RTU Reviewer

Filipino
https://www.slideshare.net/lovebordamonte/pormal-at-di-pormal-na-salita
https://www.slideshare.net/jessicavduque/antas-ng-wika-28063693?next_slideshow=1

Mga Uri ng barayti ng wika

IDYOLEK
● pampersonal na gamit ng wika, kadalasang yunik.
● Bawat indibidwal ay may sariling istilo ng pahahayag at pananalita na naiiba sa bawat
isa.Gaya ng pagkakaroon ng sariling paggamit ng wika na nagsisilbing simbolismo o tatak
ng kanilang pagkatao.
Halimbawa:
“Magandang Gabi Bayan” ni Noli De Castro
“Ang buhay ay weather weather lang” ni Kuya Kim Atienza
DAYALEK
● nadedebelop sa rehiyong kinabibilangan.
● Salitang gamit ng mga tao ayon sa partikular na rehiyon o lalawigan na kanilang
kinabibilangan.Tayo ay may iba’t-ibang panrehiyon na kung tawagin ay wikain.
Halimbawa:
Tagalog=Bakit?
Batangas=Bakit ga?
SOSYOLEK
● Pansamantalang barayti.
● Uri ng wika na ginagamit ng isang partikular na grupo.Ang mga salitang ito ay may
kinalaman sa katayuang sosyong ekonomiko at kasarian ng indibidwal na gumagamit ng
mga naturang salita.
Halimbawa:
Repapis,ala na aku datung eh (Pare,wala na akong pera)
Oh my God! It’s so mainit naman dito. (Naku,ang init naman dito!)
ETNOLEK
● nadedevelop mula sa mga salita ng mga etnolinggwistikong grupo.
● Dahil sa pagkakaroon ng maraming pangkat etniko,sumibol ang iba’t ibang uri ng
Etnolek.
Halimbawa:
 Vakuul- tumutukoy sa mga gamit ng mga ivatan na pantakip sa kanilang ulo tuwing
panahon ng tag-init at tag-ulan.

EKOLEK
● kadalasang mula o sinasalita sa loob ng bahay.
Halimbawa:
Palikuran-Banyo at kubeta
Silid tulugan o pahingahan-Kwarto

PIDGIN
● wikang walang pormal na estruktura
● Ito ay ginagamit ng dalawang taong nag-uusap na magkaiba ang wika.Walang komong
ginagamit.Umaasa lamang sa “make-shift” na salita o mga pansamantala lamang.
Halimbawa:
Ako kita ganda babae. (Nakakita ako ng magandang babae)
Kayo bili alak akin (Kayo na ang bumili ng alak para sa akin)
.​CREOLE
● nadedebelop ang pormal na estruktura.
● Mga barayti ng wika na nadedebelop dahil sa pinaghalo-halong salita ng indibidwal,mula
sa magkaibang lugar hanggang sa ito ay naging pangunahing wika ng partikular na
lugar.Halimbawa nito ay ang Chavacano.
Halimbawa:
Mi Nombre-ang pangalan ko
Di donde lugar to?-taga saan ka?
REJISTER
● wikang espesyalisadong nagagamit sa isang partikular na domeyn.
Halimbawa:
Mga salitang Jejemon
Mga salitang binabaliktad at sa mga texts
JARGON
● Isang Ingles na salita na tumutukoy sa mga espesyal na salita o ekspresyon na ginagamit
ng isang partikular ng grupo ng mga taong propesyunal at mga espesyalista.
Halimbawa:
AWOL - Absent Without Official Leave - Ginagamit ng mga may katungkulan at/o may
mga employer
G! - Ginagamit ng mga millennial na ang ibig sabihin ay "Go!"
 Ctrl-Alt-Delete - Ginagamit ng may mga alam sa kompyuter

TOWER OF BABEL
● The ​Tower of Babel​ (Hebrew: ‫מ ְג ַדּל ָבּ ֶבל‬
ִ ​, Migdal Bavel) as told in Genesis ​11:1-9​ is an
origin​ myth meant to explain why the world's peoples speak different languages. ... God,
observing their city and ​tower​, confounds their speech so that they can no longer
understand each other, and scatters them around the world.

ENGLISH

Speech Styles
1.FROZEN STYLE

Used generally in very formal setting.

Most formal communicative style for respectful situation
Does not require any feedback from the audience
Usually uses long sentences with good grammar and vocabulary
The use of language is fixed and relatively static
Examples:
national pledge, anthem, school creeds,
marriage ceremonies, speech for a state ceremo

2.FORMAL STYLE

Used in speaking to medium to large groups

May also be used in single hearers- strangers, older persons, professional
Speaker must frame whole sentences ahead before they are delivered
Avoids using slang terminologies
language is comparatively rigid and has a set, agreed upon vocabulary that is well documented;
is often of a standard variety.
Examples:
meetings, speeches, school lessons, court, a corporate meeting, at a swearing in ceremony, in
an interview or in a classroom

3. CONSULTATIVE STYLE
Used in semi-formal communication
Happens in two-way participation
Most operational among other styles
Speaker does not usually plan what he wants to say
Sentences end to be shorter and spontaneous
Examples:
regular conversation at schools, companies, group discussion,
teacher-student, doctor-patient, expert-apprentice

4. CASUAL STYLE

Language used between friends

Often very relaxed and focused on just getting the information out
Slangs are quite often used in these instances
This style is used in informal situations and language
Relationship between speaker and hearer is closed.
Examples:
casual conversations with friends, family members, chats, phone calls and messages

5. INTIMATE STYLE

Completely private language used within family of very close friends or group
Uses personal language codes
Grammar is unnecessary
Does not need complete language
Certain terms of endearment, slangs or expressions whose meaning is shared with a small
subset of persons to person

Purpose of Speech
The general purpose of any speech will be either to ​Inform​; Motivate/​Persuade​; or ​Entertain
your audience. As soon as you know the general purpose of your speech you can develop your
Specific Purpose Statement (What the speaker will accomplish). Your Specific Purpose
Statement is used to develop your speech.

Correct term for ​SWP

Kinesics-​Kinesics is the interpretation of body motion communication such as facial expressions

and gestures, nonverbal behavior related to movement of any part of the body or the body as a
whole. The equivalent popular culture term is body language, a term Ray Birdwhistell,
considered the founder of this area of study,neither used nor liked (on the grounds that what
can be conveyed with the body does not meet the linguist's definition of language).

PHILO
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model
of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological, safety, love and
belonging, esteem and self-actualization. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied
before individuals can attend to needs higher up.

The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes:

Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some
needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be
the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what
motivates us, and so on.

1. ​Physiological needs​ - these are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food,
drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.
If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered
physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these
needs are met.

2. ​Safety needs​ - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.

3. ​Love and belongingness needs​ - after physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the
third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. The need for
interpersonal relationships motivates behavior
Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and
love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
4. ​Esteem needs​ - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity,
achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others
(e.g., status, prestige).
Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and
adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.
5. ​Self-actualization needs​ - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal
growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of
becoming”(Maslow, 1987, p. 64).

