PRINCIPLES OF HYDRODYNAMICS

PATHLINE a path line is a line made by a single particle as moves during a particular period of
time.

STREAMLINE is a line which gives the velocity direction of the fluid at each point along the
line at a given instant.

STREAMTUBE when streamline are drawn through a closed curved they form boundaries
across which no fluid particle could pass. The space within such boundaries becomes a tube
called a stream tube.

LAMINAR FLOW when the velocity of movement is sufficiently low. The individual particle
will follow defined paths that do not cross or intersect one another.

PARALLEL SIDES

NON PARALLEL SIDE

Movement:
1. Converging > velocity
2. Diverging > velocity
Cause of Laminar Flow
1. Low velocity of movement
2. Small size of conduit

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TURBULENT FLOW when the particles of fluid in motion intersect the flow pattern is
turbulent.

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow starts when a certain velocity (critical
velocity), is attained and exceeded.

DISCHARGE OR RATE OF FLOW in a stream of flowing fluid, the velocity of fluid passing
a cross-section per unit time is called as the discharge or rate of fluid.

𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽

where:
3
𝑄 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑚 ⁄𝑠
𝑉 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑚2

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝟑
𝒐𝒓 𝑸 = ;
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒔
For the laminar flow in circular pipe, the velocity distribution is a three dimensional paraboloid
of revolution where the maximum velocity is twice the mean velocity.

If 𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑦) represents the equation of velocity distribution at any section is a stream.

STEADY FLOW occurs if the discharge Q passing a given cross section of a stream is constant
with time, otherwise the flow is unsteady.

UNIFORM FLOW the flow is said to be uniform if, within a certain length or reach, of a
stream, the average velocity at every cross-section is the same. Uniform flow usually occurs to
incompressible fluid flowing in a stream of constant cross section.

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CONTINUOUS FLOW by the principle of mass, continuous flow occurs when at any time, the
discharge Q at every section of the stream is the same.

CONTINUOUS EQUATION

For incompressible fluids

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐴3 𝑉3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

For incompressible fluids

𝑀 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝜌3 𝐴3 𝑉3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Or

𝑊 = 𝛾1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝛾2 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝛾3 𝐴3 𝑉3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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ENERGY AND HEAD

1. KINETIC ENERGY the ability of fluid mass to do work by virtue of its motion

𝒘𝒗𝟐
𝑲𝑬 =
𝟐𝒈

𝑲𝑬 𝒗𝟐
𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 = =
𝒘 𝟐𝒈

2. ELEVATION ENERGY OR POTENTIAL ENERGY the energy possessed by the

fluid by virtue of its elevation or position.

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑊𝑧 = 𝑀𝑔𝑧

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 = 𝒛

3. PRESSURE ENERGY
𝑷
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 = =𝒉
𝜸
𝒗𝟐 𝑷
𝑬𝑻 = 𝟐𝒈 + 𝜸 + 𝒛 → 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

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PROBLEMS:

1. Compute the discharge of water through 75 mm pipe if the mean velocity is 2.5 m/sec.
Given:
𝑑 = 75 𝑚𝑚
𝑣 = 2.5 𝑚/𝑠
Required: Q =?
Solution:
Solve for 𝑄 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒):
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝜋
𝑄 = [ 4 (0.075)2 (2.5)]
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔𝒆𝒄 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝑸 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒊/𝒔𝒆𝒄 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

2. A city requires a flow of 1.5m3/s for its water supply. Determine the diameter of the pipe
if the velocity of flow is to be 1.8 m/s.
Given:
𝑄 = 1.5 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣 = 1.8 𝑚/𝑠
Required: d = ?
Solution:
Solve for 𝑑 (𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟):
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
Where:
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑑 2 /4
𝜋
1.5 = [ 4 (𝑑)2 (1.8)]
𝒅 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑 𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

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3. A fluid flowing in a pipe 30cm in diameter has a uniform velocity of 4m/s. the pressure at
the center of the pipe is 40kpa and the elevation of pipes center line above an assumed
datum is 4.5m. Compute the total energy per unit weight of the flowing fluid if oil (sp.gr.
0.80). What is power in KWatts?
Given:
𝑑 = 30 𝑐𝑚
𝑣 = 4.0 𝑚/𝑠
𝑠𝑝. 𝑔𝑟 (𝑜𝑖𝑙) = 0.80
𝑃 = 40 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑧 = 4.5 𝑚
Required: P =?
Solution:
Solve for 𝐸𝑇 :
𝑉2 𝑃
𝐸𝑇 = + +𝑧
2𝑔 𝛾

42 40
𝐸𝑇 = + + 4.5
2(9.81) 9.81(0.8)

𝐸𝑇 = 10.41𝑚

Solve for Q (discharge)

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝜋
𝑄 = [ 4 (0.30)2 (4.0)]

𝑄 = 0.28 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

Solve for Q (discharge)

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄𝛾𝑂 𝐸𝑇

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 0.28(9.81)(0.8)(10.41)

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

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BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

The Bernoulli’s energy theorem results from the application of the principle of
conservation of energy. This equation may be summarized as follows.

ENERGY EQUATION WITHOUT HEAD LOST

If the fluid experiences no head lost in moving from section 1 to 2, then the total energy
at section 1 must be equal to the total energy at section 2. Neglecting head lost in fluid flow, the
values that we get are called ideal or theoretical values. With reference to figure:

𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐

𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

ENERGY EQUATION WITH HEAD LOST

Considering head lost, the values that we can attain are called actual values, with
reference to the figure:

𝐸1 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2

𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

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ENERGY EQUATION WITH PUMP

Pump is used basically to increase the head. (Usually to raise water from a lower to a
higher elevation). The input power (𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 ) is the flow energy.

𝐸1 + 𝐻𝐴 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2

𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 + 𝑯𝑨 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = 𝑸𝜸𝑯𝑨

ENERGY EQUATION WITH TURBINE OR MOTOR

Turbines or motors extract flow energy to do mechanical work which in turn converted
into electrical energy for turbines.

𝐸1 − 𝐻𝐸 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2

𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐 + 𝑯𝑬
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝑸𝜸𝑯𝑬

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 ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES

HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE (HGL)

Also known as pressure gradient, hydraulic grade line is the graphical representation of
the total potential energy of flow. It is the line that connects the water levels in successive
P
piezometer tubes placed at intervals along the pipe. Its distance from the datum plane is ϒ + z.

Characteristics of HGL

• HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but it may rise or fall due to changes in
velocity or pressure.
• For uniform pipe cross-section, HGL is parallel to the EGL.
• For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the drop in the pressure heads between any
two points is also equal to the head loss between these points.

ENERGY GRADE LINE (EGL)

Energy grade line is a graphical representation of the total energy of flow (the sum of
𝒗𝟐 𝑷
kinetic and potential energies). Its distance from the datum plane is 𝟐𝒈
+ 𝜸 + 𝒛.

Characteristics of EGL

• EGL always slope downward in the direction of flow, and it will only rise with the
presence of a pump.
• The drop of the EGL between any two points is the head loss between those points.
• For uniform pipe cross-section, EGL is parallel to the HGL.
𝑣2
• EGL is always above the HGL by an amount equal to the velocity head, 2𝑔.
• Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal.

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PROBLEMS:

1. A 30-cm pipe is connected by a reducer to a 10-cm pipe. Points 1 and 2 are at the same
elevation, the pressure at 1 is 200 kPa. The discharge Q is 30 liters per second flowing
the energy lost from 1 to 2 is equivalent to 20 kPa. Compute the pressure at 2 if the liquid
is water

Given:
𝑑1 = 30 𝑐𝑚
𝑑2 = 10 𝑐𝑚
𝑃1 = 200 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑄 = 30 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐻𝐿1−2 = 20 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Required: 𝑷𝟐 = ?
Solution:
Solve for 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 :
BY CONTINUITY EQUATION:
𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑉1
𝜋 0.302
0.03 = 𝑉1 ( 4 )
𝑉1 = 0.42 𝑚/𝑠

𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝜋 0.102
0.03 = 𝑉2 ( )
4
𝑉2 = 3.82 𝑚/𝑠
Solve for velocity head/ Kinetic head:
2
𝑣1 0.422
= = 8.99𝑥10−3 𝑚
2𝑔 2(9.81)

𝑣2 2 3.822
= = 0.74𝑚
2𝑔 2(9.81)
Solve for Pressure head:
𝑝1 200
= = 20.39m
𝛾𝑤 9.81

Apply BEE bet 1 and 2 considering head loss:

𝐸1 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2

𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐 𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

𝑃2 2 20
8.99𝑥10−3 + 20.39 + 0 = 0.74 + +0+
9.81 9.81
𝑷𝟐 = 𝟏𝟕𝟐. 𝟖𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝑨 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

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2. The flow in the pipe is 35 L/s of sea water (sp. gr 1.03) flowing from 1 to 2, the pressure
at 1 is 100 kPa and at 2 is -15 kPa. Point 2 is 6 m higher than point 1. Compute the lost
energy in kPa between 1 and 2. If d1 = 30cm and d2 = 10cm.

Given:
𝑑1 = 30 𝑐𝑚
𝑑2 = 10 𝑐𝑚
𝑧 = 6.0 𝑚
𝑃1 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃2 = −15𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑄 = 25 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Required: 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐 = ?
Solution:
Solve for 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 :
BY CONTINUITY EQUATION:
𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑉1
𝜋 0.302
0.035 = 𝑉1 ( )
4
𝑉1 = 0.495 𝑚/𝑠

𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝜋 0.102
0.035 = 𝑉2 ( 4 )
𝑉2 = 4.46 𝑚/𝑠
Solve for velocity head/Kinetic head:
𝑣2 0.4952
= = 0.0125𝑚
2𝑔 2(9.81)

𝑣2 4.462
= = 1.013𝑚
2𝑔 2(9.81)

Solve for pressure head:

𝑝1 100
= = 9.897𝑚
𝛾𝑤 9.81
𝑝2 15
= = 1.485𝑚
𝛾𝑤 9.81

Apply BEE bet 1 and 2 considering headloss:

𝐸1 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2

𝑣1 2 𝑃1 2 𝑣2 2 𝑃2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

0.0125 + 9.897 + 0 = 1.013 − 1.485 + 6 + 𝐻𝐿1−2

𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟖𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

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3. In the figure, a 5 cm pipeline leads downhill from a reservoir and discharges into air. If
the loss of head between A and B is 44J/N, compute the discharge.

Given:
𝐻𝐿𝐴−𝐵 = 44𝐽/𝑁
𝑑 = 5 𝑐𝑚
𝑧𝐴 = 46 𝑚
Required: 𝑸 =?
Solution:
Apply BEE bet pt. A and B considering headloss:
𝐸𝐴 − 𝐻𝐿𝐴−𝐵 = 𝐸𝐵

𝑣𝐴 2 𝑃𝐴 2 𝑣𝐵 2 𝑃𝐵 2
+ + 𝑧𝐴 = + + 𝑧𝐵 + 𝐻𝐿𝐴−𝐵
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

➢ where :
❖ 𝑃𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐵 = 0

❖ 𝑉𝐴 = 0
❖ 𝑧𝐵 = 0

𝑣𝐵 2
0 + 0 + 46 = + 0 + 0 + 44
2(9.81)

𝑽𝑩 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟔 𝒎/𝒔

Solve for Q:
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝜋 0.502
𝑄 = ( 4 )(6.26)
𝑸 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟕𝟔 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔𝒆𝒄 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

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4. A pump draws water from a 20-cm suction pipe and delivers it to a 15-cm discharge pipe
in which the velocity is 4 m/s. The pressure is -35 kPa at A in the suction pipe. The 15-
cm pipe discharges horizontally into air at C. To what height h above B can the water be
raised if B is 2 m above A and 25KN is delivered to the pump? Assume that the pump
operates at 70 percent efficiency and that the frictional loss in the pipe between A and C
is 3 J/N.

Given:
𝐻𝐿1−2 = 3𝐽/𝑁
𝑝1 = −35 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑑1 = 20 𝑐𝑚
𝑑2 = 15 𝑐𝑚
Required: h= ?
Solution:
Solve for velocity head/Kinetic head:
𝑣2 42
= = 0.815𝑚
2𝑔 2(9.81)

𝑣2 2.232
= = 0.25𝑚
2𝑔 2(9.81)

Solve for pressure head:

𝑝1 −35
= = −3.75𝑚
𝛾𝑤 9.81
Apply BEE bet A and C:
𝐸𝐴 − 𝐻𝐿𝐴−𝐶 = 𝐸𝐶

𝑣𝐴 2 𝑃𝐴 2 𝑣𝐶 2 𝑃𝐶 2
+ + 𝑧𝐴 + 𝐻𝐴 = + + 𝑧𝐶 + 𝐻𝐿𝐴−𝐶
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

0.25 − 3.57 + 0 + 25.48 = 0.815 + 0 + (2 + ℎ) + 3

𝒉 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

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VENTURI

A venturi meter is used to measure the average velocity or flow of an incompressible

fluid through a pipe.

