=Patm + δfZf ; Zf= Vertical distance
Patm =101.325kpa
Zf= 1.2m
δ𝑜
δf= sp.gr(δh2o); sp.gr =
δℎ20
𝑘𝑁
δf= 0.96(9.806𝑚3 )
𝑘𝑁
δf =9.41376𝑚3
𝑘𝑁
PA=101.325kpa + (9.41376𝑚3 )(1.2m)

PA=112.6215 kpa abs.

Archimedes Theory on Buoyancy
Any object submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force (BF) equal to the weight of
the displaced fluid (Wf)
Illustration:
Where:
Wo = weight of object
BF = Buoyant force
BF = Wf
Wf = weight of fluid displaced
𝑾
Also Wf = (Vf)(δf) from δ =
𝑽

Vf = volume of fluid displaced

δf = specific weight of the fluid
Wo = V0 δo
V0 =volume of object
δo = specific weight of object

SP1
Calculate the pressure acting on the body of a pearl diver at 500 meters below sea level
Solution: P2= Patm + Z(δf)
δsw = (Sp.g)( δh2o)
δsw = (1.03)(9.806kN/m3)
δsw = 10.10 (kN/m3)

P2= 101.325 + 500(10.10)

P2= 5,151.325 kpa absolute
SP2
A group of mountain climbers carrying a barometer observed that the pressure on top of
the mountain is 500mmHg. At the same time, the pressure at the base is 760mmHg. If the
average air density is 1.30kg/m3. Calculate the approximate height of the mountain.

Solution: P2= P1 + Z(δair)

Z= (P2 -P1)/ δair

P2 -P1 =(760 – 500)mmHg (101.325kpa/760mmHg)

P2 -P1 =34.66kpa

Z= (P2 -P1)/ δair

δair =W/V Z = (34.66 kN/m2)/(0.0127478 kN/m3)
δair =Mg/V
Z = 2718.9m
δair = (ρair)g
δair = (1.3kg/m3)(9.806m/s2)
δair = (12.7478 N/m3)(1kN/1000N)
δair =0.0127478 kN/m3
Buoyancy
SP1
The captain of the vessel observed an iceberg floating in sea water. The volume of iceberg
above the sea water is estimated to be 1000m3. If the specific gravity of sea water is 1.03,
calculate the specific volume of iceberg submerged in sea water if specific gravity is 0.92.

∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 + -
Wice – BF = 0
Wice = BF 1ST
Wice = (δice)(Vice)
δice = (sp. gr) (δh2o)
𝑘𝑁
δice = (0.92) (9.806𝑚3 )
𝑘𝑁
δice = 9.022𝑚3
𝒌𝑵
Wice = (9.022𝒎𝟑 )(1000 m3 +Vs) 2ND Equation

BF = Wsw
BF = (δsw)(Vsw)
𝑘𝑁
δsw = (1.03)( 9.806𝑚3 )
𝑘𝑁
δsw = 10.10𝑚3

Vsw = vol. occupied by iceberg = Vs

BF = (δsw)(Vsw)
𝒌𝑵
BF = (10.10𝒎𝟑 )(Vs) 3rd equation

From equation 1
Wice = BF
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
(9.022𝑚3 )(1000 m3 +Vs) = (10.10𝑚3 )(Vs)

Vs = 8369.2 m3
SP2
A small animal to save himself from the flood jumped on a piece of floating rectangular
wood is 15cm wide, 18cm long, and 8cm thick. As the animal jumped on a floating wood,
the top portion of the wood becomes level with the flood water. If the specific gravity of
wood is 0.68 and for flood water is 1.03, how many kg is the animal
Illustrations:
Initial Position Final position
Sp.gr. = 0.68

.15m x .18m x .08m

Flood water level

Sp.gr. = 1.03

∑ 𝑭𝑽 = 𝟎 + -
Wa + Ww – BF = 0
Wwood = weight of wood
Wa =weight of animal
Wa =BF - Wwood
𝑊 δ𝑜 (𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑)
Wwood = δwood Vwood ;δ= ALSO sp.gr =
𝑉 δℎ2𝑜