Definition
Self-esteem​-confidence in one's own worth or abilities; self-respect.
Self Concept-​an idea of the self constructed from the beliefs one holds about oneself and the
responses of others​.
Self Confidence​-a feeling of trust in one's abilities, qualities, and judgment.

Science
Nuclear fission
● is a reaction wherein a heavy nucleus is bombarded by neutrons and thus becomes
unstable, which causes it to decompose into two nuclei with equivalent size and
magnitude, with a great detachment of energy and the emission of two or three
neutrons.
Nuclear Fussion
● It is a nuclear process, where energy is produced by smashing together light atoms. It is
the opposite reaction to fission, where heavy isotopes are split apart. Fusion is the
process by which the sun and other stars generate light and heat.
Convergence Theory
 ● states that as nations transition from the beginning stages of industrialization to highly
industrialized nations, the same societal patterns will emerge, eventually creating a
global culture.
Convergent Plate
● A tectonic boundary where two plates are moving toward each other. If the two plates
are of equal density, they usually push up against each other, forming a mountain chain.
If they are of unequal density, one plate usually sinks beneath the other in a subduction
zone.
Who discovered the the table of elements in 1869?
● In 1869 Russian chemist ​Dimitri Mendeleev​ started the development of the periodic
table, arranging chemical elements by atomic mass. He predicted the discovery of other
elements, and left spaces open in his periodic table for them.

Mohs scale of mineral hardness

Mohs hardness Mineral Chemical formula Absolute hardness Talc Mg​3​Si​4​O​10​(OH)​2​ 1​ ​2 Gypsum
CaSO​4​·2H​2​O 3​ ​3 Calcite CaCO​3​ 9​ ​4 Fluorite CaF​2​ 21​ ​5 Apatite Ca​5​(PO​4​)​3​(OH​−​,Cl​−​,F​−​) 48​ ​6
Orthoclase feldspar KAlSi​3​O​8​ 72​ ​7 Quartz SiO​2​ 100​ ​8 Topaz Al​2​SiO​4​(OH​−​,F​−​)​2​ 200​ ​9 Corundum
Al​2​O​3​ 400​ ​10 Diamond C 1500

Hermaprodite​-In biology, a ​hermaphrodite​ (/hɜːrˈmæfrədaɪt/) is an organism that has

complete or partial reproductive organs and produces gametes normally associated with both
male and female sexes. Many taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrates) do not have
separate sexes.
Earliest writing system of Sumerians ​- cuneiform
Step pyramid of Sumerians ​- ziggurat

Layers of earth
Crust
● The crust is everything we can see and study directly. The thinnest layer of the Earth,
the crust still measures about 40 km on average, ranging from 5–70 km (~3–44 miles) in
depth. But at the scale of the planet, that’s less than the skin of an apple.
● There are two types of crust: continental and oceanic crust. Oceanic crust can be found
at the bottom of the oceans or below the continental crust; it is generally harder and
deeper, consisting of denser rocks like basalt, while continental crust contains
granite-type rocks and sediments. The continental crust thicker on land.
Mantle
● The mantle extends down 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of Earth. It makes up
about 84% of Earth’s volume. Everything we know about the mantle we know indirectly,
 as no human study managed to go beyond the crust. Most of the things we know about
the mantle we know from seismologic studies (more on that later).
● The mantle is also divided into several layers, based on seismologic properties. The
upper mantle extends from where the crust ends to about 670 km. Even though this
area is regarded as viscous, you can also consider it as formed from rock – a rock called
peridotite to be more precise. Below that, the lower mantle extends from 670 to almost
2900 kilometers below the surface.It’s basically accepted by now that the mantle is not
in a steady state, but rather in a state of constant motion. There is a general convective
circulation, with hot material upwelling towards the surface and cooler material going
deeper. It is generally thought that this convection actually directs the circulation of the
plate tectonics in the crust.

Core
The inner core
● The temperatures and pressures of the inner core are absolutely extreme, at
approximately 5,400 °C (9,800 °F) and 330 to 360 gigapascals (3,300,000 to 3,600,000
atm).
● It’s generally believed that the inner core is growing very slowly – as the core cools
down, more of the outer core solidifies and becomes a part of the inner core. The
cooling rate is very low thought, at about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years.
However, even this slow growth is thought to have a significant impact in the generation
of Earth’s magnetic field by dynamo action in the liquid outer core.
The outer core
● The outer core is a low viscosity fluid (about ten times the viscosity of liquid metals at
the surface) – “liquid” is a rather improper term. Because it has a very low viscosity, it is
easily deformed and malleable. It is the site of violent convection. It is also thought to
suffer very violent convection currents – hey, and guess what? The churning of the outer
core and its relative movement is responsible for the Earth’s magnetic field.
● The hottest part of the outer core is actually hotter than the inner core; temperatures
can reach 6,000° Celsius (10,800° Fahrenheit)—as hot as the surface of the sun.
How old is the universe?
● 13.8 billion years
Small Unit of Matter
● An atom is the smallest unit of matter. It is the smallest component of an element that
still has the properties of that element.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 ● Dalton's atomic theory proposed that all matter was composed of atoms, indivisible and
indestructible building blocks. While all atoms of an element were identical, different
elements had atoms of differing size and mass.
Which planet is gigantic?
● Jupiter
Which planet is not a gas gigantic?
● A gas giant is a large planet composed mostly of gases, such as hydrogen and helium,
with a relatively small ​rocky​ core. The gas giants of our solar system are ​Jupiter​, ​Saturn​,
Uranus​ and ​Neptune​.
Light rays

What is a light ray?

The basic element in geometrical optics is the light ray, a hypothetical construct that indicates
the direction of the propagation of light at any point in space. The origin of this concept dates
back to early speculations regarding the nature of light. By the 17th century the Pythagorean
notion of visual rays had long been abandoned, but the observation that light travels in straight
lines led naturally to the development of the ray concept. It is easy to imagine representing a
narrow beam of light by a collection of parallel arrows—a bundle of rays. As the beam of light
moves from one medium to another, reflects off surfaces, disperses, or comes to a focus, the
bundle of rays traces the beam’s progress in a simple geometrical manner.
Geometrical optics consists of a set of rules that determine the paths followed by light rays. In
any uniform medium the rays travel in straight lines. The light emitted by a small localized
source is represented by a collection of rays pointing radially outward from an idealized “point
source.” A collection of parallel rays is used to represent light flowing with uniform intensity
through space; examples include the light from a distant star and the light from a laser. The
formation of a sharp shadow when an object is illuminated by a parallel beam of light is easily
explained by tracing the paths of the rays that are not blocked by the object.