Energy Equation Neglecting Head Loss

𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐

ACTUAL DISCHARGE

𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝑸𝑻

𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝑨𝑻𝑽𝑻

Where:

THEORETICAL DISCHARGE

𝑸 𝑻 = 𝑨 𝑻 𝑽𝑻

NOZZLE

A nozzle is a conveying tube attached to the end of pipe or hose which serves to increase
the velocity of issuing jet.

B.E.E. with head loss

The head loss is expressed as a percentage of the velocity head in the jet.

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DISCHARGE THROUGH NOZZLE

𝑸 = 𝑪𝑨𝒏 √𝟐𝒈𝑯

Where:

H = total head at the base of the nozzle

𝐴𝑛 = area of the nozzle tip

𝑯𝑳𝒏 = 𝑯𝒊 − 𝑯𝒇 = 𝑯𝟏 − 𝑯𝟐

𝑽 𝟐
𝟏 𝑷 𝑽 𝟐 𝑷
𝑯𝑳𝒏 = [ 𝟐𝒈 + 𝜸 𝟏 ] − [ 𝟐𝒈
𝟐
+ 𝜸 𝟐]
𝒘 𝒘

𝑽𝟐 𝟐
𝑯𝑵 = 𝑯 − → 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉
𝟐𝒈

𝟏
𝑯𝑵 = [ 𝟐 − 𝟏]
𝑪𝒗

𝑪 = 𝑪𝒄 . 𝑪𝒗

Where:

C = coefficient of discharge

𝐶𝑐 = coefficient of contraction

𝐶𝑣 = coefficient of velocity

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PITOT TUBE

An L-tube with open ends one is submerged and is pointing directing directly into the
fluid flow and in that way velocity of flowing fluid can be measured as the difference between
statics and dynamics pressure.

First used by Henri Pitot (French Scientist) to measure the velocity of liquids in an open
flow.

V1

Stagnation Point V2 =0

Where:

𝑃1 = static pressure

𝑃2 = pitot pressure or total pressured stagnation pressure

𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 , dynamic pressure

By B.E.E. between 1 and 2

𝐸1 = 𝐸2

𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸𝒘 𝟐𝒈 𝜸𝒘

Then with; v = 0

𝑯 = 𝑯𝟐 − 𝑯𝟏

𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝟏
𝑯= −
𝜸 𝜸

THEORETICAL VELOCITY OF FLOW

𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝟏 = √𝟐𝒈𝑯

ACTUAL VELOCITY OF FLOW

𝑽 = 𝑪𝒑 √𝟐𝒈𝑯

Where: 𝐶𝑝 = Coefficient for Pitot tube

16 | P a g e
PROBLEMS:

1. A horizontal venture meter 60cmx40cm is used to measure the flow of air through a
60cm pipeline. A differential gage connected to the inlet and throat contain H2O which
deflected 10cm. Consider the specific weight of air, as 12.60N/m 3 find the flow of air,
neglecting head loss.

Given:
𝑑1 = 60𝑐𝑚
𝑑2 = 40𝑐𝑚
𝛾𝑎 = 12.60 𝑁/𝑚3
Required: 𝑸 =?
Solution:
Apply BEE to 1 and 2 neglecting head loss:
𝐸1 = 𝐸2

𝑣1 2 𝑃1 𝑣2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 𝛾𝑤

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

𝑧1 = 𝑧2

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛:

𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2 𝑃2 𝑃1
− = −
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤

By continuity equation:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

𝜋 𝑑2 𝜋 𝑑2
4
𝑉1 = 4
𝑉2

402
𝑉1 = 602 𝑉2

𝑉1 = 0.44𝑉2

FOR VELOCITY HEAD:

𝑣1 2 𝑂.442(𝑉2 )2
=
2𝑔 2𝑔

17 | P a g e
 FOR PRESSURE HEAD:

𝑃1 𝑃2
+ 0.1(𝑎𝑖𝑟) − 0.1(ℎ2𝑂) =
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤
𝛾 12.60
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒: s.g = 𝛾𝑎 = = 1.28𝑥10−3
𝑤 9.81𝑘

𝑃2 𝑃1
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: − = −78.025𝑚
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤

SUBSTITUE THE VALUES:

𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2 𝑃2 𝑃1
− = −
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤

𝑂. 442 (𝑉2 )2 𝑣2 2
− = −78.025𝑚
2𝑔 2𝑔

V2 = 43.58m/s; theoretical velocity

THEORETICAL DISCHARGE:

𝑄𝑇 = 𝐴 𝑇 𝑉𝑇

𝜋 0.42
𝑄𝑇 = (43.58)
4

𝑸𝑻 = 𝟓. 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝑸𝑻 = 𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒊/𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

18 | P a g e
2. A 6cm fire hose discharge h2O through a nozzle with a 2.5cm diameter. The headloss in
the nozzle is 4% the velocity head in the jet. If the gage pressure at the base is 400KPa,
find the flow and the max. horizontal range to which the stream can be thrown if angle is
45°,
𝑽𝟎𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽
𝑹= 𝒈

Given:
𝑃1 = 400𝑘𝑃𝐴
𝑑2 = 2.5𝑐𝑚
𝜃 = 45°
H𝐿1−2 = 4% (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑)
𝐑𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝: 𝐐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐑
Solution:
Apply BEE to 1 and 2, considering head loss:
𝐸1 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2
𝑣1 2 𝑃 𝑣2 2 𝑃
+ 𝛾 1 + 𝑧1 = + 𝛾2 + 𝑧2 + HL1-2
2𝑔 𝑤 2𝑔 𝑤

where:

𝑃2 = 0

𝑧1 = 𝑧2

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛:

𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2 𝑃
− = − 𝛾 1 + HL1-2
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑤

By continuity equation:

Q1 = Q2

A1V1 = A2V2
𝜋 𝑑2 𝜋 𝑑2
V1 = V2
4 4

2.52
𝑉1 = 𝑉2
62

𝑉1 = 0.174𝑉2

FOR VELOCITY HEAD:

𝑣1 2 𝑂.1742 (𝑉2 )2
=
2𝑔 2𝑔

19 | P a g e
 FOR HEAD LOSS:

0.04(𝑉2 )2
𝐻𝐿1−2 =
2𝑔

SUBSTITUE THE VALUES:

𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2 𝑃
− = − 𝛾 1 + HL1-2
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑤

𝑂. 1742 (𝑉2 )2 𝑣2 2 400 0.04(𝑉2 )2

− =− +
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 2𝑔

𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎/𝒔(𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚)

THEORETICAL DISCHARGE:

𝑄𝑇 = 𝐴 𝑇 𝑉𝑇

𝜋 0.252
𝑄𝑇 = (28.14)
4

𝑸𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝑸𝑻 = 𝟏𝟒 𝒍𝒊/𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

FOR HORIZONTAL RANGE:

𝑉02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑅= 𝑔

28.142 𝑠𝑖𝑛2(45)
𝑅= 9.81

𝑹 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟓𝟓 𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

20 | P a g e
3. A pitot tube has a coefficient of 0.98. It is used to measure the velocity of h2O at the
center of the pipe. What is the velocity of flow?

Given:
ℎ1 = 4.71 𝑚
ℎ2 = 5.57 𝑚
𝐶𝑝 = 0.98
Required: V=?
Solution:
Solve for H:
𝐻 = ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝐻 = 5.57 − 4.71
𝐻 = 0.86 𝑚
Solve for 𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝟏:

𝑉𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐻

𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉1 = √2(9.81)(0.86)
𝒎
𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟏 (𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚)
𝒔

Solve for V:

𝑉 = 𝐶𝑝 √2𝑔𝐻

𝑉 = 0.98√2(9.81)(0.86 )
𝒎
𝑽 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟑 𝒔
(𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚) → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

21 | P a g e
4. A venturi meter 60cmx30cm has its axis downward 30° with the horizontal. The distance
measured along the axis, from inlet to throat is 120m. The differential manometer shows
deflection of 15cm Hg. If the following fluid is h2O. Find the discharge if c = 0.98.

Given:
𝑑1 = 60𝑐𝑚
𝑑2 = 30𝑐𝑚
𝜃 = 30°
𝐿 = 1.2 𝑚
𝐶 = 0.98
Required: Q=?
Solution:
Apply BEE to 1 and 2:
𝐸1 = 𝐸2
𝑣1 2 𝑃 𝑣2 2 𝑃
+ 𝛾 1 + 𝑧1 = + 𝛾2 + 𝑧2
2𝑔 𝑤 2𝑔 𝑤

𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2 𝑃 𝑃
− = 𝛾 2 − 𝛾 1 + z2 – z1
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑤 𝑤

By continuity equation:

Q1 = Q2

A1V1 = A2V2
𝜋 𝑑2 𝜋 𝑑2
4
V1 = 4
V2

302
V1 = 602 𝑉2

V1 = 0.25V2

FOR VELOCITY HEAD:

(𝑉1 )2 𝑂.252 (𝑉2 )2
=
2𝑔 2𝑔

(𝑉1 )2 𝑂.0625(𝑉2 )2
=
2𝑔 2𝑔

FOR ELEVATION HEAD:

Z2 = 1.2sin30

Z2 = 0.6m

22 | P a g e
 FOR PRESSURE HEAD:

𝑃1 𝑃2
+ 0.15(ℎ2𝑂) − 0.15(𝐻𝑔) − 0.6(ℎ2𝑂) =
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤

𝑃2 𝑃1
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: − = 0.15 − 0.15(13.6) − 0.6
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤

𝑃2 𝑃1
− = −2.49𝑚
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤

SUBSTITUE THE VALUES:

𝑣1 2 𝑣2 2 𝑃 𝑃
− = 𝛾 2 − 𝛾 1 + z2 – z1
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑤 𝑤

𝑂.252(𝑉2)2 𝑣2 2
2𝑔
− 2𝑔
= −2.49 + 0.6

𝒎
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟖 → 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒔

THEORETICAL DISCHARGE:

𝑄𝑇 = 𝐴 𝑇 𝑉𝑇

𝜋 0.32
𝑄𝑇 = (6.28)
4

𝑄𝑇 = 0.44 𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑄𝑇 = 440 𝑙𝑖/𝑠

ACTUAL DISCHARGE:

𝑄𝐴 = 𝐶𝐴 𝑇 𝑉𝑇

𝑄𝐴 = 𝐶𝑄𝑇

𝑄𝐴 = 0.98(0.44)

𝑸𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝑸𝑨 = 𝟒𝟑𝟎 𝒍𝒊/𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

23 | P a g e
ORIFICE

ORIFICE is any designed opening, mouth, hole or vent as of a pipe plate or a body such as tank.

According to slope:

1. Circular
2. Square
3. Triangular

According to texture:

1. Sharp
2. Rounded
3. Smooth

VENA CONTRATA is the section on the fluid jet where the diameter of the stream is the least
and fluid velocity is the maximum such as in the case of a stream issuing out of an orifice.

Device Coefficient

1. Coefficient of Contraction

𝒂
𝑪𝒄 =
𝑨𝒐
2. Coefficient of Velocity

𝑽𝒂
𝑪𝒗 =
𝑽𝒕
3. Coefficient of Discharge
𝑸𝒂
𝑪= 𝑸𝒕

4. Actual Coefficient

𝑨𝒂 = 𝑪𝒄𝑨𝒄

24 | P a g e
1. Orifice Under Constant Head
0 0 0
2 2
𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑉2 2 𝑃1
= + 𝑍1
2𝑔 𝛾

𝑉2 2 𝑃1
= +ℎ
2𝑔 𝛾

𝑽𝟐 𝟐
= 𝑯(𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅)
𝟐𝒈

𝑽𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈𝑯 ; 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

2. Two Chambers
a)
0 0
2 2
𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑉2 = √2𝑔 [ + 𝑍1 ] −
𝛾 𝛾

𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
𝑽𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈 [ + 𝒉𝟏 ] −
𝜸 𝜸

b) Submerge Orifice
0
𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
𝑽𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈 [( + 𝒉𝟏 ) − ( + 𝒉𝟐 )]
𝜸 𝜸

25 | P a g e
PROBLEMS:

1. Consider an open cylindrical tank 0.90m dia. and 2.5m high. If the tank is filled with
1.50m of water and 1.0m of oil (s=0.82). Cc = 0.95 ; Cv=0.92 ; do=75mm
Determine: a.) the actual discharge. b.) Discharge at instant the liquid level inside the
tank is 1.0m.

