FLUID MECHANICS

By: Ma’am Shazia Noor

Assignment completed by Group B

Members of Group B

Names Roll Numbers

M Laraib Ali 2K18-ME-01
Aqib Khakhi 2K18-ME-08
Hurerah Razzaq 2K18-ME-10
M Abdullah 2K18-ME-24
Usama Kaleem 2K18-ME-25
Mehwish Arshad 2K18-ME-26
Muzammil Waqas 2K18-ME-27
M Qasim Tariq 2K18-ME-33

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

University college of Engineering & Technology, BZU, Multan, Pakistan.
Topics assigned to Group B:

1. Hydraulic circuits.

2. Buoyant forces.

3. Stability of floating bodies.

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 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
Definition:
A hydraulic circuit is a system comprising an interconnected set of discrete components that
transport liquid.

Purpose:
The purpose of this system may be to control where fluid flows (as in a network of tubes of
coolant in a thermodynamic system) or to control fluid pressure (as in hydraulic amplifiers).
For example, hydraulic machinery uses hydraulic circuits (in which hydraulic fluid is pushed,
under pressure, through hydraulic pumps, pipes, tubes, hoses, hydraulic motors, hydraulic
cylinders, and so on) to move heavy loads.

Hydraulic circuit theory works best when the elements (passive component such as pipes or
transmission lines or active components such as power packs or pumps) are discrete and
linear. This usually means that hydraulic circuit analysis works best for long, thin tubes with
discrete pumps, as found in chemical process flow systems or micro scale devices.

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Components of hydraulic system:
Hydraulic system comprises of following components;
1. Hydraulic Pump
2. Control valves
3. Actuators
4. Reservoir
5. Accumulator
6. Hydraulic fluid
7. Filters
8. Tube, pipes and hoses
9. Seals and fittings

Hydraulic pump:
Hydraulic pumps supply fluid to the components in the system. Pressure in the system
develops in reaction to the load. Hence, a pump rated for 5,000 psi is capable of maintaining
flow against a load of 5,000 psi.
Pumps have a power density about ten times greater than an electric motor (by volume). They
are powered by an electric motor or an engine, connected through gears, belts, or a
flexible elastomeric coupling to reduce vibration.

Types of hydraulic pumps:

Common types of hydraulic pumps to hydraulic machinery applications are:

• Gear pump
• Vane pump
• Axial piston pump
• Radial piston pump

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Piston pumps are more expensive than gear or vane pumps, but provide longer life operating
at higher pressure, with difficult fluids and longer continuous duty cycles. Piston pumps
make up one half of a hydrostatic transmission.

Control valves:
Control valves route the fluid to the desired actuator. They usually consist of a spool inside
a cast iron or steel housing. The spool slides to different positions in the housing, and
intersecting grooves and channels route the fluid based on the spool's position.
The control valve is one of the most expensive and sensitive parts of a hydraulic circuit.
Following are some types of control valves;

• Pressure relief valves

• Pressure regulators
• Sequence valves
• Shuttle valves
• Check valves
• Pilot controlled check valves
• Counterbalance valves
• Cartridge valves
• Auxiliary valves

Actuators:
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a
mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover".
Types of actuators:

• Hydraulic cylinder
• Swash plates
• Hydraulic motor
• Brakes

I. Hydraulic cylinder:
A hydraulic cylinder (also called a linear hydraulic motor) is a
mechanical actuator that is used to give a unidirectional force through a unidirectional
stroke. It has many applications, notably in construction equipment, engineering
vehicles, manufacturing machinery, and civil engineering.

II. Swash plates:

Swash plates are used in hydraulic motors requiring highly accurate control and also
in no stop continuous (360°) precision positioning mechanisms. These are frequently
driven by several hydraulic pistons acting in sequence.

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III. Hydrostatic transmission:
Hydrostatic transmissions transmit all power hydraulically, using the components
of hydraulic machinery. They are similar to electrical transmissions, but use hydraulic
fluid as the power distribution system rather than electricity.

IV. Hydraulic motor:

A hydraulic motor is a mechanical actuator that converts hydraulic pressure and flow
into torque and angular displacement (rotation). The hydraulic motor is the rotary
counterpart of the hydraulic cylinder as a linear actuator.

V. Brakes:
A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a
moving system.

Reservoir:
The hydraulic fluid reservoir holds excess hydraulic fluid to accommodate
volume changes from cylinder extension and contraction, temperature driven expansion and
contraction, and leaks. The reservoir is also designed to aid in separation of air from the fluid
and also work as a heat accumulator to cover losses in the system when peak power is used.