Reflection,Refraction and Diffraction

Reflection of Waves
If a linear object attached to an oscillator bobs back and forth within the water, it becomes a
source of ​straight​ ​waves​. These straight waves have alternating crests and troughs. As viewed
on the sheet of paper below the tank, the crests are the dark lines stretching across the paper
and the troughs are the bright lines. These waves will travel through the water until they
encounter an obstacle - such as the wall of the tank or an object placed within the water. The
diagram below depicts a series of straight waves approaching a long barrier extending at an
angle across the tank of water. The direction that these wavefronts (straight-line crests) are
traveling through the water is represented by the blue arrow. The blue arrow is called a ​ray​ and
is drawn perpendicular to the wavefronts. Upon reaching the barrier placed within the water,
these waves bounce off the water and head in a different direction. The diagram below shows
the reflected wavefronts and the reflected ray. Regardless of the angle at which the wavefronts
approach the barrier, one general law of reflection holds true: the waves will always reflect in
such a way that the angle at which they approach the barrier equals the angle at which they
reflect off the barrier. This is known as the ​law of reflection​.

The discussion above pertains to the reflection of waves off of straight surfaces. But what if the
surface is curved, perhaps in the shape of a parabola? What generalizations can be made for
the reflection of water waves off parabolic surfaces? Suppose that a rubber tube having the
shape of a parabola is placed within the water. The diagram below depicts such a parabolic
barrier in the ripple tank. Several wavefronts are approaching the barrier; the ray is drawn for
these wavefronts. Upon reflection off the parabolic barrier, the water waves will change
direction and head towards a point. This is depicted in the diagram below. It is as though all the
energy being carried by the water waves is converged at a single point - the point is known as
the focal point. After passing through the focal point, the waves spread out through the water.

Ripple Tank
Refraction of Waves
Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier. ​Refraction​ of
waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another.
Refraction, or the bending of the path of the waves, is accompanied by a change in speed and
wavelength of the waves. It was mentioned that the speed of a wave is dependent upon the
properties of the medium through which the waves travel. So if the medium (and its properties)
is changed, the speed of the waves is changed. The most significant property of water that
would affect the speed of waves traveling on its surface is the depth of the water. Water waves
travel fastest when the medium is the deepest. Thus, if water waves are passing from deep
water into shallow water, they will slow down. This decrease in speed will also be accompanied
by a decrease in wavelength. So as water waves are transmitted from deep water into shallow
water, the speed decreases, the wavelength decreases, and the direction changes.
This boundary behavior of water waves can be observed in a ripple tank if the tank is
partitioned into a deep and a shallow section. If a pane of glass is placed in the bottom of the
tank, one part of the tank will be deep and the other part of the tank will be shallow. Waves
traveling from the deep end to the shallow end can be seen to refract (i.e., bend), decrease
wavelength (the wavefronts get closer together), and slow down (they take a longer time to
travel the same distance). When traveling from deep water to shallow water, the waves are
seen to bend in such a manner that they seem to be traveling more perpendicular to the
surface. If traveling from shallow water to deep water, the waves bend in the opposite
direction.
Diffraction of Waves

Diffraction of water waves is observed in a harbor as Reflection involves a change in direction of

waves when they bounce off a barrier; refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of
waves as they pass from one medium to another; and ​diffraction​ involves a change in direction
of waves as they pass through an opening or around a barrier in their path. Water waves have
the ability to travel around corners, around obstacles and through openings. This ability is most
obvious for water waves with longer wavelengths. Diffraction can be demonstrated by placing
small barriers and obstacles in a ripple tank and observing the path of the water waves as they
encounter the obstacles. The waves are seen to pass around the barrier into the regions behind
it; subsequently the water behind the barrier is disturbed. The amount of diffraction (the
sharpness of the bending) increases with increasing wavelength and decreases with decreasing
wavelength. In fact, when the wavelength of the waves is smaller than the obstacle, no
noticeable diffraction occurs.
 waves bend around small boats and are found to disturb the water behind them. The same
waves however are unable to diffract around larger boats since their wavelength is smaller than
the boat. Diffraction of sound waves is commonly observed; we notice sound diffracting around
corners, allowing us to hear others who are speaking to us from adjacent rooms. Many
forest-dwelling birds take advantage of the diffractive ability of long-wavelength sound waves.
Owls for instance are able to communicate across long distances due to the fact that their
long-wavelength ​hoots​ are able to diffract around forest trees and carry farther than the
short-wavelength ​tweets​ of songbirds. Diffraction is observed of light waves but only when the
waves encounter obstacles with extremely small wavelengths (such as particles suspended in
our atmosphere).

Reflection​, ​refraction​ and ​diffraction​ are all boundary behaviors of waves associated with the
bending of the path of a wave. The bending of the path is an observable behavior when the
medium is a two- or three-dimensional medium. Reflection occurs when there is a bouncing off
of a barrier. Reflection of waves off straight barriers follows the law of reflection. Reflection of
waves off parabolic barriers results in the convergence of the waves at a focal point. Refraction
is the change in direction of waves that occurs when waves travel from one medium to another.
Refraction is always accompanied by a wavelength and speed change. Diffraction is the bending
of waves around obstacles and openings. The amount of diffraction increases with increasing
wavelength.

Relativity Theory
● Albert Einstein, in his theory of special relativity, determined that the laws of physics are
the same for all non-accelerating observers, and he showed that the speed of light
within a vacuum is the same no matter the speed at which an observer travels.
Parts of table of elements
3 Main Parts of the Periodic Table
The periodic table lists the chemical elements in order of increasing atomic number, which is
the number of protons in each atom of an element. The shape of the table and way the
elements are arranged has significance.
Each of the elements can be assigned to one of three broad categories of elements:

Metals
With the exception of hydrogen, the elements on the left-hand side of the periodic table are
metals. Actually, hydrogen acts as a metal, too, in its solid state, but the element is a gas at
ordinary temperatures and pressures and does not display metallic character under these
conditions. Metal properties include:

● metallic luster
● high electrical and thermal conductivity
● usual hard solids (mercury is liquid)
● usually ductile (capable of being drawn into a wire) and malleable (capable of being
hammered into thin sheets)
● most have high melting points
● readily lose electrons (low electron affinity)
● low ionization energies
The two rows of elements below the body of the periodic table are metals. Specifically, they are
a collection of transition metals that are called​ ​the lanthanides and actinides​ or the rare earth
metals. These elements are located below the table because there wasn't a practical way to
insert them into the transition metal section without making the table look strange.