Given:
𝑑 = 0.90 𝑚
ℎ = 2.50 𝑚
𝑠𝑔 = 0.82
𝐶𝑐 = 0.95
𝐶𝑣 = 0.92
𝑑𝑜 = 0.75 𝑚

Required: 𝑄𝐴 and 𝑄𝐴 @ H = 1.0

Solution:

a. Actual Discharge
𝑄𝐴 = 𝐶. 𝑄𝑇
𝑄𝐴 = 𝐶. 𝐴𝑜 𝑉𝑇
𝜋𝑑 2
𝑄𝐴 = [𝐶𝑐. 𝐶𝑣 ] √2𝑔ℎ
4
Where:

𝐻 = ℎ𝑤 + ℎ𝑜

1.0(0.82)
𝐻 = 1.50 +
1.0
𝐻 = 2.32 𝑚

Therefore:
𝜋(0.075)2
𝑄𝐴 = [. 93𝑥. 92] √2(9.81)(2.32)
4

𝑸𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝑳𝒊
𝑸𝑨 = 𝟐𝟔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒔

b. H = 1.0
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑐. 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔(1.0)

𝒎𝟑
𝑸𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒔

𝑳𝒊
𝑸𝑨 = 𝟏𝟕 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒔

26 | P a g e
2. A cylindrical tank 1.0m dia. and 3.0m high contains 1.0m of H2O, 1.20m of oil (s = 0.80)
and air under a pressure of 16Kpa. Find the theoretical velocity of the jet through a 5cm
dia. orifice 30cm above the bottom of the tank at the vertical side.

Given:
𝑑 = 1.0 𝑚
ℎ = 3.0 𝑚
𝑠𝑔 = 0.80
𝑃 = 16 𝐾𝑝𝑎
𝑑𝑜 = 5 𝑐𝑚
Required: 𝑽𝟐 or 𝑽𝑻 = ?
Solution:
Total Head:

𝐻𝑂𝐼𝐿 (𝑠. 𝑔𝑂𝐼𝐿 ) 𝑃

𝐻 = (𝐻𝐻2 𝑂 − 𝐻𝑂 ) + +
𝑠. 𝑔𝐻2 𝑂 𝑔

1.2(0.80) 16
𝐻 = (1 − 0.30) + +
1.0 9.81
1.2(0.80) 16
𝐻 = 0.7 + +
1.0 9.81
𝐻 = 2.41 𝑚

Theoretical velocity

𝑉2 = √2𝑔𝐻

𝑉2 = √2(9.81)(2.41)
𝒎
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟖 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒔

27 | P a g e
3. What will be the discharge through a 25cm orifice (c=0.61) in the bottom of a tank
moving upward with an acceleration of 5m/s2 if water stands 2.5m above the orifice?

Given:
𝑑𝑜 = 25 𝑐𝑚
𝑐 = 0.61
𝑎 = 5 𝑚/𝑠 2
ℎ = 2.5 𝑚
Required: 𝑄𝐴 = ?
Solution:
Actual Discharge:
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑐. 𝐴𝑜 𝑉𝑡
𝜋𝑑𝑜 2
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑐. 𝑉𝑡
4
𝜋𝑑𝑜 2
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑐. √2𝑔𝐻
4
Where:
𝑎
𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ [1 + ]
𝑔
3
𝑃 = (9.81)(2.5) [1 + ]
9.81
𝑃 = 32.025 𝐾𝑝𝑎

Therefore:

𝜋𝑑𝑜 2
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑐. √2𝑔𝐻
4

𝜋(0.025)2 32.025
𝑄𝐴 = (0.61). √2(9.81) ( )
4 9.81

𝒎𝟑
𝑸𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒔

𝑳𝒊
𝑸𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟗 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒔

28 | P a g e
4. A sharp edge orifice, 75 mm in diameter, lies in a horizontal plane, the jet being directed
upward. If the jet rises to a height of 8m, and Cv = 0.98. Determine the head under which
the orifice is discharging, neglect air pressure.
Given :
𝑑 = 75 𝑚𝑚
HL
𝐶𝑣 = 0.98
ℎ = 8𝑚 H H = 8m
Required: H=?
Solution:

From Dynamics

𝑉𝑓 2 = 𝑉𝑖 2 − 2𝑔ℎ

0 = 𝑉𝑖 2 − 2𝑔ℎ

0 = 𝑉𝑖 2 − 2𝑔(8)

𝑉𝑖 = 12.53 𝑚/𝑠

Solve for 𝑉𝐴 :

𝑉𝐴 = 𝐶𝑣. 𝑉𝑖

𝑉𝐴 = 0.98𝑉𝑖

𝑉𝐴 = 0.98(12.53)

𝑉𝐴 = 12.28 𝑚/𝑠

Solve for HL:

𝑉2 1
𝐻𝐿 = 2𝑔 [𝐶 2 − 1]
𝑣

1
𝐻𝐿 = ℎ [𝐶 2 − 1]
𝑣

1
𝐻𝐿 = 8 [(0.89)2 − 1]

𝐻𝐿 = 0.33 𝑚

Solve for Total Head:

𝐻 = 𝐻𝐿 + ℎ
𝐻 = 0.33 + 8
𝑯 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 𝒎 Answer

29 | P a g e
DISCHARGE UNDER FALLING HEAD

As = area of liquid surface

Discharge that flow out the orifice:

𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ

𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
= 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 = =
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ

𝐴𝑠 ℎ−1/2 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 =
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ

𝐴𝑠
∗𝐾=
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
ℎ1
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐾 ∫ ℎ−1/2 𝑑ℎ
ℎ2

𝒉𝟏
𝒕 = 𝟐𝑲 [𝒉𝟏/𝟐 ]𝒉
𝟐

𝒕 = 𝟐𝑲 (√𝒉𝟏 − √𝒉𝟐 ) *time elapsed from 𝒉𝟏 to 𝒉𝟐 .

30 | P a g e
A gate is an opening in other hydraulic structure to control the passage of water.

Flow through a gate:

1. Free Flow

2. Submerge Flow

By BEE neglecting HL:

𝐸1 = 𝐸2

𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑃1
Where: 𝑑1 = 𝛾
+ 𝑍1

𝑃2
𝑑2 = 𝛾
+ 𝑍2

𝑉2 2
Then: 0 + 𝑑1 = + 𝑑2
2𝑔

𝒗𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈(𝒅𝟏 − 𝒅𝟐 ); Theoretical velocity

For Rectangular Opening

𝑨 = 𝒃. 𝒚

Coefficient of Contraction

𝒃𝒅𝟐
𝑪𝒄 =
𝒃𝒚

31 | P a g e
Short tube is an opening with downstream extensions not sufficiently long to be classified as
pipes.

Standard short tube is a smooth tube with a sharp internal corner and a length equal to absolute
2.5 times its internal diameter.

1.

2. Cc = 1.0

Cc = Cv = 0.82

Pa = - 0.82 H

Va = 0.82 √2gh

H = total head

Converging Tube

Where:

θ = angle of convergence

v = Cv √2gh

Q = CA √2gh

32 | P a g e
Diverging Tube

Submerge Tube

The flow through orifice, tube is said to be steady only if the total head producing flow is
constant.

V = Qt

Note:

1. If Qin > Qout the head will rise.

2. If Qin < Qout the head will fall.
Assuming Qin > Qout.

𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

Where:

𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑪𝑨𝒐 √𝟐𝒈𝒉

33 | P a g e
PROBLEMS:

1. A cylindrical vessel 1.0m diameter and 2.0m high has a rounded orifice 6cm diameter at
the bottom with c=0.95. If the vessel is full of h2O. How long will it take to empty the
vessel; how long will it take to lower the liquid surface 0.5m.

Given:
𝑑 = 1.0 𝑚
ℎ = 2.0 𝑚
𝑑𝑜 = 6.0 𝑐𝑚
𝑐 = 0.95
Required: t @ h = 2m & t @ h = 0.5m
Solution:

Time to empty the vessel

2
𝑡 = 2𝐾[ℎ11/2 − ℎ2 1/2]0
𝐴𝑆
𝐾= 𝐶𝐴𝑂 √2𝑔ℎ
(1)2
𝜋
4
𝐾=
0.95 (𝜋)(0.06)2/4(√2(9.81)
𝐾 = 66.01
2
𝑡 = 2𝐾[ℎ11/2 − ℎ2 1/2]0
1 1
𝑡 = 2(66.01)[(2)2 + (0)2 ]
𝑡 = 186.70 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠.
𝒕 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔. → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

Time to lower the liquid surface 0.5m

2
𝑡 = 2𝐾[ℎ11/2 − ℎ2 1/2]1.5
1 1
𝑡 = 2(66.01)[(2)2 − (1.5)2 ]
𝑡 = 25.01 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠.
𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔. → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

34 | P a g e
2. How long will it take to lower the water to 1.50 m , C= 0.60

Given:
𝑑 = 1.2 𝑚
𝑑𝑜 = 60 𝑐𝑚
𝐶 = 0.60
ℎ𝐿 = 1.5 𝑚
Required: t = ?

Solution:
By R & P:
ℎ 3.2
=
𝑥 0.6

𝑥 = 0.19ℎ

𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋(𝑥)2
𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋(0.19ℎ)2
𝐴𝑠 = 0.113ℎ2
𝐴𝑠𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑐𝐴𝑜√2𝑔ℎ

0.113ℎ3 (ℎ−1/2 )𝑑ℎ

𝑑𝑡 = 𝜋0.62
(0.6)( )(√2(9.81))
4

3
3.2 0.113ℎ2
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫1.7 0.75

0.113 2 3.2
𝑡= [ ℎ5/2 ]
0.75 5 1.7
2 3.2
𝑡 = 0.15 [5 ℎ5/2 ]
1.7
2 2
𝑡 = 0.15 [ (3.2)5/2 − (1.7)5/2]
5 5

𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖 𝒔𝒆𝒄. → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

35 | P a g e
WEIR

Weir is essentially an overflow structure extending across an open channel normal to the
direction of flow and widely used for the purpose of flow metering and control.

CLASSIFICATION OF WEIR ACCORDING TO SHAPE

1. BROAD CRESTED WEIR – may be either have a rounder or square upstream corner
so that the liquid passing over the crest comes in contact with the surface.

a. ROUNDED UPSTREAM CORNER

b. SQUARE UPSTREAM CORNER

2. SHARP CRESTED WEIR

Where:
Nappe – downward falling stream
H – Head of water above the crest
P – Weir plate (height of weir)
D – Depth of water
Va – velocity of approach in the channel

FLOW OVER THE WEIR

1. Free Flow – when liquid surface downstream is sufficient below the crest.
2. Submerge Flow - if the surface downstream is above the crest but below the upstream
liquid surface.

36 | P a g e
 SUPPRESED RECTANGULAR WEIR -its length is the same as the width of channel.

By orifice theory, neglecting losses.

𝑑𝑄𝑇 = 𝑑𝐴. 𝑉 2
𝑑𝑄𝑇 = 𝐿𝑑ℎ . 𝑉 2
𝑉1 2
𝑑𝑄𝑇 = 𝐿𝑑ℎ √ℎ + (2𝑔)
2𝑔

𝑉1 2
𝑑𝑄𝑇 = √2𝑔𝐿√ℎ + 𝑑ℎ
2𝑔

Integrating both sides

𝑉1 2
∫ 𝑑𝑄𝑇 = ∫ √2𝑔𝐿√ℎ + 𝑑ℎ
2𝑔
3/2 𝐻
2 𝑉1 2
𝑄𝑇 = √2𝑔𝐿 [(ℎ + ) ]
3 2𝑔
0
2 3/2 3/2
2 𝑉1 𝑉1 2
𝑄𝑇 = √2𝑔𝐿 [(ℎ + ) −( ) ]
3 2𝑔 2𝑔

2
𝐶 = 𝐶′ √2𝑔
3

Actual Flow
𝟑/𝟐 𝟑/𝟐
𝑽𝟏 𝟐 𝑽𝟏 𝟐
𝑸𝑨 = 𝑪𝑳 [(𝒉 + ) −( ) ]
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
Where:
L = length of weir
V1 = Va (velocity of approach)
C’ = correction factor
= 0.622 (by Francis)

37 | P a g e
Remarks:
𝑽𝒂 𝟐 𝑯
1. If and is sufficiently small, then
𝟐𝒈 𝑷

𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝑳 𝑯𝟑/𝟐

2. Francis Formula
a. Consider velocity of approach
𝟑/𝟐 𝟑/𝟐
𝑽𝟏 𝟐 𝑽𝟏 𝟐
𝑸𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝑳 [(𝑯 + ) −( ) ]
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

b. Neglect velocity of approach

𝑸𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝑳 𝑯𝟑/𝟐

3. Basin Formula

𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟔𝟏 𝑯 𝟐
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟏𝟖 [(𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 + )] [𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 ( ) ] 𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐
𝑯 𝑯+𝒛

z= height of weir crest above channel bottom

a. Neglect velocity of approach

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑
𝑸 = [𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟓 + ] √𝟐𝒈𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐
𝑯

b. Consider velocity of approach

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑
𝑸 = [𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟓 + ] √𝟐𝒈𝑳𝑯𝟏 𝟑/𝟐
𝑯

𝑽𝒂 𝟐
Where: 𝑯𝟏 = 𝑯 + 𝟏. 𝟔
𝟐𝒈
𝑽𝒂 = 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒂𝒄𝒉

4. Rehbook Formula

𝑸 = [𝟏. 𝟕𝟖𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝑯]𝑳𝑯𝒆 𝟑/𝟐

Where: 𝑯𝒆 = 𝑯 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏

5. Fteley and Stearn Formula

𝟑/𝟐
𝑽𝟐
𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟐𝟔 𝑳 [𝑯+∝ ] + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟓𝑳
𝟐𝒈

∝ = factor dependent upon crest height z

38 | P a g e
SPECIFICATION OF A STANDARD WEIR
(SUPPRESED RECTANGULAR WEIR)

1. Weir plate is vertical and upstream face is smooth.

2. The Crest is horizontal and normal to the direction of flow. It must be sharp so that the
liquid passing over the crest will spring free from the edge.
3. The pressure on the lower and upper nappe is atmospheric
4. The approach channel is uniform in section and the free surface is free from waves.
5. The sides of the channel are vertical and smooth and shall extend a short distance of the
weir crest.