Accumulators:
Accumulators are a common part of hydraulic machinery. Their function is to store energy by
using pressurized gas. One type is a tube with a floating piston. On one side of the piston is a
charge of pressurized gas, and on the other side is the fluid.
Examples of accumulator uses are backup power for steering or brakes, or to act as a shock
absorber for the hydraulic circuit.

Hydraulic fluid:
Hydraulic fluid is the life of the hydraulic circuit. It is usually petroleum
oil with various additives. Some hydraulic machines require fire resistant fluids, depending
on their applications. IN addition to transferring energy, hydraulic fluid needs
to lubricate components, suspend contaminants and metal filings for transport to the filter,
and to function well to several hundred degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.

Filters:

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 Filters are an important part of hydraulic systems which removes the unwanted
particles from fluid. Metal particles are continually produced by mechanical components and
need to be removed along with other contaminants.
Filters may be positioned in many locations:

➢ The filter may be located between the reservoir and the pump intake. Blockage of the
filter will cause cavitation and possibly failure of the pump.
➢ Sometimes the filter is located between the pump and the control valves.
➢ The third common filter location is just before the return line enters the reservoir.

Tubes, pipes and hoses:

➢ Hydraulic tubes are seamless steel precision pipes, specially manufactured for
hydraulics. The tubes have standard sizes for different pressure ranges, with
standard diameters up to 100 mm. The tubes are supplied by manufacturers in
lengths of 6 m, cleaned, oiled and plugged.
➢ Hydraulic pipe is used in case standard hydraulic tubes are not available.
Generally, these are used for low pressure.
➢ Hoses are used when pipes or tubes cannot be used, usually to provide flexibility for
machine operation or maintenance. The hose is built up with rubber and steel layers.
A rubber interior is surrounded by multiple layers of woven wire and rubber. The
exterior is designed for abrasion resistance.
Seals and fittings:
A mechanical seal is a device that helps join system or mechanisms together by preventing
leakage.
Fittings serve several purposes:

1. To join components with ports of different sizes.

2. To bridge different standards; O-ring boss to JIC, or pipe threads to face seal.
3. To incorporate bulkhead hardware to pass the fluid through an obstructing wall.

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 Types of Hydraulic circuits:
There are two types of hydraulic circuits;
1. Open Loop Hydraulic Circuit
2. Closed Loop Hydraulic Circuit

1: Open Loop Circuits:

These are circuits where both the inlet to the hydraulic pump and the motor (or valve) return
are connected to a hydraulic reservoir. The hydraulic flow from the pressure port on the pump
is directed to the device that it is powering and then returned back to the reservoir. A relief
valve or directional valve in the circuit may divert any unused fluid back to the reservoir.
Suction strainers and return filters keep the fluid clean.

Advantages Disadvantages:
Generally, less expensive. Could create heat in the system if working
pressure exceeds the relief valve setting when
using fixed displacement pumps.
Better for lower pressure applications Reservoir size has to be larger for adequate
(below 3000 PSI). cooling of the fluid.

Simple to maintain and easier to diagnose

problems if they occur.

2: Closed Loop Circuits:

These are circuits where the motor return is connected directly to the
hydraulic pump inlet. To maintain pressure in the loop, the circuits have a charge pump (a
small gear pump) that supplies cooled and filtered oil to the low-pressure side. Closed-loop
circuits are generally used for hydrostatic transmissions in mobile applications. The reservoir
only has to have enough capacity to feed the small charge pump. These circuits are mainly
used with higher-pressure piston hydraulic pumps and motors.

Advantages Disadvantages:
Systems can run at higher pressures with less fluid flow More expensive components
so smaller hydraulic lines can be used. are used.

Direction can be reversed without the use of valves. May require high-pressure
filtration.

More control options are available. More difficult to diagnose

and repair.

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Applications of Hydraulic Circuits:
Following are some applications of hydraulic circuits:
➢ Hydraulic Brake System
➢ Hydraulic Elevator
➢ Hydraulic Shock Absorber
➢ Hydraulic Ram
➢ Hydraulic Crane
➢ Hydraulic Press

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 Buoyant Force
Definition:

When an object is placed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force called buoyant force.
The buoyant force comes from the pressure exerted on the object by the fluid. Because the
pressure increases as the depth increases, the pressure on the bottom of an object is always
larger than the force on the top, hence the net upward force.