Metalloids (or Semimetals)

There is a zig-zag line toward the right side of the periodic table that acts as a sort of border
between metals and nonmetals. Elements on either side of this line exhibit some properties of
metals and some of the nonmetals. These elements are the​ ​metalloids​, also called semimetals.
Metalloids have variable properties, but often:

● metalloids have multiple forms or allotropes

● can be made to conduct electricity under special conditions (semiconductors)

Nonmetals
The elements on the right-hand side of the periodic table are the​ ​nonmetals​. Nonmetals
properties are:

● usually poor conductors of heat and electricity

● often liquids or gases at room temperature and pressure
● lack metallic luster
● readily gain electrons (high electron affinity)
● high ionization energy

Periods and Groups in the Periodic Table

The arrangement of the periodic table organizes elements with related properties. Two general
categories are groups and periods:
Element Groups
Groups are the columns of the table. Atoms of elements within a group have the same number
of valence electrons. These elements share many similar properties and tend to act the same
way as each other in chemical reactions.
Element Periods
The rows in the periodic table are called periods. Atoms of these elements all share the same
highest electron energy level.

Chemical Bonding To Form Compounds

You can use the organization of elements in the periodic table to predict how elements will
form bonds with each other to form compounds.
Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonds form between atoms with very different electronegativity values. Ionic compounds
form crystal lattices containing positively charged cation and negatively-charged anions. Ionic
bonds form between metals and nonmetals. Because ions are fixed in place in a lattice, ionic
solids don't conduct electricity. However, the charged particles move freely when ionic
compounds are dissolved in water, forming conductive electrolytes.
Covalent Bonds
Atoms share electrons in covalent bonds. This type of bond forms between nonmetal atoms.
Remember hydrogen is also considered a nonmetal, so its compounds formed with other
nonmetals have covalent bonds.
Metallic Bonds
Metals also bond to other metals to share valence electrons in what becomes an electron sea
surrounding all the affected atoms. Atoms of different metals form alloys, which have distinct
properties from their component elements. Because the electrons can move freely, metals
readily conduct electricity.

What is the softest mineral?

● Talc Mg​3​Si​4​O​10​(OH)​2

Laws of Motion
Sir Isaac Newton's​ three laws of motion describe the motion of massive bodies and how they
interact. While Newton's laws may seem obvious to us today, more than three centuries ago
they were considered revolutionary.
The ​First Law of Motion ​states, "A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion
will remain in motion unless it is acted upon by an external force." This simply means that
things cannot start, stop, or change direction all by themselves. It takes some force acting on
them from the outside to cause such a change. This property of massive bodies to resist
changes in their state of motion is sometimes called ​inertia.​
The​ Second Law of Motion​ describes what happens to a massive body when it is acted
upon by an external force. It states, "The force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that
object times its acceleration." This is written in mathematical form as ​F​ = ​m​a​, where ​F​ is force,
m​ is mass, and ​a​ is acceleration. The bold letters indicate that force and acceleration are ​vector
quantities, which means they have both magnitude and direction. The force can be a single
force, or it can be the vector sum of more than one force, which is the net force after all the
forces are combined.
When a constant force acts on a massive body, it causes it to accelerate, i.e., to change
its velocity, at a constant rate. In the simplest case, a force applied to an object at rest causes it
to accelerate in the direction of the force. However, if the object is already in motion, or if this
situation is viewed from a moving reference frame, that body might appear to speed up, slow
down, or change direction depending on the direction of the force and the directions that the
object and reference frame are moving relative to each other.
The T​hird Law of Motion​ states, "For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction." This law describes what happens to a body when it exerts a force on another body.
Forces always occur in pairs, so when one body pushes against another, the second body
pushes back just as hard. For example, when you push a cart, the cart pushes back against you;
when you pull on a rope, the rope pulls back against you; when gravity pulls you down against
the ground, the ground pushes up against your feet; and when a rocket ignites its fuel behind it,
the expanding exhaust gas pushes on the rocket causing it to accelerate.
If one object is much, much more massive than the other, particularly in the case of the
first object being anchored to the Earth, virtually all of the acceleration is imparted to the
second object, and the acceleration of the first object can be safely ignored. For instance, if you
were to throw a baseball to the west, you would not have to consider that you actually caused
the rotation of the Earth to speed up ever so slightly while the ball was in the air. However, if
you were standing on roller skates, and you threw a bowling ball forward, you would start
moving backward at a noticeable speed.

Electron,protons and neutrons

● Atoms are made of extremely tiny particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons.
● Protons and neutrons are in the center of the atom, making up the nucleus.
● Electrons surround the nucleus.
● Protons have a positive charge.
● Electrons have a negative charge.
● The charge on the proton and electron are exactly the same size but opposite.
● Neutrons have no charge.
● Since opposite charges attract, protons and electrons attract each other.
 What are the three different tiny particles that make up an atom?

Protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Which of these is in the center of the atom?

Protons and neutrons are in the center (nucleus) of the atom. You may want to mention
that hydrogen is the only atom that usually has no neutrons. The nucleus of most
hydrogen atoms is composed of just 1 proton. A small percentage of hydrogen atoms
have 1 or even 2 neutrons. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of
neutrons are called isotopes. These will be discussed in Lesson 2.

What zooms around the nucleus of an atom?

Electrons

Which one has a positive charge, a negative charge, and no charge?

Proton—positive; electron—negative; neutron—no charge. The charge on the proton

and electron are exactly the same size but opposite. The same number of protons and
electrons exactly cancel one another in a neutral atom.

Electrons
Electrons are one of three main types of particles that make up atoms. The other two types are
protons and neutrons. Unlike protons and neutrons, which consist of smaller, simpler particles,
electrons are fundamental particles that do not consist of smaller particles. They are a type of
fundamental particles called leptons. All leptons have an electric charge of ​−1
or ​0​. Electrons are extremely small. The mass of an electron is only about 1/2000 the mass of a
proton or neutron, so electrons contribute virtually nothing to the total mass of an atom.
Electrons have an electric charge of ​−1​, which is equal but opposite to the charge of a proton,
which is ​+1
. All atoms have the same number of electrons as protons, so the positive and negative charges
"cancel out", making atoms electrically neutral.
Unlike protons and neutrons, which are located inside the nucleus at the center of the atom,
electrons are found outside the nucleus. Because opposite electric charges attract each other,
negative electrons are attracted to the positive nucleus. This force of attraction keeps electrons
constantly moving through the otherwise empty space around the nucleus. The figure below is
a common way to represent the structure of an atom. It shows the electron as a particle
orbiting the nucleus, similar to the way that planets orbit the sun. This is however, an incorrect
perspective, as electrons are more complicated as quantum mechanics demonstrate.

Electrons are much smaller than protons or neutrons. If an electrons were the mass of a penny,
a proton or a neutrons would have the mass of a large bowling ball!

Protons
A proton is one of three main particles that make up the atom. The other two particles are the
neutron and electron. Protons are found in the nucleus of the atom. This is a tiny, dense region
at the center of the atom. Protons have a positive electrical charge of one ​(+1)
and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit ​(amu)​, which is about ​1.67×10​−27​ kilograms. Together with
neutrons, they make up virtually all of the mass of an atom.