Contracted Weir – is a weir where its length is less than the width of the channel.

Rectangular Sharp – Crested contracted weir

Francis Formula

𝑸𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝑳′ 𝑯𝟑/𝟐

𝐋′ = 𝑳 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎 𝑯 (𝟐 𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒊𝒐𝒏)
𝐋′ = 𝑳 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝑯 (𝟏 𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒊𝒐𝒏)

Triangular Weir

𝟖 𝜽
𝑸𝑨 = 𝒄 𝐭𝐚𝐧 √𝟐𝒈 𝑯𝟓/𝟐
𝟏𝟓 𝟐
Where : 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎°
𝑸𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟒 𝑯𝟓/𝟐

39 | P a g e
 Cipolleti Weir – is a trapezoid weirs where its side slopes are equal to ¼.

Where :

𝜽 𝟏
𝐭𝐚𝐧 =
𝟐 𝟒

𝑸𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔 𝑳 𝑯𝟑/𝟐

Submerged Sharp Crested Weirs

𝑸𝒂 = 𝑸′(𝟏 − 𝑺𝒏 )𝟎.𝟑𝟖𝟓

Where:

Q’= is the flow which would result when the head is H, and the weir is not submerged
n = 1.5 for rectangular weirs
2.5 for triangular weirs
s = H2/H1, submerged ratio

40 | P a g e
Problems:
1. A rectangular channel 6.0 m wide has a depth of 1.0 m flowing with a mean velocity of
0.60 m/s. Determine the height of rectangular sharp crested weir that will increase the
depth of water at the velocity of approach to 1.2 m.
Given:

𝑤 = 6.0 𝑚

𝑑 = 1.0 𝑚

𝑣 = 0.60 𝑚/𝑠

𝐻 + 𝑃 = 1.20 𝑚

Required: P=?

Solution:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑉1

𝑄1 = (6𝑥1)(0.60)

𝑄1 = 3.6 𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑄1 = 𝑄2

3.60 = (6𝑥1.2)𝑉2

𝑉2 = 0.5 𝑚/𝑠

then the velocity of approach 𝑽𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔

𝑉𝑎 2 (0.5)2
= 2(9.81) = 0.013𝑚
2𝑔

then :

𝑉𝑎 2 3 𝑉 2 3
𝑎
𝑄 = 1.84𝐿 [ (𝐻 + )2 − ( 2𝑔 )2 ]
2𝑔

3 3
3.6 = 1.84(6.0) [ (𝐻 + 0.013 )2 − (0.013)2 ]

𝐻 = 0.46 𝑚

𝑃 = 1.20 − 𝐻

𝑃 = 1.20 − 0.46

𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒 𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

41 | P a g e
2. A rectangular concentrated weir 2.0 m long discharges water under a head of 0.3m.
Compute the discharge using the Francis formula (2 ends contraction).

Given:

𝐿 = 2.0 𝑚

𝐻 = 0.3 𝑚

𝐻 + 𝑃 = 1.20 𝑚

Required: Q = ?

Solution:
3
𝑄 = 1.84 𝐿′𝐻 2
3
𝑄 = 1.84 [𝐿 − 0.20(𝐻 )]𝐻 2
3
𝑄 = 1.84 [2 − 0.20(0.30)](0.30)2

𝒎𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒔

where:

𝑳′ = [𝑳 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎(𝑯)] 𝟐 𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

42 | P a g e
3. A trapezoidal canal 6.0 m wide at the bottom and having a side slope of 1V to 2H carries
𝐻2 𝑂 to a depth of 0.40 m and a mean velocity of 0.60 m/s. What length of contracted
weir 0.80m high should be placed in the middle of the canal if the depth of 𝐻2 𝑂 upstream
is to be 1.2 m?

Given:

𝑃 = 0.80 𝑚

𝐻 + 𝑃 = 1.20 𝑚

𝑑 = 0.40 𝑚

𝑣 = 0.60 𝑚/𝑠

Required: L =?

Solution:

By R&P : SOLVE FOR X

➢ At point 1:
𝑥 2
=1
0.40

𝑥 = 0.80 𝑚

➢ At point 2:
𝑥 2
=1
1.20

𝑥 = 2.40 𝑚

Solve for 𝑄1:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑉1
1
𝑄1 = (6 + 7.6)(0.40)(0.60)
2

𝑄1 = 1.63 𝑚3 /𝑠

43 | P a g e
 Since 𝑄1 = 𝑄2

𝑄1 = 𝑄2

𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
1
1.63 = (6 + 10.8)(1.20)𝑉2
2

𝑉2 = 0.16 𝑚/𝑠

then:
3
𝑄 = 1.84 𝐿′𝐻 2

where: 𝑳′ = [𝑳 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎(𝑯)] 𝟐 𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

3
1.63 = 1.84 [𝐿 − 0.20(0.4)](0.40)2

𝑳 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟖 𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

4. The flow in a rectangular channel varies from 227li/s to 850 li/s and it is desired to
regulate the depth by installing 90° V – notch weirs at the end. How many such weirs are
need to limit the variation in depth to a 61mm? Find the max. head.

Given:

𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 227 𝑙𝑖/𝑠

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 850 𝑙𝑖/𝑠

ℎ = 61 𝑚𝑚

Required: n = ?

Solution:

For min. Head :

5
𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.4𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥 𝑛
5
0.227 = 1.4𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥 𝑛 → 𝑒𝑞. 1

44 | P a g e
 For max. Head:
5
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.4𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑛
5
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.4(0.061 + 𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 )2 𝑥 𝑛
5
0.85 = 1.4(0.061 + 𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 )2 𝑥 𝑛 → 𝑒𝑞. 2

❖ Divide equation 2 to equation 1:

5
0.85 = 1.4(0.061 + 𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 )2 𝑥 𝑛
5
0.227 = 1.4𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥 𝑛
5
0.061+𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
3.74 = 5
𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 2

𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.090 𝑚

Solve for 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 :

𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.061 + 𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.061 + 0.090

𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.151 𝑚

Solve for no. of weir:

5
0.227 = 1.4𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥 𝑛 → 𝑒𝑞. 1
5
0.227 = 1.4(0.090)2 𝑥 𝑛

𝑛 = 66.73 says

𝒏 = 𝟔𝟕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒓𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

45 | P a g e
FLUID FLOW IN PIPES

Pipes are closed conduit used in conveying fluid flow. (flow full or partially full)

1. Steady – laminar flow (R<2000) and turbulent flow (R>2000)

2. Unsteady

Critical Velocity

The critical velocity in pipes is the velocity in pipes is the velocity below which all turbulence is
damped out by the viscosity of the fluid. This is represented by a Reynolds number of 2000.
Reynolds’s number is the ratio of the inertia force to viscous force.

1. For pipes flowing full

𝑽𝑫𝝆
𝑹𝒆 =
𝝁
𝑽𝑫
𝑹𝒆 =
𝒗
𝝁
𝒗=
𝝆
Where:
V = mean velocity, m/s
D = pipe diameter, m
ѵ = kinematic viscosity of the fluid, m3 /s
μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity, Pa. s

2. For non-circular pipes, use D=4R (hydraulic radius)

𝟒𝒗𝑹𝝆 𝟒ѵ𝑹
𝑹𝒄 = =
𝝁 ѵ

𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝐴

𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 =
𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃

1. Laminar Flow

𝜹𝒉𝑳
𝝁 = 𝑽𝒄 − 𝒙𝒓
𝟒𝝁𝑳
𝟏
Average velocity: 𝑽 = 𝟐 𝑽𝒄

The velocity at any distance from the center of the pipe.

Use squared property formula

𝒙 𝑽𝒄 𝒓𝟐
= 𝒓𝒐² : 𝒙 = 𝑽𝒄(𝒓𝒐𝟐 )
𝒓²

46 | P a g e
From the figure;

𝜇 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑥

𝑟2
𝜇 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑐( 2 )
𝑟𝑜

𝒓𝟐
𝝁 = 𝑽𝒄[𝟏 − ( 𝟐 )]
𝒓𝒐

Where:

hL = head loss in the pipe

L = pipe length
ro = pipe radius
Vc = centreline or maximum velocity
μ = absolute velocity of the liquid
γ = unit weight of the fluid
u = velocity at distance from pipe center
ѵ = average velocity

2. Turbulent Flow

The velocity μ , at any point r in a pipe of radius ro

𝝉𝒐 𝒓𝒐
𝝁 = 𝑽𝒄 − 𝟓. 𝟕𝟓√ 𝒍𝒐𝒈( )
𝝆 𝒓𝒐 − 𝒓

Where:

𝝉𝒐 𝒇𝒗²
√𝝆 = √ 𝟖
or
𝒓𝒐
𝝁 = (𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑√𝒇)𝒗 − 𝟐. 𝟎𝟒√𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒈( )
𝒓𝒐 − 𝒓
Centerline or maximum velocity

𝑽𝒄 = (𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑√𝒇)

velocity ( average or mean velocity )

𝝉𝒐
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒄 − 𝟑. 𝟕𝟓√
𝝆

where;

𝜏𝑜= maximum shearing stress in pipe

f = friction factor
v= mean velocity

47 | P a g e
SHEARING STRESS IN PIPES

Consider a mass of fluid of length ( L ) and radius ( r ) to move the right. Due to headlost HL,
P2<P1. The shearing stress at the surface of the fluid is:
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝐹1 − 𝐹2 − 𝐹𝑆 = 0
𝐹𝑆 = 𝐹1 − 𝐹2
𝜏𝑆 𝐴𝑆 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 − 𝑃2 𝐴2
𝜏𝑆 (2𝜋𝑥𝐿) = 𝑃1 (𝜋𝑥 2 ) − 𝑃2 (2𝜋𝑥 2 )
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )𝑥
𝜏𝑆 =
2𝐿

Multiplying and divide the equation by unit wt. 𝛾

𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝜏𝑆 = (𝑥)
𝛾
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 ∶ (𝑥 )
𝛾
𝜸𝒉𝑳
𝝉𝒔 = (𝒙)
𝟐𝑳
𝜸𝒉𝑳
𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝝉𝒐 = (𝒓)
𝟐𝑳
Or

𝜸𝒉𝑳𝑫
𝝉𝒐 =
𝟒𝑳
𝒇 𝒗
𝝉𝒐 = 𝜸
𝟒 𝒈

Shear velocity of friction velocity

𝝉
𝑽𝒔 = √
𝜸

√𝒇
𝑽𝒔 = ѵ
𝒈

48 | P a g e
HEAD LOSSES IN PIPES FLOW

1. Major head loss

- Caused by pipe friction along straight sections of pipe of uniform diameter & uniform
roughness.
2. Minor head loss
- Caused by changes in velocity or directions of flow & are commonly expressed in
terms of kinetic energy.