δwood =sp.gr (δℎ2𝑜 )

Wwood = (sp.gr)(𝛅𝒉𝟐𝒐 )( Vwood)
𝑘𝑁
Wwood = (0.68)(9.806𝑚3)( .15m x .18m x .08m)
From eq.1
Wwood = 0.0144kN
Wa =BF - Wwood
BF = weight of fluid displaced
BF =(𝛅𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 )( V flood water) Wa = 0.0218kN - 0.0144kN
Wa =0.0074kN or 7,4N
BF = (sp.gr)(𝛅𝒉𝟐𝒐 ) ( V flood water)
1𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑁 Wa = 7.4N ( 9.806𝑁 ); from W = Mg
BF = (1.03)(9.806𝑚3)( .15m x .18m x .08m)
Wa = 0.755kg
BF = 0.0218kN
 SP3
A spherical shape air balloon 20 meters in diameter is filled with helium gas at 105kpa
absolute pre-heated to 21˚C.
The air balloon will be used to transport military supplies in the forest. Calculate how
many tons of supplies can be transported at standard atmospheric condition.
Solution:
Helium PHE = 105 kpa THE= 21˚C + 273 = 294˚K.
𝑘𝐽
RHE = 2.077 𝑘𝑔.˚K

Air: Pa = 101.325 kpa Ta = 15.6˚C = 288.6˚K.

𝑘𝐽
Ra = 0.287
𝑘𝑔.˚K

Ws = weight of supplies (?)

∑ 𝑭𝑽 = 𝟎 + -
WB + WS - BF = 0
WS =BF - WB 1ST equation
BF = weight of air displaced
𝑊 𝑀𝑔 𝑀
BF = δair Vair ; δ= = ; but = ρ (density)
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑀 𝑃
BF = (ρair x g)(Vair) ; ρ = 𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟
BF = ( x g)(Vair)
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟

101.325 kpa 𝑚 4
BF = ( 𝑘𝐽 x 9.806𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 )( 3 𝜋𝑟 3 )
(0.287 )(288.6˚K)
𝑘𝑔.˚K

𝑁 4
BF = 11.996 ( 𝜋(10𝑚)3 )
𝑚3 3

BF = 50,248.845 N
 WB = δB x VB
𝑃𝐵
WB =(𝑅 x g)(VB)
𝐵 𝑇𝐵

𝑃𝐵 4
WB =(𝑅 x g) ( 3 𝜋𝑟 2 )
𝐵 𝑇𝐵

105 kpa 𝑚 4
WB =( 𝑘𝐽 x 9.806𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 )( 3 𝜋(10𝑚)3 )
(2.077 )(294˚K)
𝑘𝑔.˚K

WB = 7062.317N
WS =BF - WB
1𝑘𝑔
WS =(50,248.845 - 7062.317)N (9.806𝑁 )
43,186.528 𝑘𝑔
WS =
9.806
1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
WS = 4,404.09 kg (1000𝑘𝑔)

WS = 4.40 tons
Conservation of Mass
Law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible.
Min = Mout
SP1
A cylindrical container made of steal has an inside diameter of 12 inches and 1.3 meters
long. It is filled with oxygen gas at 1700 kpaa, 28 °C. After some of the oxygen was used, the
pressure and temperature reduce to 1300 kpaa, 25 °C. Calculate how many percent of
oxygen was used.
LET:
M1= the original mass of the
oxygen in the tank
M2 = the mass of the oxygen
left after using
M3 = mass of oxygen used.