Neutrons
Atoms of all elements - except for most atoms of hydrogen - have neutrons in their nucleus.
Unlike protons and electrons, which are electrically charged, neutrons have no charge - they are
electrically neutral. That's why the neutrons in the diagram above are labeled ​n​0
. The zero stands for "zero charge". The mass of a neutron is slightly greater than the mass of a
proton, which is 1 atomic mass unit ​(amu)​. (An atomic mass unit equals about ​1.67×10​−27
kilograms.) A neutron also has about the same diameter as a proton, or ​1.7×10​17
meters.
As you might have already guessed from its name, the neutron is neutral. In other words, it has
no charge whatsoever, and is therefore neither attracted to nor repelled from other objects.
Neutrons are in every atom (with one exception), and they're bound together with other
neutrons and protons in the atomic nucleus.
Before we move on, we must discuss how the different types of subatomic particles interact
with each other. When it comes to neutrons, the answer is obvious. Since neutrons are neither
attracted to nor repelled from objects, they don't really interact with protons or electrons
(beyond being bound into the nucleus with the protons).
Even though electrons, protons, and neutrons are all types of subatomic particles, they are not
all the same size. When you compare the masses of electrons, protons, and neutrons, what you
find is that electrons have an extremely small mass, compared to either protons or neutrons.
On the other hand, the masses of protons and neutrons are fairly similar, although technically,
the mass of a neutron is slightly larger than the mass of a proton. Because protons and
neutrons are so much more massive than electrons, almost all of the mass of any atom comes
from the nucleus, which contains all of the neutrons and protons.
Table 4.4.1 gives the properties and locations of electrons, protons, and neutrons. The second column

shows the masses of the three subatomic particles in "atomic mass units." An ​atomic mass unit (amu)​ is

defined as one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Atomic mass units (amu) are useful, because, as you

can see, the mass of a proton and the mass of a neutron are almost exactly 1.0

in this unit system.

Negative and positive charges of equal magnitude cancel each other out. This means that the negative

charge on an electron perfectly balances the positive charge on the proton. In other words, a neutral atom

must have exactly one electron for every proton. If a neutral atom has 1 proton, it must have 1 electron. If

a neutral atom has 2 protons, it must have 2 electrons. If a neutral atom has 10 protons, it must have 10

electrons. You get the idea. In order to be neutral, an atom must have the same number of electrons and

protons​.

Summary

● Electrons are a type of subatomic particle with a negative charge.

● Protons are a type of subatomic particle with a positive charge. Protons are bound
together in an atom's nucleus as a result of the strong nuclear force.
● Neutrons are a type of subatomic particle with no charge (they're neutral). Like protons,
neutrons are bound into the atom's nucleus as a result of the strong nuclear force.
 ● Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, but they are both much more
massive than electrons (approximately 2,000 times as massive as an electron).
● The positive charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the negative charge on an
electron. As a result, a neutral atom must have an equal number of protons and
electrons.
● The atomic mass unit (amu) is a unit of mass equal to one-twelfth the mass of a
carbon-12 atom

Hubble's theory

● The theory used to determine these very great distances in the universe is based on the
discovery by Edwin Hubble that the universe is expanding. ... So essentially, the Hubble
constant reflects the rate at which the universe is expanding.
● Edwin​ Powell ​Hubble​ (November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953) was an American
astronomer. He played a crucial role in establishing the fields of extragalactic astronomy
and observational cosmology and is regarded as one of the most important astronomers
of all time. ... ​Hubble's​ Law implies that the universe is expanding.
When Albert Einstein was formulating his ground-breaking theory of gravity in the early 20th
Century, at a time when astronomers only really knew of the existence of our own galaxy, he
necessarily used the simplifying assumption that the universe has the same gross properties in
all parts, and that it looks roughly the same in every direction wherever in the universe an
observer happens to be located. Like Sir Isaac Newton two hundred years before him, he
assumed an infinite, static or “steady state” universe, with its stars suspended essentially
motionless in a vast void.
However, when Einstein tried to apply his General Theory of Relativity to the universe as a
whole, he realized that space-time as a whole must be warped and curved back on itself, which
in itself would cause matter to move, shrinking uncontrollably under its own gravity. Thus, as
early as 1917, Einstein and others realized that the equations of general relativity did not
describe a static universe. However, he never quite came to terms with the idea of a dynamic,
finite universe, and so he posited a mysterious counteracting force of cosmic repulsion (which
he called the “cosmological constant”) in order to maintain a stable, static universe. Adding
additional and arbitrary terms to a theory is not something that scientists do lightly, and many
people argued that it was an artificial and arbitrary construct and at best a stop-gap solution.As
we have noted, up until that time, the assumption of a static universe had always been taken
for granted. To put things into perspective, for most of history (see the section on Cosmological
Theories Through History), it had been taken for granted that the static earth was the center of
the entire universe, as Aristotle and Ptolemy had described. It was only in the mid-16th Century
that Nicolaus Copernicus showed that we were not the center of the universe at all (or even of
the Solar System for that matter!). It was as late as the beginning of the 20th Century that
Jacobus Kapteyn’s observations first suggested that the Sun was at the center of a spinning
galaxy of stars making up the Milky Way. Then, in 1917, humanity suffered a further blow to its
pride when Curtis Shapely revealed that we were not even the center of the galaxy, merely part
of some unremarkable suburb of the Milky Way (although it was still assumed that the Milky
Way was all there was).
Some years later, in 1925, the American astronomer Edwin Hubble stunned the scientific
community by demonstrating that there was more to the universe than just our Milky Way
galaxy and that there were, in fact, many separate islands of stars - thousands, perhaps millions
of them, and many of them huge distances away from our own.
Then, in 1929, Hubble announced a further dramatic discovery which completely turned
astronomy on its ear. With the benefit of improved telescopes, Hubble started to notice that
the light coming from these galaxies was shifted a little towards the red end of the spectrum
due to the Doppler effect (known as “redshift”), which indicated that the galaxies were moving
away from us. After a detailed analysis of the redshifts of a special class of stars called Cepheids
(which have specific properties making them useful as “standard candles” or distance markers),
Hubble concluded that the galaxies and clusters of galaxies were in fact flying apart from each
other at great speed, and that the universe was therefore definitively growing in size. In effect,
all the galaxies we see are slightly red in color due to redshift.
Hubble showed that, in our expanding universe, every galaxy is rushing away from us with a
speed which is in direct proportion to its distance, known as Hubble’s Law, so that a galaxy that
is twice as far away as another is receding twice as fast, one ten times as far away if receding
ten times as fast, etc. The law is usually stated as ​v = H0​ ​D​, where ​v​ is the velocity of recession, ​D
is the distance of the galaxy from the observer and ​H​0​ is the Hubble constant which links them.
The exact value of the Hubble constant itself has long been the subject of much controversy:
Hubble's initial estimates were of the order of approximately 500 kilometers per second per
megaparsec (equivalent to about 160 km/sec/million light years); the most recent best
estimates, with the benefit of the Hubble Telescope and the WMAP probe, is around 72
kilometers per second per megaparsec. (It should perhaps be pointed out that the Hubble
constant is technically a parameter, not a constant, because it will actually change over long
periods of time.)This expansion, usually referred to as the "metric expansion" of space, is a
“broad-brush effect” in that individual galaxies themselves are not expanding, but the clusters
of galaxies into which the matter of the universe has become divided are becoming more
widely separated and more thinly spread throughout space. Thus, the universe is not expanding
"outwards" into pre-existing space; space itself is expanding, defined by the relative separation
of parts of the universe. Returning to the image of the expanding universe as a balloon inflating,
if tiny dots are painted on the ballon to represent galaxies, then as the balloon expands so the
distance between the dots increases, and the further apart the dots the faster they move apart.
Another analogy often used (and maybe even clearer) is that of a raisin cake expanding as it
bakes, so that the raisins (galaxies) gradually all move away from each other.
In such an expansion, then, the universe continues to look more or less the same from every
galaxy, so the fact that we see all the galaxies receding from us does not necessarily mean that
we are at the very center of the universe: observers in all other galaxies would also see all the
other galaxies flying away according to the same law, and the pattern of galactic dispersal
would appear very much the same from anywhere in the cosmos.
The old model of a static universe, which had served since Sir Isaac Newton, was thus proved to
be incontrovertibly false, but Hubble’s discovery did more than just show that the universe was
changing over time. If the galaxies were flying apart, then clearly, at some earlier time, the
universe was smaller than at present. Following back logically, like a movie played in reverse, it
must ultimately have had some beginning when it was very tiny indeed, an idea which gave rise
to the theory of the Big Bang. Although now almost universally accepted, this theory of the
beginnings of the universe was not immediately welcomed by everyone, and several strands of
corroborating evidence were needed, as we will see in the following sections.
In the face of Hubble’s evidence, Einstein was also forced to abandon his idea of a force of
cosmic repulsion, calling it the “biggest blunder” he had ever made. But others, notably the
Russian physicist Alexander Friedmann and the Belgian priest and physicist Georges Lemaître,
had already used Einstein’s own theory of proof that the universe was in fact in motion, either
contracting or expanding. It is now recognized that Einstein’s description of gravity as the
curvature of space-time in his General Theory of Relativity was actually one of the first
indications of a universe which had grown out of much humbler beginnings.
And, as we will see later, Einstein’s “biggest blunder” may actually turn out to have been one of
his most prescient predictions.