Major Loss ; hf

A. Darcy – Weisbach formula

𝒇𝑳 𝒗²
𝒉𝒇 = .
𝑫 𝟐𝒈

Where:
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe in meter
D = diameter of pipe in meter
V = mean or average velocity of flow in m/s

For non-circular pipes

D = 4R

For circular pipes

𝒇𝑳 𝟖𝑸²
𝒉𝒇 = .
𝑫 𝝅² 𝒈 𝑫²

𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔 𝒇𝑳𝑸²
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫 . 𝟐𝒈

𝒇𝑳𝒗²
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫 . 𝟐𝒈
Value of f:

1. Laminar Flow

𝟔𝟒 𝟔𝟒𝝁
𝒇= =
𝑹𝒆 ѵ𝑫𝝆

For Non-circular pipes

𝟑𝟐𝝁𝑳ѵ
𝒉𝒇 =
𝝆𝒈𝑫²

For Circular pipe

𝟏𝟐𝟖𝝁𝑳𝑸
𝒉𝒇 =
𝝅𝝆𝒈𝑫²

49 | P a g e
2. Turbulent Flow

a. Smooth & Rough Pipes

𝟖𝝉𝒐 𝟖ѵ²
𝒉𝒇 = =
𝝆ѵ² ѵ²
ѵs = shear velocity of friction velocity
ѵ = mean or average velocity
b. For smooth pipes, Re bet 3000 & 100,000

𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟔
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟐𝟓

c. For smooth pipes with Re up to 3,000,000

𝟏
= 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝑹𝒆 √𝒇) = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎
√𝒇

d. For rough pipes , where 𝜹<0.30∈

𝟏 𝑫
= 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ) + 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒
√𝒇 𝑹𝒆
where :
∈ = absolute roughness , mm
∈/𝐷 = relative thickness of viscous
𝛿 = nominal thickness of viscous sublayer
𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟐𝟓
𝜹=
√𝝉𝒐/𝝆
e. For smooth & roughness pipes , turbulent
𝟏 ∈ 𝟏𝑫 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏
= 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [ + ]
√𝒇 𝟑. 𝟕 𝑹𝒆 √𝒇
f. Haaland Formula
𝟏 𝟔. 𝟗 ∈/𝑫𝟏.𝟏𝟏
= −𝟏. 𝟖 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [ + ]
√𝒇 𝑹𝒆 𝟑. 𝟕
B. Manning Formula

𝟏 𝟐/𝟑 𝟏/𝟐
𝑽= 𝑹 𝑺
𝒏
where :
n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of the energy gradeline
S = hf
For Non-circular pipes , use D = 4R
For circular pipes
𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟗 𝒏²𝑳𝑸²
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫𝟏𝟔/𝟑
C. Hazen William Formula
For circular pipes flowing full
𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝑳𝑸𝟏.𝟖𝟓
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑪𝟏𝟏.𝟖𝟓 𝑫𝟒.𝟖𝟕
Where :
C1 = hazen william coefficient
D = pipe diameter
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of the EGL

50 | P a g e
Minor Loss

- Caused by the changes in direction or velocity of flow.

If L > 1500∅ of pipes : Losses Neglected

A. Sudden enlargement

(𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐)𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝟐𝒈

where : v1 = velocity before enlargement

v2 = velocity after

B. Gradual Enlargement
𝒌(𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐)𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝟐𝒈

C. Sudden contraction

𝒌𝒄𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝟐𝒈

where : kc = coefficient of sudden contraction

v = velocity in smaller pipe

D. Bends & Standard Fittings

𝒌𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝟐𝒈

51 | P a g e
Problems:
1. For laminar flow condition, what minimum size of pipe deliver 6.0 li/s of medium oil having
a kinematic viscosity of 6.10𝑥10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠.

Given:

𝑄 = 6.0 𝑙𝑖/𝑠

𝜇 = 6.10 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠

𝐿𝐹 = 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 2000

Required: D=?

Solution:

By Reynolds Number
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑣

𝑄 𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑥
𝐴 𝑣

𝑄𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜋(
𝐷 2 )𝑣
4

4𝑄
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜋𝐷𝑣

4(0.006)
2000 = 𝜋𝐷(6.10𝑥10−6 )

𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑 𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

or

𝑫 = 𝟔𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

52 | P a g e
2. Oil with dynamic viscosity of 0.10 Pa.s and S = 0.85 flows through 3000m of 30 cm cast iron
pipe at the rate of 44 li/s. Find the headloss due to friction.

Given :

𝜇 = 0.10 𝑃𝑎/𝑠

𝑄 = 44 𝑙𝑖/𝑠

𝑠 = 0.85

𝐿 = 3000𝑚

𝐷 = 30 𝑐𝑚

Required:hf=?

Solution:

By Reynolds no.
𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷 𝜌
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑣
= 𝜇 = 𝜇
𝜌

4𝑄 𝜌
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜋𝐷 𝜇

0.044𝑙𝑖 1000𝑘𝑔
4( ) (0.85)( )
𝑠 𝑚
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜋(0.30𝑚) 0.10𝑁
( 2 .𝑠)
𝑚

𝑹𝒆 = 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟕. 𝟑𝟒 < 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 (𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘)

Solve for Friction coefficient:

64
𝑓= 𝑅𝑒

64
𝑓= 1587.34

𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒

Solve for Headloss:

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐷5

0.044 2
0.0826(0.04)(3000)(𝜋 )
(0.3)2
4
ℎ𝑓 = (0.30)5

𝒉𝒇 = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟎𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

53 | P a g e
3. Oil (s = 0.80) and 𝜇 = 0.0814 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 flows through a cast iron pipe at a velocity of 1.0 m/s.
The pipe is 50𝑚 long and 150 𝑚𝑚∅.

Given:

𝑠 = 0.80

𝜇 = 0.0814 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠

𝑣 = 1.0 𝑚/𝑠

𝐿 = 50𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 = 150𝑚𝑚

Required: 𝒉𝒇, 𝝉𝒐 , 𝑽𝒔 , 𝝉𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎

Solution:

a. 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑳𝑭

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑸:
64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
64
𝑓 = 2000
𝑓 = 0.032
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝜋
𝑄 = (0.15)2 (1.0)
4
𝑄 = 0.0177 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑓:
0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐷5

0.0826(0.032)(50)(0.0177)2
ℎ𝑓 = (0.15)5

𝒉𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒 𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

b. 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆.

𝛾ℎ𝐿 𝐷
𝜏𝑜 = 4𝐿
a

(0.80)(9.81)(0.54)(0.15)
𝜏𝑜 = 4(50)

𝝉𝒐 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝑵/𝒎𝟐 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

c. 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

𝜏
𝑉𝑠 = √ 𝜌𝑜
3.178
𝑉𝑠 = √(0.80)(1000)
𝑽𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟑 𝒎/𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

d. 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝛾ℎ 𝑥
𝜏𝑠 = 𝐿 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∶ 𝑥 = 𝑟
2𝐿
(0.80)(9.81)(0.54)(0.05)
𝜏50𝑚𝑚 =
2(50)

𝝉𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐 𝑵/𝒎𝟐 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

54 | P a g e
4. The velocities in a 750 𝑚𝑚∅ pipe are measured as 4.6 m/s and 4.4 m/s at r = 0 and r =
100mm respectively. (For turbulent flow)

a. Determine the flow rate

b. If 𝑓 = 0.019 for every 800m .What is the headloss?
Given:

𝐷 = 750𝑚𝑚
𝑚
𝑉 = 4.6 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 0
𝑠

𝑚
𝜇 = 4.4 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 100𝑚𝑚
𝑠

Required: Q and hf

Solution:

a. 𝑫𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆

𝜏
Solve for √ 𝜌𝑜 :
𝝉
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒄 − 𝟑. 𝟕𝟓 √ 𝝆𝒐
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 :
𝜏 𝑟𝑜
𝜇 = 𝑉𝑐 − 5.75 √ 𝑜 𝑥 log
𝜌 𝑟𝑜 −𝑟

𝜏 375
4.4 = 4.6 − 5.75 √ 𝜌𝑜 𝑥 log 375−100

𝜏 𝑜
√ 𝜌 = 0.26
𝜏
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑐 − 3.75 √ 𝜌𝑜
𝑉 = 4.6 − 3.75 (0.26)
𝑉 = 3.625 𝑚/𝑠

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄:
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝜋
𝑄 = 4 (0.75)2 (3.625)
𝒎𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎 𝒔
→ 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

b. 𝑰𝒇 𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒎 . 𝑾𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔?

𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 = 2𝑔𝐷
0.019(800)(3.625)2
ℎ𝑓 = 2(9.81))(075)
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟕𝟓 𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

55 | P a g e
PIPES DISCHARGING RESERVOIR

If the pipe is very large such that the velocity head is very small; Hlt = He

Pipe Connecting 2 reservoirs

56 | P a g e
PIPES IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

A. Series
1. Total head = hf1 + hf2 + hf3
2. Q1 = Q2 = Q3

B. Series and Parallel

1. Total head loss = hf1 + hf3 + hf5
2. Q = Q5
3. Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4
4. hf2 = hf3 = hf4

C. Series and Parallel

1. HLT = hf1 + hf2 + hf5
2. Q1 = Q5
3. Q1 = Q2 + Q3
4. Q3 = Q4

D. Series and Parallel

1. HLT = hf1 + hf3 + hf5 + hf6
2. Q1 = Q6
3. Q1 = Q2 + Q3 + Q4
4. hf3 = hf4
5. hf2 = hf3 + hf5
6. Q5 + Q2 = Q6
7. Q5 = Q3 + Q4

Equipment pipe

QE = Qo
HLE = HLo

Original pipe system , 0

Head Loss = Ho

Equipment single pipe , E

Head loss = HE

57 | P a g e
Problems:

1. The 3 pipes are connected in series. If the difference in elevation of pipes 1 and 3 is 10m , find
the rate of flow .

Pipes No. 1 2 3

Diameter ( ∅ ) 25 cm 12 cm 20 cm
Length ( L ) 300 m 150 m 250 m
Coefficient Friction ( 𝒇 ) 0.01 0.02 0.02

Required: Q=?

Solution :

Series Pipe:
𝐻 = ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓3
𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉1 2 𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉2 2 𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉3 2
𝐻= + +
𝐷1 .2𝑔 𝐷2 .2𝑔 𝐷3 .2𝑔
(0.01)(300)𝑉1 2 (0.02)(150)𝑉 2 (0.02)(250)𝑉 2
2 3
10 = (0.25)(2)(9.81)
+ (0.12)(2)(9.81) + (0.20)(2)(9.81)
10 = 0.61𝑉12 + 1.27𝑉2 2 + 1.27𝑉3 2 → 𝑒𝑞. 1
then: By 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 :
𝜋 𝜋
(𝑑1 )2 𝑣1 = 4 (𝑑2 )2 𝑣2
4

(0.25)2 𝑣1 = (0.12)2 𝑣2

𝑣1 = 0.23𝑣2 → 𝑒𝑞. 2

By 𝑄3 = 𝑄2 :
𝜋 𝜋
(𝑑3 )2 𝑣3 = (𝑑2 )2 𝑣2
4 4

(0.20)2 𝑣3 = (0.12)2 𝑣2

𝑣3 = 0.36 𝑣2 → 𝑒𝑞. 3

Solve for 𝑽𝟐 by equation 1:

10 = 0.61𝑉12 + 1.27𝑉2 2 + 1.27𝑉3 2 → 𝑒𝑞. 1
2
10 = 0.61(0.23𝑉2 ) + 1.27𝑉2 + 1.27(0.36𝑉2 )2
2

𝑉2 = 2.61 𝑚/𝑠
Solve for Q:

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉2
𝜋
𝑄 = 4 (0.12)2 (2.61)

𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟗𝟓 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

58 | P a g e
2. A new cast iron pipe 30 𝑐𝑚∅ and 30 m long connects 2 reservoirs both ends sharp cornered
and submerged. Determine the diff. in elevation between the water surface in the 2 reservoir. If
the discharge is 0.45 𝑚3 /𝑠 and 𝑓 = 0.019.

Given:

𝑓 = 0.019

𝑑 = 30 𝑐𝑚

𝐿 = 30 𝑚

𝑄 = 0.45 𝑚3 /𝑠

Required: 𝐻𝐿 𝑇 =?

Solution:

𝐻𝐿 𝑇 = ℎ𝐿𝐶 + ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝐿𝐶

0.5𝑉 2 𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 1.0𝑉 2

𝐻𝐿 𝑇 = + +
2𝑔 2𝑔𝐷 2𝑔

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝜋
0.45 = (0.3)2 (𝑉)
4

𝑉 = 6.37 𝑚/𝑠

0.5(6.37)2 0.019(30)(6.37)2 1.0(6.37)2

𝐻𝐿 𝑇 = + +
2(9.81) 2(9.81)(0.3) 2(9.81)

𝑯𝑳𝑻 = 𝟕. 𝟎𝟑𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

59 | P a g e
3. For parallel pipes, = 0.02 , 𝑄 = 0.0375𝑚3 /𝑠.Determine the headloss for each pipes.

Given:

𝑓 = 0.02

𝑄 = 0.0375 𝑚3 /𝑠

Required: hf =?