Depending factor:

The buoyant force depends on the mass and weight of the object, and is independent of the
density of the liquid. The buoyant force also depends on the volume of the liquid displaced.

SI Unit:
The unit for the buoyant force (like other forces) is the Newton (N).

Center of buoyancy
Definition:
The center of buoyancy of an object is an imaginary
point through which the buoyant force is considered to
act. It’s the point body, where the force of buoyancy acts.
It’s always the center of gravity of displaced liquid.
Upward force of buoyancy=weight of body

Fb=mg (N)

Location of center of buoyancy:

The center of buoyancy of a vessel or object is:
► Within is underwater shape.
► Located at the centroid of the underwater shape

Direction of buoyant force:

Because the pressure increases as the depth increase, the
pressure on the bottom of an object is always larger than
the force on the top. Hence the net force is in upward
direction.

Different condition:
» It the buoyant force is greater than the object’s
weight, the object will rise to the surface a float.
» If the buoyant force is less than the object’s weight, the object will sink.

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 » If the buoyant force equals the object’s weight, the object will remain suspended at
that depth

Archimedes’ Principle:
Introduction:
This law is the physical law of buoyancy discovered by the ancient Greek mathematician and
inventor Archimedes.
This law states that:
“Anybody completely or partially submerged in a fluid (gas or
liquid) at rest is acted upon by an upward or buoyant force, the magnitude of which is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.”

Explanation:
The volume of displaced fluid is equivalent to the volume of an object fully immersed in a
fluid or to that fraction of the volume below the surface for an object partially submerged in a
liquid.
For example: a ship launched sinks into the ocean until the weight of the water it displaces is
just equal to its own weight

Mathematical Expression: -
Consider density of immersed body is 𝜌
Upward force of liquid (buoyancy Fb)
Fb = 𝝆𝒈 V

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 Equilibrium of floating and submerged bodies
The floating and submerged bodies are said to be stable if it comes back to its original
position after giving a slight disturbance the condition of stability of these bodies is depend
upon its metacenter, center of buoyancy and center of gravity.

Equilibrium of floating bodies:

To be the floating body in equilibrium two conditions must be satisfied:
• The buoyant force (Fb)must equal the weight of floating body (W)
• Buoyant force and weight must act in same straight line. So, equilibrium will be

Fb =Wobj

The volume of a liquid remains unchanged since Fb = W but the shape of the volume
changes and thereby its center of buoyancy will differ. When the body displaced through an
angle v the center of buoyancy moves from B to B1 and a turning movement is produced.

Stability:
Stable equilibrium:
If Metacenter (M) lies above center of gravity (G) moment is produced, equilibrium is stable
and GM regarded as positive. (GM = +VE)

Unstable equilibrium:
If metacenter (M) lies below center of gravity (G) an over turning moment is produced
equilibrium is unstable and GM is regarded as negative (GM = -VE).

Neutral equilibrium:
If metacenter (M) is coincides with center of gravity the body is in neutral equilibrium.

Equilibrium of submerged bodies:

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For a submerged body the weight of the body must be equal to buoyant force and no
tendency to move upward and downward for example balloon submerged in air.

Stable equilibrium:
If center of buoyancy (B) is above the center of gravity (G) the slight clockwise tilt is
produced a couple of force Fb and W in opposite direction body will return to its original
position.

Unstable equilibrium:
B below G if the body is given a slight tilt the couple of forces W and Fb in same directions.

Neutral Equilibrium:
B (center of bouncy) coincide with G (center of gravity)

METACENTRE AND METACENTRIC HEIGHT

Definition:
Metacenter in fluid mechanics, is the theoretical point at which an imaginary theoretical
vertical line passing through the center of buoyancy and center of gravity. Intersects the
imaginary vertical line through a new center of buoyancy created when the body is displaced,
or tipped, in water, however little.
Meta centric height is the distance between the center of gravity of a floating body and its
Meta center.
The distance GM is called Meta centric height.

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METACENTRIC HEIGHT:
• The Meta centric height (GM) is a measurement of the initial static stability of
floating body.
• A large Meta centric height implies greater initial stability against overturning.