𝑴
Percent of oxygen used % = 𝑴𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎% - equation #1
𝟏

𝑷𝑽
M3 = M1 – M2 from Pv=MRT ; M= 𝑹𝑻
𝐾𝐽
Roxy= 0.259
𝐾𝑔°K

𝜋
Voxy= 4 D2L

D = 12’’
2.54𝑐𝑚 1𝑚
( )( 100𝑐𝑚 )= 0.3048m From eq 1.
1′′

L=1.3m 𝑀
% oxy used= 𝑀3 𝑥 100%
1
𝜋
Voxy= 4 (0.3048m)2(1.3m) 0.471
% oxy used= 2.068 𝑥 100%
Voxy= 0.09486m3
% oxy used= 0.2278 or 22.78%
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
M3 = M 1 – M2 = −
𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝑹𝑻𝟐

(𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎)(𝟎.𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟖𝟔) (𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎)(𝟎.𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟖𝟔)
M3 = −
(𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝟗)(𝟑𝟎𝟏) (𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝟗)(𝟐𝟗𝟖)

M3 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟔𝟖 𝒌𝒈 − 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗𝟕𝒌𝒈
M3 = 0.471kg
SP2
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
Two fluids with different densities ρ1 = 1550𝑚3 and ρ2 = 500𝑚3 and mixed together and the
𝑘𝑔
resulting density of mixture is ρm = 800𝑚3 with a total volume of Vm = 100L. Calculate the
mass of each fluid in kg.
Solution: M1 =Mass of fluid 1 (?)
M2 =Mass of fluid 2 (?)
M3 =Mass of fluid 3 (?)
M1 + M2 = Mm – equation#1
𝑀
From ρ= 𝑉

M = ρV
ρ1V1 + ρ2V2 = ρmVm
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
ρ1 = 1550𝑚3 ; ρ2 = 500𝑚3 ; ρm = 800𝑚3

1𝑚 3
Vm = 100L (1000𝐿 ) = 0.1m3

(1500)V1 + (500)V2 = 800(0.1) – equation #2

V1 + V2 = 0.1m3 – equation #3
Eq.3 x 500
500V1 + 500V2 = 50m3 = equation #4
Subtract eq. 2 from 4
(1500)V1 + (500)V2 = 80m3
FINALLY
500V1 + 500V2 = 50m3
M1 = ρ1V1 ; M2 = ρ2V2
1000V1= 30m3
𝑘𝑔
30 M1 = 1550𝑚3 (0.03 m3) = 45kg
V1 = 1000 = 0.03 m3
𝑘𝑔
M2 = 500𝑚3 (0.07m3) = 35kg
Sub v1 in eq. 4
500(0.03) + 500V2 = 50
V2 = 0.07m3
System separated by a pipe and valve
Where:
PA, PB = pressure of gas inside the containers
VA, VB = Volume of gas inside the containers
MA, MB = Mass of gas inside the containers
TA, TB = Temperature of gas
If the valve will be opened: Mm = Mass of mixture
Mm = MA + MB Vm = Volume of mixture
Vm = VA + VB Pm = Pressure of mixture
Tm = Temperature of mixture
SP1
Two containers are connected to each other by means of a short pipe and a closed valve.
Container A, Contain 15 ft3 of nitrogen at 220psia, 110°F
Container B contain 2lb of the same gas at 80 psia 60°F
The valve is then opened and the resulting temperature of the mixture is 90°F. Calculate
the pressure of mixture
101.325 𝑘𝑝𝑎 101.325 𝑘𝑝𝑎
PA = 220 psia( ) PB = 80 psia( )
14.7𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 14.7𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
PA = 1516.428 kpa PB = 551.428 kpa
1𝑚 3
VA = 15 ft3 (((3.28𝑓𝑡)3))
VB = ?
VA = 0.425 m3

TA =110°F Tm = 90°F TB= 60°F

TA = 43.33°C + 273 90°F−32
Tm = 1.8 =32.22°F + 273 TB= 15.55°C + 273
TA = 316.33°K TB=288.55°K
= 305.22°K
Pm = ?
MA = ? 1𝑘𝑔
MB = 2lb (2.2 𝑙𝑏 )
MB = 0.909kg
Solution:
Pm Vm = Mm RTm
𝑴𝒎 𝑹𝑻𝒎
Pm = = Equation #1
𝑽𝒎

Mm = MA + MB = Equation #2
𝑃 𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝐾𝐽
MA = R of nitrogen = 0.297 𝑘𝑔°K
𝑅𝑇𝐴