Solution :

For parallel pipe:

ℎ𝑓1 = ℎ𝑓2

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄2 0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄2
=
𝐷5 𝐷5

𝐿𝑄2 𝐿𝑄2
=
𝐷5 𝐷5

600(𝑄2)(450)5
𝑄1 2 = 1800(300)5

𝑄1 = 1.59𝑄2

Since: 𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2

0.375 = 1.59𝑄2 + 𝑄2

𝑄2 = 0.1448𝑚3 /𝑠

0.375 = 𝑄1 + 0.1448

𝑄1 = 0.2302𝑚3 /𝑠

Solve for headloss:

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐷5

0.0826(0.02)(1800)(0.2302)2
ℎ𝑓1 = (0.45)5

𝒉𝒇𝟏 = 𝟖. 𝟓𝟒𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

or
0.0826(0.02)(600)(0.1448)2
ℎ𝑓2 = (0.30)5

𝒉𝒇𝟐 = 𝟖. 𝟓𝟓𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

60 | P a g e
PIPE NETWORK
HARDY CROSS METHOD
BASED ON THE FOLLOWING PRINCIPLES

1. The flow entering a junction must be equal to the flow leaving the junction.
2. The algebraic sum of friction losses around any closed loop is zero.

Let:
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
Q = True flow

− ∑ 𝒌𝑸𝒏𝒂
𝜶=
𝒏 ∑ 𝒌𝑸𝒏−𝟏
𝒂

Where: n= 2
Darcy:

𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔𝒇𝑳
𝒌=
𝑫𝟓

Manning:

𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝒏𝟐 𝑳
𝒌= 𝟏𝟔
𝑫𝟑

Where: n= 1.85
Hazen-Williams

𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝑳
𝒌=
𝒄𝟏.𝟖𝟓𝑫𝟒.𝟖𝟕

Note:
Use positive signs for clockwise direction of flow

61 | P a g e
Problem:
Determine the flow in each pipe in the network shown 𝐶1 = 120 for all pipes.

Assume Flow

Correction Flow

62 | P a g e
Solution:
10.67𝐿 10.67(183)
𝑘𝐴𝐵 = 𝑘𝐵𝐶 = 𝑘𝐺𝐻 = 𝑘𝐻𝐼 = = = 97.487
𝑐 1.85𝐷 4.87 (120)1.85 (0.3)4.87

10.67(122)
𝑘𝐴𝐷 = 𝑘𝐷𝐺 = 𝑘𝐶𝐹 = 𝑘𝐹𝐼 = = 469.919
(120)1.85(0.2)4.87

10.67(122)
𝑘𝐵𝐸 = 𝑘𝐸𝐻 = = 158.515
(120)1.85(0.25)4.87

10.67(183)
𝑘𝐷𝐸 = 𝑘𝐸𝐹 = = 237.773
(120)1.85 (0.25)4.87

When: n=1.85

Pipes k 𝑸𝒂 𝒌𝑸𝒏𝒂 𝒌𝑸𝒏−𝟏

𝒂

AB 97.487 126 752026.29 5968.463

BC 97.487 63 208606.353 3311.212

GH 97.487 16 16526.066 1032.879

HI 97.487 0 0 0

AD 469.919 63 1001850.736 15902.393

DG 469.919 16 79367.915 4960.495

CF 469.919 47 582645.025 12396.703

FI 469.919 16 79367.915 4960.4947

BE 158.515 63 337948.3898 5364.26

EH 158.515 16 26772.70995 1673.294

DE 237.773 47 294810.9258 6272.572

EF 237.773 31 136515.408 4403.722

Correction Factor:

− ∑ 𝒌𝑸𝒏𝒂
𝜶=
𝒏 ∑ 𝒌𝑸𝒏−𝟏
𝒂

Loop I (AB, BE, -DE, -AD)

−(752026.29 + 337948.3898 − 294810.9258 − 1001850.736)

𝛼𝐼 =
(1.85)(5968.463 + 5364.26 + 6272.572 + 15902.393)
𝛼𝐼 = 3.334

63 | P a g e
Loop II (BC, CF, EF, -BE)

−(208606.353 + 582645.025 + 136515.408 − 337948.3898)

𝛼𝐼𝐼 =
(1.85)(3311.212 + 12396.703 + 4403.722 + 5364.26)
𝛼𝐼𝐼 = -12.515

Loop III (DE, -EH, -GH, -DG)

−(294810.9258 − 26772.70995 − 16526.066 − 79367.915)

𝛼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =
(1.85)(6272.572 + 1673.294 + 1032.879 + 4960.495)
𝛼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = -6.675

Loop IV (-EF, FI, -HI, EH)

−(−136515.408 + 79367.915 − 0 + 26772.70995)

𝛼𝐼𝑉 =
(1.85)(4403.722 + 4960.4947 + 0 + 1673.294)
𝛼𝐼𝑉 = 1.488

Corrected Flow

AB = 126 + 3.334
AB = 129.334
BC = 63 + (-12.515)
BC = 50.485
GH = 16 – (-6.675)
GH = -22.675
HI = 0 - (1.488)
HI = -1.488
AD = 63 -3.334
AD = 59.666
DG = 16 - (-6.675)
DG = 22.675
CF = 47 + (-12.515)
CF = 34.385
FI = 16 + 1.488
FI = 17.488
BE = 63 + 3.334 – (-12.515)
BE = 78.849
EH = 16 - (-6.675) + 1.488
EH = 24.163
DE = 47 - 3.334 +(-6.675)
DE = 36.991
EF = 31 + (-12.515) - 1.488
EF = 16.997

64 | P a g e
RESERVOIRS

𝑸 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐

𝑸 𝟑 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐

Type I: Given the discharge in one of the pipes or given the pressure at junction P and
the required is the elevation one of the resevoirs or the diameter or length of one of the
pipes.

65 | P a g e
 Problem:
A 1200mm concrete pipe 1800m long carries 1.35 𝑚3 /𝑠 from reservoir 𝐴𝑠 discharge into
concrete pipes each 1350m long and 750𝑚𝑚∅. One of the 750𝑚𝑚∅ pipes discharges into
reservoir B in which the water surface is 6m lowerthab that in A. Determine the elevation of
the water surface in elevation C, into which the other 750𝑚𝑚∅ pipe discharges. 𝑓 = 0.02
Given:
𝐿𝐴 = 1800; 𝑑𝐴 = 1200𝑚𝑚∅
𝐿𝐵 = 𝐿𝐶 = 1350𝑚; 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑑𝐶 = 750𝑚𝑚∅
𝑄𝐴 = 1.35𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑓 = 0.02
Required: 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑠

Solution:
0.0017 (1350)𝑄𝑏2
1. 𝐻𝑓𝑏 = (0.75)2

𝐻𝑓𝑏 = 9.67 𝑄𝑏2

𝑜.0825 𝑓𝑙 𝑄𝑎2
Head losses : ℎ𝑓𝑎 =
𝑑5

0.0825(0.02)(1800)(1.35)2
= (1.2)5

𝐻𝑓𝑎 = 2.18 𝑚

𝑯𝒇𝒄 = 𝟗. 𝟔𝟕 𝑸𝒄𝟐

2. 𝑄𝑎 = 𝑄𝑏 + 𝑄𝑐

= 1.35 – 0.63

𝑸𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

3. 6 = ℎ𝑓𝑎 + ℎ𝑓𝑏

6 = 2.18 + 9.67𝑄𝑏 2

𝑸𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

4. 𝐻𝑓𝑏 = 9.67 (0.63)2

ℎ𝑓𝑏 = 3.84 𝑚

5. 𝐻𝑓𝑐 = 5.01 𝑚

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛; 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑠 + 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑓𝑎 + ℎ𝑓𝑏 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤𝑠 𝐴

𝑨𝒏𝒔. = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎.

66 | P a g e
FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL

The term open channel is used to define all natural streams and artificial canals having
surfaces exposed to the pressure of the atmosphere.
• All forms of closed conduits which flow only partially full is categorized as open
channel.
• Flow in open channel depends upon the slope of the stream bed as well as the slope of the
water surface.

Main Types of Open Channel

a. Natural Streams or rivers
b. Artificial canals or flumes
c. Sewer, tunnels and pipelines not flowing full

Flow in open channel to be uniform, it is necessary that the flow section, the depth of flow
remain fixed over a certain length or reach of the channel.

Energy in Open Channel

For uniform flow

1. 𝑑1 = 𝑑2
2. 𝐴1 = 𝐴2
3. 𝑉1 = 𝑉2
ℎ
4. 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑜 = 𝑆𝑤 ; 𝑆 = 𝐿𝐿
where: 𝑆 = slope of EGL
𝑆𝑜 = slope of stream bed
𝑆𝑤 = slope of water surface
𝐿 = length of channel

Energy Equation between 1 and 2

𝑽𝟏 𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝒅𝟏 + 𝒛𝟏 = + 𝒅𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝒉𝑳
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

Remarks:
𝑉2
= kinetic energy / weight
2𝑔
𝑑 + 𝑧 = potential energy / weight

Specific energy is the energy measured from the stream bed.

𝑽𝟐
𝑬𝒔 = 𝟐𝒈 + 𝒅

67 | P a g e
Uniform flow formula
1. Chezy Formula
𝒇𝑳 𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = ∙
𝑫 𝟐𝒈

𝑽 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺

where: 𝑅 = hydraulic radius

𝑆 = slope of EGL

Chezy C (Kutter and Ganguillet equation)

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓 𝟏
𝟐𝟑 + +𝒏
𝑪= 𝑺
𝒏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓
𝟏+ {𝟐𝟑 + }
√𝑹 𝑺
where: 𝑛 = roughness coefficient
2. Manning Formula
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝑽= ∙ 𝑹𝟑 ∙ 𝑺𝟐
𝒏
𝟏
𝑹𝟔
𝑽= √𝑹𝑺
𝒏

𝑽 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺
3. Basin Equation

𝟖𝟕
𝑪= 𝒎
𝟏+
√𝑹

where: 𝑚 = roughness coefficient

68 | P a g e
Alternate Stages of Flow
Specific energy at any section

𝑽𝟐
𝑬𝒔 = +𝒅
𝟐𝒈
Mean velocity
𝑽 = √𝟐𝒈(𝑬𝒔 − 𝒅)

For rectangular channel with dimension 𝑨 = 𝒃 × 𝒅

𝑸 = 𝒃𝒅√𝟐𝒈(𝑬𝒔 − 𝒅)

To determine the discharge / meter width of channel

𝑸 𝒃𝒅
= √𝟐𝒈(𝑬𝒔 − 𝒅)
𝒃 𝒃

𝑸
= 𝒅√𝟐𝒈(𝑬𝒔 − 𝒅)
𝒃
where:
𝑸
=𝒒
𝒃

𝑸 = 𝒃𝒒

𝑸
𝒒=
𝒃
𝑨𝑽
𝒒=
𝒃
𝒃𝒅𝑽
𝒒=
𝒃
𝒒 = 𝒅𝑽

𝒒
𝑽=
𝒅
Or

𝒒
𝒅=
𝑽

69 | P a g e
Remarks:
1. Graph represents
𝑞 = 𝑑√2𝑔(𝐸𝑠 − 𝑑)
At (0, 0) . . . . . . 𝑑 = 0, 𝑞 = 0
At (0, 𝐸𝑠 ) . . . . . 𝑑 = 𝐸𝑠 , 𝑞 = 0
Then 𝑉 = 0, the flow is not possible
2. 𝐷𝑐 = max unit flow
3. For any value of 𝑞 between 0 and 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 , there are two possible depths of flow, 𝑑1 and 𝑑2
occuring the same 𝐸𝑠 .

where: 𝑑1 = upper stages of flow

𝑑2 = lower stages of flow

Critical depth is the depth at minimum 𝑬𝒔 .

𝟑 𝒒𝟐
𝒅𝒄 = √
𝒈

or 𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √𝒈𝒅𝒄 𝟑
𝟐
𝒅𝒄 = 𝑬
𝟑 𝒔
Critical Velocity
𝑽𝒄 = √𝒈𝒅𝒄
Type of flow
a. If 𝑉 = √𝑔𝑑, the flow is at the critical stage.
b. If 𝑉 < √𝑔𝑑, upper stage.
c. If 𝑉 > √𝑔𝑑, lower stage.

Slope Critical
𝒏 𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑺𝒄 = 𝟒
𝑹𝟑

Remarks:
1. Upper stages flow – tranquil or super critical flow
2. Lower stages flow – super critical flow

70 | P a g e
Most Efficient Cross-section (MES)
Also known as the most economic sections, there are sections which for a
given slope (𝑆), channel cross-sectional area (𝐴), and roughness (𝑛), the rate of discharge is
maximum.