Determination of the meta-centric height (experimental method)

• The Meta centric height of a floating vessel can be determined if the angle of tilt
caused by moving a load P placed over the center of the floating body.
• Where:
• W=total weight of floating body (weight of body +weight of load P)
• G= C.G of floating body
• B= center of buoyancy of the body

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 Metacenter:
Metacenter, also spelled metacenter, in fluid mechanics, the theoretical point at which an
imaginary theoretical vertical line passing through the center of buoyancy and center of
gravity. Intersects the imaginary vertical line through a new center of buoyancy created when
the body is displaced, or tipped, in water, however little.
The center of buoyancy of a floating body is the point about which all the body parts exactly
buoy each other in other words, the effective center of the displaced water. The Meta center
remains directly above the center of buoyancy regardless of the tilt of a floating body, such as
ship. When at rest on even keel, the vessel’s center of buoyancy is directly below the center
of gravity as well as below the metacenter. (The center of gravity is the point in a body about
which all parts of the body balance each other). when the vessel tilts, one side displaces more
water than does the other, and the center of

Meta centric height

“The meta centric height (Gm) is a measure of the initial static stability of floating body. It
is calculated as the distance between the center of gravity of ship and its Meta center. Hence,
a sufficiently but not excessively high Meta centric height is considered ideal for passenger
ships.”

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 Stability of Floating Bodies in Fluid

• When the body undergoes an angular displacement about a horizontal axis, the
shape of the immersed volume changes and so the center of buoyancy moves
relative to the body.
• As a result of above observation stable equilibrium can be achieved, under certain
condition, even when G is above B.

Figure illustrate s a floating body -a boat, for example, in its equilibrium position.

Important points to note here are:

1. The force of buoyancy FB is equal to the weight of the body W
2. Centre of gravity G is above the center of buoyancy in the same vertical line.
3. Figure (b) shows the situation after the body has undergone a small angular
displacement ‘q’ with respect to the vertical axis.
4. The center of gravity ‘G’ remains unchanged relative to the body (This is not always
true for ships where some of the cargo may shift during an angular displacement).
5. During the movement, the volume immersed on the right-hand side increases while
that on the left-hand side decreases. Therefore, the center of buoyancy moves
towards the right to its new position.
Let the new line of action of the buoyant force (which is always vertical) through ‘B'
intersects the axis (the old vertical line containing the center of gravity G and the old center
of buoyancy B) at ‘M’. For small values of q, the point M is practically constant in position
and is known as metacenter. For the body shown in Fig., M is above G, and the couple
acting on the body in its displaced position is a restoring couple which tends to turn the
body to its original position. If M were below G, the couple would be an overturning couple
and the original equilibrium would have been unstable.

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When M coincides with G, the body will assume its new position without any further
movement and thus will be in neutral equilibrium. Therefore, for a floating body, the
stability is determined not simply by the relative position of B and G, rather by the relative
position of M and G. The distance of metacenter above G along the line is known as
metacentric height GM which can be written as

GM = BM -BG
Hence the condition of stable equilibrium for a floating body can be expressed in terms of
metacentric height as follows:
➢ GM > 0 (M is above G) Stable equilibrium
➢ GM = 0 (M coinciding with G) Neutral equilibrium
➢ GM < 0 (M is below G) Unstable equilibrium
The angular displacement of a boat or ship about its longitudinal axis is known as 'rolling'
while that about its transverse axis is known as "pitching".

Floating Bodies Containing Liquid

If a floating body carrying liquid with a free surface undergoes an angular displacement, the
liquid will also move to keep its free surface horizontal. Thus, not only does the center of
buoyancy B move, but also the center of gravity G of the floating body and its contents
move in the same direction as the movement of Bence the stability of the body is reduced.
For this reason, liquid which has to be carried in a ship is put into a number of separate
compartments so as to minimize its movement within the ship.

Period of Oscillation
The restoring couple caused by the buoyant force and gravity force acting on a floating body
displaced from its equilibrium placed from its equilibrium position is

Since the torque equals to mass moment of inertia (i.e., second moment of mass) multiplied
by angular acceleration, it can be written:

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Where IM represents the mass moment of inertia of the body about its axis of rotation. The
minus ignite RHS of Eq. arises since the torque is a retarding one and decreases the angular
acceleration. Ifθ is small, sin θ=θ and hence Eq. (5.23) can be written as:

Above Equation represents a simple harmonic motion.

The time period (i.e., the time of a complete oscillation from one side to the other and back
again) equals to:

The oscillation of the body results in a flow of the liquid around it and this flow has been
disregarded here. In practice, of course, viscosity in the liquid introduces a damping action
which quickly suppresses the oscillation unless further disturbances such as waves
cause new angular displacements.

Thanks
Regards: Group B

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