(1516.428 kpa)(0.425 m3)

MA = 𝐾𝐽
(0.297 )(316.33°K)
𝑘𝑔°K

MA = 6.859 kg
Mm = MA + MB
Mm = 6.859 kg + 0.909kg
Mm = 7.768 kg

Vm = VA + VB = Equation #3
Vm = 0.425 m3+ VB
𝑀𝐵 𝑅𝑇𝐵
VB = 𝑃𝐵

𝐾𝐽
(𝟎.𝟗𝟎𝟗𝐤𝐠)(0.297 )(𝟐𝟖𝟖.𝟓𝟓°𝐊)
𝑘𝑔°K
VB = 𝟓𝟓𝟏.𝟒𝟐𝟖 𝐤𝐩𝐚

VB = 0.141m3
Vm = 0.425 m3+ 0.141m3
Vm = 0.556m3

FINALLY
𝑀𝑚 𝑅𝑇𝑚
Pm = 𝑉𝑚

𝐾𝐽
(7.768 kg)(0.297 )(305.22°K)
𝑘𝑔°K
Pm = 0.556m3

Pm =1266.50 kpaa A
Continuity Equation
𝑚3
⩒= Aѵ Where: ⩒ = volume flow rate 𝑠𝑒𝑐

A = Cross sectional area m2

𝑚
Ѵ = velocity 𝑠𝑒𝑐

SP1
𝑔𝑎𝑙
200 𝑚𝑖𝑛 of water is flowing in a pipeline having a diameter of 2 inches. At exit section, the
3
diameter is 4 of an inch. Calculate the velocity of water at entrance and exit neglecting
friction and other resistance.
let: Ѵ1 = velocity of water at
entrance
Ѵ2 = velocity of water at exit

From continuity Eq.

𝑔𝑎𝑙 3.785𝐿 1𝑚 3
1𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚 3
⩒= Aѵ1 ⩒= 200 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ( 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙 )(1000𝑙 )( 60𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) = 0.01262𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝜋 2.54𝑐𝑚 1𝑚
A = 4 D2 D = 2’’( )( 100𝑐𝑚) = 0.0508m
1′′
𝜋
A = 4 (0.0508m)2 = 0.00203m2

𝑚3
0.01262𝑠𝑒𝑐= (0.0508m2)ѵ1
𝒎
Ѵ1 = 6.2167𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝜋 2.54𝑐𝑚 1𝑚
A = 4 D2 D = 0.75’’( )( 100𝑐𝑚 ) = 0.01905m
1′′
𝜋
A = 4 (0.01905m)2 =0.00028m2

⩒= Aѵ2
𝑚3
0.01262𝑠𝑒𝑐= (0.00028m2)ѵ2
𝒎
ѵ2 = 45.07𝒔𝒆𝒄
SP2
𝑘𝑔
An unknown fluid having a density of 800𝑚3 is flowing in a pipeline 3 inches in diameter at
𝒎 𝒌𝒈
a velocity of 5𝒔𝒆𝒄. Calculate the mass flow rate in 𝒔𝒆𝒄.
𝒌𝒈
Solution: Ḿf = mass flow rate of fluid in 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑴
From ρ= 𝑽 .

Ḿf = ρfVf = EQ. 1

𝑘𝑔
ρf = 800𝑚3

Vf = ?
From continuity eq.

⩒f= Aѵf ѵf = velocity of fluid

𝒎
ѵf = 5𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝜋 2.54𝑐𝑚 1𝑚
A = 4 D2 D = 3’’( )( 100𝑐𝑚) = 0.0762m
1′′
𝜋
A = 4 (0.0762m)2 = 0.00456m2
𝑚
⩒f= (0.00456m2)( 5𝑠𝑒𝑐 )

𝑚 3
⩒f = 0.0228 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Sub in Eq. 1
Ḿf = ρfVf
𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
Ḿf =(800𝑚3 )( 0.0228 𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝒌𝒈
Ḿf =18.24𝒔𝒆𝒄