Definition of Crater
● the cup-shaped depression or cavity on the surface of the earth or other heavenly body
marking the orifice of a volcano.
● Also called​ ​impact crater​, meteorite crater. (on the surface of the earth, moon, etc.) a
bowl-shaped depression with a raised rim, formed by the impact of a meteoroid.
Compare​ ​astrobleme​.
● Astronomy . (on the surface of the moon) a circular or almost circular area having a
depressed floor, almost always containing a central mountain and usually completely
enclosed by walls that are often higher than those of a walled plain; ring formation; ring.
Compare​ ​walled plain​.
How to tell if a flower is complete or incomplete?
● A flower that is missing male or female parts is an imper- fect flower. Plants may have
flowers that are complete or incomplete. If a flower has sepals, petals, pis- tils, and
stamens, it is a complete flower.

● A wave ​is a periodic disturbance that moves away from a source and
carries energy with it.
● How can you measure the wavelength of a wave?
1. The wavelength of a wave refers to the distance between any successive identical parts of
the wave. For instance, the distance from one crest to the next is equal to one full wavelength.
In the following illustration, this is given by the interval B to F. Identify the other intervals that
represent one full wavelength.
● How do you measure the frequency of a wave?
1. The frequency of a series of periodic waves is the number of waves
that pass a particular point every one second.
The different examples of mechanical waves are the vibration of a string, the surface wave
generated on the surface of a liquid and solid, tsunami waves, ultrasounds, earthquake
P-waves, oscillations in spring, and waves in slink etc.
There are two types of mechanical waves:

1. Transverse Wave
2. Longitudinal Wave

Transverse Waves
This is a wave wherein the particles of the medium move in the direction that is
perpendicular to that of the wave. For example consider this: when a rope is laid out
horizontally in a room and a motion is introduced on the left end of the rope, then the
energy that moves in the rope will move from left to right causing a simultaneous
upward and downward movement in the rope. This type of wave created is a transverse
wave. Characteristic of a transverse wave is that the motion of the particle is
perpendicular to the motion of the wave.

Longitudinal Wave

As the name suggests, a longitudinal wave is the one that moves parallel to the direction
of waves of particles in motion. That is a straight parallel line above the particle. For
instance in the same rope kept horizontally, if one introduces a pulse on the left and the
right end, the energy flows from both ends trapping the movements in a parallel
motion. These are longitudinal waves.

A better example of understanding a longitudinal wave will be by using a tuning fork.

Take a tuning fork and hit it against a hollow pipe. The air inside this pipe, which is the
medium for the wave, will move in a parallel motion. Sound waves normally travel in
longitudinal waves.

Generally, waves moving through a solid medium can either be longitudinal or

transverse but the waves which travel through fluid mediums such as liquid or gas are
always longitudinal waves. For transverse waves to occur, we will require a very
concrete or rigid medium.

Example

When the energy is transferred in a transverse wave, one particle moves and is
supposed to exert a pull on the nearest particles. This is key for transverse waves, but
where a medium is not rigid enough, such as liquid or gas, the particles will simply slide
past one another. This is why, the disturbances caused in the ocean is usually
longitudinal waves, but the ones caused during an earthquake can be transverse and
longitudinal waves, depending upon where the epicenter of the event falls. As
seismologists started studying more on waves, they realized that longitudinal waves can
travel to the core of the earth, perhaps this is why the core of the earth has molten ore.

Electromagnetic Waves
Under electromagnetic waves, the presence of medium isn’t actually necessary for propagation.
In this types of waves, the periodic changes occur in electric and magnetic fields; therefore, it is
termed as Electromagnetic Wave.

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves:

● In a vacuum, electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of light.

● These waves can be polarized.
● They tend to have a transverse nature.
● There is no need for a medium to propagate E.M waves.
● Momentum is present in E.M waves.

Examples: Light waves, Radio waves, thermal radiation etc.

Matter Waves
Matter waves are also termed as De Broglie waves. This is because they depict a similar wave
nature of all matter, that is, that forms atoms, our body etc. There are different equations
termed as De Broglie equations that basically indicate the dual nature of matter. It is vital to
remember that, the frequency of such waves directly relies on their kinetic energy.
Learn about​ ​Sound Waves here​.