Manning Formula
𝑨 𝟐 𝟏
𝑸= ∙ 𝑹𝟑 ∙ 𝑺𝟐
𝒏

Cross-section of Greatest Efficiency

1. Rectangular Section
𝑏 = 2𝑑
𝑑
𝑅=2
𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅𝑆
1 2 1
𝑉 = 𝑛 ∙ 𝑅3 ∙ 𝑆 2
𝐴 2 1
𝑄 = 𝑛 ∙ 𝑅3 ∙ 𝑆 2
2. Trapezoidal Section (Most efficient section when 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟎°)

𝑥 = 2𝑦
ℎ
𝑅=
2

3. Semi-circle (Most efficient circular section)

𝑟
𝑅=2

4. Maximum flow of water in circular channel occurs when the channel is filled up to a
height of 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟖𝑫.

5. Triangular Section

𝑏 = 2𝑑

Note:
For different cross-sections having the same area, the most efficient section is the one having
smaller wetted perimeter.

1 𝑦′
𝜇 = 𝑉 + 𝑘 √𝑔𝑦𝑠 [1 + log 𝑦 ]

where: 𝑦 = depth of water in channel in m

𝜇 = velocity at distance 𝑦′ from the channel bed
𝑉 = mean velocity of flow

71 | P a g e
Problem:
1. Water flows uniformly at a depth of 1.50m in a rectangular canal 4m wide, laid on a
slope of 1m/km. What is the average shearing stress at the sides and bottom of the canal?
Given:
𝑑 = 1.50𝑚
𝑏 = 4.0 𝑚
𝑠 = 1/1000
Required: 𝝉𝒂𝒗𝒆 =?
Solution:
Shear Stress:
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑅𝑆
𝐴
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝛾𝑤 (𝑃) 𝑆
4×1.5 1
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 9810 (2(1.5)+4) (1000)
𝝉𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝟖. 𝟒𝟏 𝑷𝒂 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

2. Calculate the flow in an earth-line (n=0.02) trapezoidal canal having a bottom width 4m,
side slope 1H to 2V, laid on a slope of 0.0001 having a depth of 2m, using:
1
𝑅6
a. Manning’s C = 𝑛

0.00155 1
23+ +
b. Kutter’s C = 𝑛
𝑠 𝑛
0.00155
1+ [23+ ]
√𝑅 𝑠
Given:
𝑛 = 0.02
𝑠 = 0.0001
𝑑 = 2.0𝑚
Required: Q=?
Solution:
𝐴
a.) 𝑅 = 𝑃
𝑤𝑒𝑡
1
(4+6)(2)
2
𝑅 = (2× = 1.18
√5)+4

1 1
𝑅6 (1.18)6
𝐶= = = 51.4
𝑛 0.02
𝐴 2 1
𝑄 =𝑛∙𝑅 ∙𝑆 3 2
1
[ (4+6)(2)] 2 1
2
𝑄= 0.02
(1.18)3 (0.0001)2
𝒎𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟓. 𝟓𝟖 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒔

b.)
0.00155 1
23+ +
0.0001 0.02
𝐶= 0.02 0.00155
1+ [23+ ]
√1.18 0.0001

𝐶 = 51.78

𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅𝑆
𝑚
𝑉 = 51.78√(1.18)(0.0001) = 0.563
𝑠

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
1
𝑄 = [2 (4 + 6)(2)] (0.563)
𝒎𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟑 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒔

72 | P a g e
 𝑚3
3. At what depth will 4.25 𝑠 flow uniformly in a rectangular channel 4m wide with rubble-
lined masonry and laid on a slope of 1 to 4,000? n=0.017. Use Manning’s C.
Given:
𝑚3
Q =4.25 𝑠
n=0.017
S = 1 to 4,000
Required: d=?
Solution:
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅𝑆
Where:
A = 4d
P = 4 + 2d
4𝑑
R = 4+2𝑑
1
1 4𝑑 6
𝑅6 [ ]
4+2𝑑
𝐶= 𝑛 = 0.017
Then:
1
4𝑑 6
[ ] 4𝑑 1
4+2𝑑
4.25 = (4𝑑)√4+2𝑑 (4000)
0.017
𝒅 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

4. What are the best dimensions for a rectangular channel carrying a flow with a cross-
sectional area of 10𝑚2 ?
Given:
A= 10𝑚2
Required: d and b
Solution:
A = bd
b = 2d
10 = bd
10 = 2d (d)
d = 2.24m
10 = b (2.24)
b = 4.48m
Answer : 2.24m x 4.48m

73 | P a g e
 HYDRAULIC JUMP

Note:

1. Steep slope to maintain high velocity in the lower stage.

2. If the slope is lesser than the required, the depth of flow will increase, or the velocity
decreases and assuming no energy lost, the flow attains its alternate upper stage.
3. There is a head lost in the transition from one stage to the other.
4. The specific energy before the transition occurs is greater than that after.
5. Hydraulic jump is observed to take place just below the spillway of the dam.
6. Due to the reduction in the velocity in the mass while moving through the jump, a loss of
energy is affected.
7. ℎ𝐿 ∝ ℎ𝑗

Where:
1. Mass abcd before jump has a momentum 𝑀𝑉1.
2. After the jump, momentum is 𝑀𝑉2 .
3. Principle of momentum: The change in the momentum of the mass id equal to the
impulse of the force causing the change.

𝐹𝑡 = ∆𝑀
𝑭𝒕 = 𝑴𝑽𝟐 − 𝑴𝑽𝟏 eq. 1

Where
𝐹 = 𝐹1 − 𝐹2 , resultant of the pressure forces the opposite side of the jump
𝑊
𝑀 = 𝑔 , mass

𝑄𝑡𝛾
𝑀=
𝑔

74 | P a g e
Where:
Q = total discharge
t = time of passage of the mass through the jump
From the formula 1:
𝑄𝑡𝛾
(𝐹1 − 𝐹2 )𝑡 = (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑔
Since:
𝐹 = 𝜌𝐴
𝑏𝑑1
𝐹1 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑑1 ∙
2
2
𝛾𝑤 𝑏𝑑1
𝐹1 =
2

𝛾𝑤 𝑏𝑑2 2
𝐹2 =
2
Then:
𝑄𝛾
𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = (𝑉 − 𝑉1 )
𝑔 2
Divide the equation by the width of the channel b:

𝑑1 2 𝑑2 2 𝑄
− = (𝑉 − 𝑉1 )
2 2 𝑏𝑔 2
1 𝑞
(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )(𝑑1 + 𝑑2 ) = (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
2 𝑔
Since:
𝒒
𝑽=
𝒅
1 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )(𝑑1 + 𝑑2 ) = ( − )
2 𝑔 𝑑2 𝑑1
2𝑞2 1 1
(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )(𝑑1 + 𝑑2 ) = ( − )
𝑔 𝑑2 𝑑1
𝟐𝒒𝟐
𝒅𝟏 𝒅 𝟐 (𝒅 𝟏 + 𝒅 𝟐 ) =
𝒈

Total head loss in the jump

𝑽𝟏 𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝟐
𝒉𝒋 = [ + 𝒅𝟏 ] − [ + 𝒅𝟐 ]
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
Power:
𝑃 = 𝑄𝛾ℎ𝑗
Height of jump:
ℎ𝑗 = 𝑑2 − 𝑑1
Length of jump:
𝟒. 𝟑𝟐𝒅𝟐 < 𝑳𝒋 < 𝟓. 𝟐𝒅𝟐

75 | P a g e
Problem:
𝑚3
1. A stream having a discharge per meter width of channel 1.0 𝑠 , has a depth after jump of
1.0m. Determine the velocity before the jump. Check the critical depth.
Given:
𝑄 = 1.0 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑑2 = 1.0 𝑚
Required: 𝑽𝟏 = ?
Solution:
Velocity before the jump
𝑞
𝑉1 =
𝑑1

For 𝒅𝟏 :

2𝑞 2
= 𝑑1 𝑑2(𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )
𝑔

2(1)2
= 𝑑1 (1)(𝑑1 + 1)
𝑔

𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝒎
Solve for 𝑽𝟏 :

𝑞
𝑉1 =
𝑑1
1
𝑉1 =
0.017
𝒎
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟖 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒔

Check the critical depth.

3 𝑞2
𝑑𝑐 = √
𝑔

3 (1)2
𝑑𝑐 = √
9.81

𝒅𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝒎

76 | P a g e
ACTIVITIES
❖ PRINCIPLE OF HYDRODYNAMICS
❖ ORIFICES, WEIRS AND TUBES
❖ FLUID FLOW IN PIPES
❖ FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

77 | P a g e
PRINCIPLE OF HYDRODYNAMICS
Problem # 1. The turbine shown in fig. extracts 50 J/N of water from the given pipe system. At
the summit S 480kpa is maintained. Determine the flow and the pressure at the discharge side of
the turbine considering the following losses: summit to turbine: 4times the velocity head in the
20cm pipe; turbine to reservoir 3times the velocity head in the 30 cm pipe.

Given:
𝑧1 = 46 𝑚
𝑃1 = 480 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐻𝐸 = 50𝐽/𝑁
𝐻𝐿 = 4 (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑@20 𝑐𝑚 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒) + 3(𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 @ 30𝑐𝑚 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒)
Required: Q=?
Solution:
By BEE:
𝐸1 − 𝐻𝐸 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2

𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐 + 𝑯𝑬
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

480 8𝑄2 8𝑄2

0 + 9.81 + 46 + 50 − [𝜋2 𝑔(0.2)2] = 3 [𝜋2 𝑔(0.2)2 ]

48.93 + 46 + 50 − 206.57𝑄 2 = 61.97𝑄 2 𝑥 16

𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒍𝒊
𝑸 = 𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

78 | P a g e
Problem # 2. Water is flowing through the pipe system of Fig. calculate the power of the
turbine, neglecting losses.

Solution:
By CE:
𝑄
𝑣2 =
𝐴
𝑄
𝑣2 = 𝜋(
0.30)2
4

𝑣2 = 14.147𝑄
𝑄
𝑣𝑛 =
𝐴
𝑄
𝑣𝑛 = 𝜋
(0.10)2
4
𝑣𝑛 = 127.324𝑄
Solve for H:
𝑃2
𝐻=
𝛾𝑤
𝐻 = 0, .2(13.6 )
𝐻 = 2.72 𝑚
By BEE
𝑣12 𝑃 𝑣2 𝑃
+ 𝛾1 + 𝑧1 = 2𝑔2 + 𝛾2 + 𝐻
2𝑔 𝑤 𝑤

14,147𝑄 (127.32)2
− 2.72 + 45 =
2𝑔 2𝑔
Q = 0.23m3 /s
Solve for HA:
𝑄
𝑣1 = 𝐴
0.23
𝑣1 = 𝜋
(0.20)2
4

𝑣1 = 7.32 𝑚/𝑠
(6.875)2 345 (3.034)2
+ 9.81 − 𝐻𝐴 = − 2.72
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝐻𝐴 = 39.733𝑚
Solve for P:
𝑃 = 𝑄𝛾𝑤 𝐻𝐴
𝑃 = (0.23)(9.81)(39.733)
𝑷 = 𝟖𝟗. 𝟔𝟓𝟏𝒌 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
79 | P a g e
ORIFICES, WEIRS AND TUBES
Problem # 3. The horizontal orifice of Fig. B has a diameter of 10cm with 𝐶𝑐 = 0.60, 𝐶𝑣 =
0.97. When ℎ = 2.50𝑚. What pressure, applied on the surface, will cause the jet to rise 20cm
higher than the free surface?

Given:
𝐶𝑐 = 0.60
𝐶𝑣 = 0.97
𝐷𝑂 = 10𝑐𝑚
Solution:
𝑃1
= 𝐻 (1 − 𝐶𝑣2 ) + 0.2
𝛾𝑤
𝑃1 𝑃1
= ( + 2.5) (1 − 0.972 ) + 0.2
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤
𝑃1 𝑃1
= 0.0591 ( ) + 0.4775 + 0.2
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤
𝑃1
= 0.3696
𝛾𝑤
𝑷𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟑𝒌𝑷𝒂 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

80 | P a g e
Problem # 4. A swimming pool with plan and section shown in Fig. G is filled with water. It
has two short tubes both with diameter 20cm and 𝐶 = 0.80 located at the lowest point. Find
the time needed to empty the pool through these tubes.