Solved Question For You

Q. What are the various types of E.M waves?
Ans: The EM spectrum comprises of different types of waves having varied wavelength and
frequencies. Do keep a note that, the wavelength, as well as frequency of the wave, tend to be
inversely proportional in context to one another. Below mentioned are the different types of
E.M waves present in the spectrum. Micro Waves, Radio Waves, Infrared Rays, Ultraviolet,
Visible Light, Gamma Rays and X rays, are the prime E.M wave varieties.
Math

● Mean,median and mode

● Qualitative and Quantitative

● Functions
Given ​f ​(​x)​ = 3​x​ + 2 and ​g(​ ​x​) = 4 – 5​x,​ find (​f​ + ​g​)(​x​), (​f​ – ​g)​ (​x​), (​f​ × ​g)​ (​x​), and (​f​ / ​g​)(​x​).
To find the answers, all I have to do is apply the operations (plus, minus, times, and divide)
that they tell me to, in the order that they tell me to.
(​f​ + ​g)​ (​x)​ = ​f (​ ​x​) + ​g(​ ​x​)
= [3​x​ + 2] + [4 – 5​x​]
= 3​x​ + 2 + 4 – 5​x
= 3​x​ – 5​x​ + 2 + 4
= –2​x​ + 6
(​f​ – ​g)​ (​x)​ = ​f (​ ​x​) – ​g(​ ​x​)
= [3​x​ + 2] – [4 – 5​x​]
= 3​x​ + 2 – 4 + 5​x
= 3​x​ + 5​x​ + 2 – 4
= 8​x​ – 2
(​f​ × ​g)​ (​x)​ = [​f (​ ​x)​ ][​g(​ ​x​)]
= (3​x​ + 2)(4 – 5​x)​
= 12​x​ + 8 – 15​x​2​ – 10​x
= –15​x​2​ + 2​x​ + 8
(fg)(x)=f(x)g(x)\left(\small{\dfrac{f}{g}}\right)(x) = \small{\dfrac{f(x)}{g(x)}}(gf​)(x)=g(x)f(x)​
=3x+24−5x= \small{\dfrac{3x+2}{4-5x}}=4−5x3x+2​
My answer is the neat listing of each of my results, clearly labelled as to which is which.
( ​f​ + ​g​ ) (​x​) = –2​x​ + 6
( ​f​ – ​g​ ) (​x​) = 8​x​ – 2
( ​f​ × ​g​ ) (​x​) = –15​x2​​ + 2​x​ + 8
● (fg)(x)=3x+24−5x\mathbf{\color{purple}{
\left(\small{\dfrac{\mathit{f}}{\mathit{g}}}\right)(\mathit{x}) = \small{\dfrac{3\mathit{x}
+ 2}{4 - 5\mathit{x}}} }}​(gf​)(x)=4−5x3x+2​

Function Notation:

Function notation is the way a function is written. It is meant to be a precise way of giving
information about the function without a rather lengthy written explanation.
 The most popular function notation is ​f​ (​x)​
which is read "​f​ of ​x"​ .
This is NOT the multiplication of ​f​ times ​x..​

Traditionally, functions are referred to by single letter names, such as ​f, g, h a​ nd so on.
Any letter(s), however, may be used to name a function. Examples:

The ​f (​ ​x)​ notation is another way of representing the ​y​-value in a function, ​y​ = ​f​ (​x)​ .
The ​y​-axis may even be labeled as the ​f​ (​x​) axis, when graphing.
Ordered pairs may be written as (​x,​ ​f​ (​x​)), instead of (​x, y​).
Note:​ The notation ​f : X →
​ ​ Y​ tells us that the function's name is "​f "​ and its ordered pairs are
formed by an element ​x​ from the set ​X​, and by an element ​y​ from the set ​Y.​
(The arrow → ​ ​ is read "is mapped to".)

Advantages of function notation:

1. it allows for individual function names
to avoid confusion as to which Equivalen
function is being examined. t
Names have different letters, such as Notations
f​ (​x)​ and ​g ​(​x)​ . !
The graphing calculator does
distinctive function naming with Y1, y​ = 3​x ​+ 2
Y2, ...

2. it quickly identifies the independent f​ (​x)​ = 3​x​ +

variable in a problem. ​f ​(​x)​ = ​x + 2
​ ​b + 2
c, ​where the variable is​ "x"​.
f ​(​x)​ =
3. it quickly states which element of the {(​x,y​) | ​y​ =
function is to be examined. Find ​f​ (2) 3​x​ + 2}
 when​ f​ (​x)​ = 3​x​, is the same as saying, (the
"Find ​y​ when ​x​ = 2, for ​y​ = 3​x.​ " vertical
bar is
read
"such
that")

(the bar
arrow
means
the
element
"​x​ is
mapped/
matched
to 3​x​ + 2")

Evaluating Functions:

To evaluate a function, substitute the input (the given number

or expression) for the function's variable (place holder, ​x)​ .
Replace the ​x​ with the number or expression.
1.
Given the function ​f ​(​x)​ = 3​x​ - 5, find ​f​ (4).

Solution:​ Substitute 4 into the function in place of ​x.​ ​f (​ 4) = 3(4) - 5 = 7.

This answer can be thought of as the ordered pair (4,7).
The answer may also be referred to as the image of 4 under ​f​ (​x​).
2.
Find the value of ​h ​(​b​) = 3​b​ - 2​b ​+ 1 when ​b​ = -3.
2​

Solution: ​Substitute -3 into the function in place of ​b.​ ​h​ (-3) = 3(-3)​2​ - 2(-3) + 1 = 34.
3.
Find ​g​ (2​w​) when ​g​ (​x)​ = ​x​ - 2​x​ + 1.
2​

Solution: ​When substituting expressions, like 2​w​, into a function, using parentheses will help
prevent algebraic errors. For this problem, use (2​w​).
g​ (2​w)​ = (2​w​)2​​ - 2(2​w​) + 1 = 4​w​2​- 4​w​ +1 (​Note:​ the answer is in terms of ​w.​)
4.
Given ​f​ (​x​) = 2​x​ + 4​x​ - 3, find ​f​ (2​a​ + 3).
2​

Solution: ​Be sure to use parentheses!

Be careful - more algebra work is needed here.
f​ (2​a​ + 3) = 2(2​a​ + 3)​2​ + 4(2​a​ + 3) - 3
= 2(4​a​2​ + 12​a​ + 9) + 8​a ​+ 12 - 3
= 8​a2​​ + 24​a​ + 18 + 8​a​ + 12 - 3
= 8​a2​​ + 32​a​ + 27

Did you multiply?

Given ​f​ (​x​) = ​x2​​ - ​x​ - 4. If ​f ​(​k​) = 8, what is the value of ​k​?

Solution: ​Set the function rule equal to 8 and solve for ​k​.
x2​​ - ​x​ - 4 = 8
x2​​ - ​x​ - 12 = 0
(​x​ - 4)(​x​ + 3) = 0
x​ - 4 = 0; ​x​ + 3 = 0
x​ = 4; ​x​ = -3
The value of ​k c​ an be either 4 or -3
Other terms for normal curve
● The ​normal distribution​ is the most important and most widely used ​distribution​ in
statistics. It is sometimes called the "bell ​curve​," although the tonal qualities of such a
bell would be less than pleasing. It is also called the "Gaussian ​curve​" after the
mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss.