Given:
𝑑1 = 20 𝑐𝑚
𝑑2 = 20𝑐𝑚
𝐶 = 0.80
Solution:
For Rectangular
ℎ1
𝐴𝑑ℎ
t1 = ∫
ℎ2 2𝐶𝐴 √2𝑔ℎ

3
450𝑑ℎ
t1 = ∫
( )2
1.8 (1.8)(2)(0.8) [𝜋 0.20 ] √2𝑔ℎ
4
3
t1 = 2021.125 ∫ ℎ−1/2 𝑑ℎ
1.8

t1 = 1578.135 𝑠
Triangular:
30
1.8 15 (1.8) ℎ𝑑ℎ
t2 = ∫
𝜋(0.20)2
0 (2)(0.8) [ ] √2𝑔ℎ
4

1.8
−1⁄
t2 = 1122.847 ∫ ℎ 2
0

t2 = 1807.749𝑠

𝑇 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2

𝑇 = 1578.135 + 1807.749

𝑻 = 𝟑𝟑𝟖𝟓. 𝟖𝟖𝟓𝒔 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

81 | P a g e
 Problem # 5. A concrete spillway with permanent cress elevation at 100m controls a reservoir
4.65 hectares in area. Determine the length of the spillway if, by removing flashboards, water
can be lowered from EL. 102m to EL. 101m in 30minutes. Use 𝐶 = 1.94.

Given:
𝐴 = 4.65𝐻𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟 𝐿
𝑡 = 30 min 𝑜𝑟 1800𝑠
Solution:
𝐻2
𝑑𝑣𝑙
𝑡= ∫
𝐻1 𝑄𝑎
𝐻2
𝐴𝑑𝐻
𝑡= ∫ 3⁄
𝐻1 1.92𝐿𝐻 2
2
46500𝑑𝐻
1800 = ∫ 3⁄
1.92𝐿𝐻
1 2

46500𝑡
1800 =
1.92

𝑡 = 0.075097𝑠
2
−1⁄ −1⁄ 2
t= ∫ 𝐻 2 𝑑𝐻 = [𝐻 2]
1 1

−1 −1
2 ⁄2 1 ⁄2
0.075097𝐿 = −
−1⁄ −1⁄
2 2
𝑳 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

82 | P a g e
FLUID FLOW IN PIPES
Problem # 6. The discharge of the pipe system shown in Fig. E is 440 liters/s. Determine the
head loss from A to D. Use 𝑓 = 0.020 for all pipes.

Given:
𝐿1 = 600𝑚
𝐿2 = 500𝑚
𝐿3 = 800𝑚
𝑑1 = 30𝑐𝑚
𝑑2 = 25𝑐𝑚
𝑑3 = 40𝑐𝑚
Solution:
Solve for Q:
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
ℎ𝑓 1 = ℎ𝑓 2 = ℎ𝑓 3

𝐿1 𝑄12 𝐿2 𝑄22 𝐿3 𝑄32

= 5 =
𝐷15 𝐷2 𝐷35
600𝑄12 500𝑄22 800𝑄32
= =
(0.30)5 (0.25)5 (0.40)5
25𝑄1 16𝑄1
𝑄2 = ; 𝑄3 =
36 9
25𝑄1 16𝑄1
0.44 = 𝑄1 + +
36 9
𝑄1 = 0.1267𝑚2 /𝑠
Solve for headloss
1000(0.49)2 600(0.1267)2 1200(0.44)2
ℎ𝑓 = 0.083(0.02) [ + + ]
(0.75)5 (0.30)5 (0.60)5
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

83 | P a g e
Problem # 7. In Fig. J is shown a 15cm diameter cast-iron pipe discharging at an elevation
higher than the oil surface. If the oil has a kinematic viscosity of 𝑣 = 2.10𝑥10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠 and
specific gravity of 0.84, determine the pressure on the surface to cause a discharge of 13
liters/s in the pipe.

Given:
𝑑 = 15𝑐𝑚
𝜇 = 2.1𝑥10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑠𝑔 = 0.84
𝑄 = 13 𝐿𝑖/𝑠
Solution:
Solve for V:
𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿
2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 𝛾𝑤
4(0.013)
𝑣=
𝜋(0.5)2
4
𝑣 = 0.7356𝑚/𝑠
Solve for headloss:
32𝜇𝐿𝑣
ℎ𝑓 =
𝜌𝑔𝐷 2
32(2.1𝑥10−6 𝑚2 )(150)(0.7356)
ℎ𝑓 =
9.81(0.15)2
ℎ𝑓 = 0.03359𝑚
Then Substitute the value

𝑃1 (0.7356)2 (0.7356)2
+ 10 = + 16 + 0.03359 + (0.5)
𝛾𝑤 (0.84) 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑷 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝒌𝑷𝒂 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

84 | P a g e
Problem # 8. Determine the flow in each pipe in the network shown in Fig. N. Use the Manning
Equation with 𝑛 = 0.011.

85 | P a g e
Solution:
PIPES k Qa 𝒌𝑸𝒂𝒏 𝒌𝑸𝒂𝒏−𝟏
AB 0.776094 1500 1746211.5000 1164.1410
BC 0.776094 500 194023.5000 388.0470
GH 0.776094 500 194023.5000 388.0470
HI 0.776094 50 1940.2350 38.8047
AD 4.497555 1500 10119497.9462 6746.3320
DG 4.497555 500 1124388.6607 2248.7773
CF 4.497555 250 281097.1652 1124.3887
FI 4.497555 200 179902.1857 899.5109
BE 1.368116 1000 1368116.3900 1368.1164
EH 1.368116 450 277043.5690 615.6524
DE 2.052175 1000 2052174.5850 2052.1746
EF 2.052175 50 5130.4365 102.6087

10.69𝑛2 𝐿
𝑘= 16
𝐷 ⁄3
10.69𝑛(0.011)2 (600)
𝑘𝐴𝐵;𝐵𝐶;𝐺𝐻;𝐻𝐼 = 16⁄
(12⁄12) 3

𝑘𝐴𝐵;𝐵𝐶;𝐺𝐻;𝐻𝐼 = 0.776
10.69𝑛(0.011)2(400)
𝑘𝐴𝐷;𝐺𝐷;𝐶𝐹;𝐸𝐼 = 16⁄
(8⁄12) 3

𝑘𝐴𝐷;𝐺𝐷;𝐶𝐹;𝐸𝐼 = 4.498
10.69𝑛(0.011)2 (400)
𝑘𝐵𝐸;𝐸𝐻 = 16⁄
(10⁄12) 3

𝑘𝐵𝐸;𝐸𝐻 = 1.363
10.69𝑛(0.011)2 (600)
𝑘𝐷𝐸;𝐸𝐹 = 16⁄
(10⁄12) 3

𝑘𝐷𝐸;𝐸𝐹 = 2.052

Correction Factor
− ∑ 𝑘𝑄𝑎𝑛
𝛼=
𝑛 ∑ 𝑘𝑄𝑎𝑛−1
Loop I = AB; BE; -DE; -AD
𝛼𝐼 = 494.2392
Loop II = BC; CF; EF; -BE
𝛼𝐼𝐼 = 148.8128
Loop III = DE; -EH; -GH; -DG
𝛼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = −43.0489
Loop IV = -EF; EH; FI; -HI
𝛼𝐼𝑉 = −134.785

86 | P a g e
Correction Flow
𝐴𝐵 = 1500 + 494.239
𝐴𝐵 = 1994.239
𝐵𝐶 = 500 + 148.813
𝐵𝐶 = 648.8128
𝐺𝐻 = 500 + 43.0489
𝐺𝐻 = 543.0489
𝐻𝐼 = 50 + 135.785
𝐻𝐼 = 185.7846
𝐴𝐷 = 1500 + 494.239
𝐴𝐷 = 1005.761
𝐷𝐺 = 500 − 43.0389
𝐷𝐺 = 456.951
𝐶𝐹 = 250 + 148.813
𝐶𝐹 = 398.8128
𝐹𝐼 = 200 − 135.78
𝐹𝐼 = 64.2154
𝐵𝐸 = 1000 + 494.239 − 148.813
𝐵𝐸 = 1345.428
𝐸𝐻 = 450 + 43.0489 − 135.785
𝐸𝐻 = 357.264
𝐷𝐸 = 1000 − 494.239 − 43.0489
𝐷𝐸 = 462.7119
𝐸𝐹 = 50 + 235.785 + 148.813
𝐸𝐹 = 334.5974

87 | P a g e
FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS
Problem # 9. a.) What are the best dimensions for a rectangular channel having a flow cross
section of 10𝑚2 ?b.) What are the best dimensions of a trapezoidal channel having a flow cross
section of 14𝑚2 and sides sloping at 30 °?

Given:

𝐴 = 10𝑚2

Required: b,d

Solution:
𝑑
A = bd = 10 ; b = 2d ; R = 2

2𝑑 (𝑑) = 10

𝑏 = 2(2.24)

𝒅 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟒𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟕𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝑑 𝑑
𝒃. ) 𝑅 = ; 𝑠 = sin 30
2

1 2𝑑
𝐴= (𝑏 + 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑑 = 14
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30
2𝑑 2𝑑
14 = 𝑏𝑑 + ; 𝑝= 𝑏 +
𝑡𝑎𝑛 30 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30
𝑑 14
𝑅 = =
2 2𝑑
𝑏 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30

2𝑑 2
𝐵𝑑 + = 28
sin 30
2𝑑
𝑏 = 28 𝑑 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛 30

2𝑑 2 28
𝑏14 = ( 28 𝑑 – 4𝑑 )𝑑 + ; 𝑏= – 4( 2.48)
tan 30 2.48

2𝑑 2
2
14 = 28 − 4 𝑑 + ; 𝑏 = 1.37𝑚
tan 30

𝒅 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟖𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

88 | P a g e
Problem # 10. Water is flowing in a rectangular flume with a velocity of 5 m/s and a depth of
1.2 m. Is the flow at upper or lower stage? What is the other alternate depth of flow?

Given:

v = 5 m/s

d= 1.2 m

Solution :

Solve for Es:

𝑣2
𝐸𝑠 = 𝑑 +
2𝑔

52
𝐸𝑠 = 1.2 +
2(9.81)

𝑬𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟕 𝒎

Solve for critical depth

2
𝑑𝑐 = (𝐸𝑠)
3
2
𝑑𝑐 = (2.47)
3

𝒅 𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟖 𝒎

Solve for unit flow

𝑞 = (𝑣 )(𝑑 )

𝑞 = (5)(1.2)

𝒎𝟐
𝒒=𝟔
𝒔
Solve for depth
𝑞 = 𝑑 √2(9.81)(𝐸𝑠 − 𝑑)

6 = d √2(9.81)(2.47 − 𝑑)

𝒅 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐 𝒎 ⸗ LOWER STAGE ( 1.65 > 1.2 ) → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

89 | P a g e
Problem # 11. If the most efficient of all sections can be used, what shape and size of open
channel would you recommend to carry 10mᶾ/s with a velocity of 3m/s?

Given:

𝑄 = 10𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑣 = 3𝑚/𝑠

Solution:

Solve for A
𝐴 = 𝑄/𝑣

10
𝐴= 3

𝐴 = 3.33𝑚2

Solve for d
𝜋𝑑2
𝐴= 8

𝜋𝑑2
3.33𝑚2 = 8

𝒅 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟏𝟐𝒎 → 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

90 | P a g e
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRODYNAMICS…………………………………………………..…. 1
CONTINUOUS FLOW ……………………………………………………. 3
ENERGY AND HEAD …………………………………………………...………. 4
KINETIC ENERGY …………………………………………...………………. 3
ELEVATION ENERGY OR POTENTIAL ENERGY ………..………………………. 3
PRESSURE ENERGY ……………………………………………………. 3
BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM ……………………………………………………. 7
ENERGY EQUATION WITHOUT HEAD
LOST…………………………………………………………..…...……………………………. 7
ENERGY EQUATION WITH HEAD LOST……… ..………………………………. 7
ENERGY EQUATION WITH PUMP ………………….………………. . 8
ENERGY EQUATION WITH TURBINE OR
MOTOR….…………………………………..………………………………………………… 8
VENTURI …………………………………………………. 14
NOZZLE …………………………………………………. 14
PITOT TUBE ……………… ..………………………………. 16
ORIFICE …………………………………………………. 24
- Orifice Under Constant Head ………………………………………. 25
- Two Chambers …………………………………………………. 25
DISCHARGE UNDER FALLING HEAD …………….…………………………………. 30
WEIR …………………………………………………. 36
SUPPRESED RECTANGULAR WEIR ..…………………………………………. 37
CONTRACTED WEIR …………………………………………………. 39
FLUID FLOW IN PIPES …………………………………………………. 46
Laminar Flow …………………………………………………. 46
Turbulent Flow …………………………………………………. 47
Shearing stress in pipes …………………………………………………. 48
HEAD LOSSES IN PIPES FLOW …………………………………………………. 49
Major head loss …………………………………………………. 49
Minor head loss …………………………………………………. 51
Pipes Discharging from Reservoir …………………………………………………. 56
PIPES IN SERIES AND PARALLEL …………………………………………………. 57
Pipe Networks …………………………………………………...61
RESERVOIRS ………………………………………………… 65
Flow in Open Channel ………………………………………………….67
Hydraulic Jump ………………………………………………….74
Activities ……………………………………………………77

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