Discrete and Continuous Random Variables:

A ​variable​ is a quantity whose value changes.

A ​discrete variable​ is a variable whose value is obtained by counting.

Examples​: number of students present

number of red marbles in a jar
number of heads when flipping three coins
students’ grade level

A ​continuous variable ​is a variable whose value is obtained by measuring.

Examples​: height of students in class

weight of students in class
time it takes to get to school
distance traveled between classes

A ​random variable​ is a variable whose value is a numerical outcome of a random

phenomenon.

▪​ A random variable is denoted with a capital letter

​

▪​ ​The probability distribution of a random variable ​X​ tells what the possible values of ​X
are and how probabilities are assigned to those values
▪​ A random variable can be discrete or continuous
​

A ​discrete random variable​ ​X​ has a countable number of possible values.

Example​: Let ​X​ represent the sum of two dice.

Then the probability distribution of ​X​ is as follows:

X 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

P(​X)​

To graph the probability distribution of a discrete random variable, construct a

probability histogram​.

A ​continuous random variable​ ​X​ takes all values in a given interval of numbers.

▪​ ​The probability distribution of a continuous random variable is shown by a ​density

curve​.
▪​ ​The probability that X is between an interval of numbers is the area under the
density curve between the interval endpoints
▪​ ​The probability that a ​continuous​ ​random variable​ ​X​ is exactly equal to a number
is zero

Simple and Compound interest

What is Simple Interest
Simple interest is a quick and easy method of calculating the interest charge on a loan. Simple
interest is determined by multiplying the daily​ ​interest rate​ by the principal by the number of
days that elapse between payments.

What is Compound Interest

Compound interest (or compounding interest) is interest calculated on the initial principal and
which also includes all of the accumulated interest of previous periods of a deposit or loan.
Thought to have originated in 17th century Italy, compound interest can be thought of as
“interest on interest,” and will make a sum grow at a faster rate than​ ​simple interest​, which is
calculated only on the principal amount. The rate at which compound interest accrues depends
on the frequency of compounding such that the higher the number of​ ​compounding​ periods,
the greater the compound interest. Thus, the amount of compound interest accrued on $100
compounded at 10% annually will be lower than that on $100 compounded at 5%
semi-annually over the same time period. Because the interest-on-interest effect can generate
increasingly positive returns based on the initial principal amount, it has sometimes been
referred to as the "miracle of compound interest."

The formula for calculating compound interest is:

Compound Interest = Total amount of Principal and Interest in future (or Future Value) ​less
Principal amount at present (or Present Value)
= [P (1 + ​i​)n​​ ] – P
= P [(1 + ​i​)n​ ​– 1]
(Where P = Principal, ​i​ = nominal annual interest rate in percentage terms, and n = number of
compounding periods.)
Take a three-year loan of $10,000 at an interest rate of 5% that compounds annually. What
would be the amount of interest? In this case, it would be: $10,000 [(1 + 0.05)​3​ – 1] = $10,000
[1.157625 – 1] = $1,576.25.

● Inverse Function
In mathematics, an ​inverse function​ (or ​anti-function​) is a function that "reverses" another
function: if the function ​f​ applied to an input ​x​ gives a result of ​y​, then applying its inverse
function ​g​ to ​y​ gives the result ​x​, and vice versa, i.e., ​f​(​x)​ = ​y​ if and only if ​g(​ ​y)​ = ​x​.
As an example, consider the real-valued function of a real variable given by ​f(​ ​x​) = 5​x​ − 7.
Thinking of this as a step-by-step procedure (namely, take a number ​x,​ multiply it by 5, then
subtract 7 from the result), to reverse this and get ​x​ back from some output value, say ​y​, we
should undo each step in reverse order. In this case that means that we should add 7 to ​y​ and
then divide the result by 5. In functional notation this inverse function would be given by,
g ( y ) = y + 7 5 . {\displaystyle g(y)={\frac {y+7}{5}}.}
With ​y​ = 5​x​ − 7 we have that ​f(​ ​x​) = ​y​ and ​g​(​y)​ = ​x​.
Not all functions have inverse functions. In order for a function ​f​: ​X​ → ​Y​ to have an inverse, it
must have the property that for every ​y​ in ​Y​ there must be one, and only one ​x​ in ​X​ so that ​f(​ ​x​) =
y.​ This property ensures that a function ​g​: ​Y​ → ​X​ will exist having the necessary relationship
with ​f​.

● Univariate and Bivariate Data

Univariate data is data that involves two different variables whose values can change. Bivariate
data deals with relationships between these two variables. The purpose of bivariate data is to
analyze and explain this relationship.
● How to find the domain and range of a quadratic function
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Definition of percentile
● A ​percentile​ (or a ​centile​) is a measure used in statistics indicating the value
below which a given percentage of observations in a group of observations falls.
For example, the 20th percentile is the value (or score) below which 20% of the
observations may be found.

Algebra
Here’s our first full example: The sum of three consecutive multiples of seven is 168.
What is the value of the middle number?
 Let x be the value of the middle number.

We need to figure out a way to represent the smallest and largest numbers in the
sequence with what we know about x.Since the three numbers are consecutive
multiples of seven, the first number will be seven less than x (We can write this as
“x–7”), and the last number will be seven more than x (or “x+7”).

We know the three numbers should add to 168, so we write: (x–7)+x+(x+7)=168.

(x – 7) + x + (x + 7) = 168

3x = 168

x = 56

That’s it! The middle number is 56.

Currently, Abigail is three years older than half of Susan’s age. In twelve years, Susan’s age will
be seven more than three quarters of Abigail’s age. How old is Abigail today?

Let x be Abigail’s age today.

We need to represent Susan’s current age as well as both girls’ future ages in terms of x.
Let’s start with Susan’s current age. We know x=3+.5*(Susan’s age), so a little algebra
shows that Susan’s age today can be represented by 2(x–3). Finding their future ages is
simple. Abigail’s future age is x+12, and Susan’s future age is 2(x–3)+12.

The equation that ties everything together required that we use the fact that Susan’s
future age is seven more than three quarters of Abigail’s future age. Three quarters is
just 75%, so we can create one huge equation by writing .75(x+12)+7=2(x–3)+12. The
left hand side is exactly seven more than three quarters of Abigail’s future age, and the
right side is just Susan’s future age.

.75(x + 12) + 7 = 2(x – 3) + 12

.75x + 9 + 7 = 2x -6 +12
 .75x + 16 = 2x + 6

10 = 1.25x

x = 10/1.25 = 8

So, after all that work, we find out that Abigail is currently 8 years old!

As you can see, the four steps outlined above are a great way to solve many problems with a
consistent, methodical approach. We hope you find these tips helpful when you solve word
problems with the powerful tools of algebra!

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