14.28 ¥ PHOTODIODES 32. What is a photodiode ? Explain its working principle. Why is a photodiode operated in reverse bias Photodiode. A photodiode is a p-n junction mad 4 photosensitive semiconducting material in such a light can fall on its junction. Its symbolic is shown in Fig. 1434. ssid Scanned with CamScanner‘As shown in Fig. 14.35, a resistance Ris connected in series with a reverse biased photodiode. The voltage is kept slightly less than the breakdown voltage. When no light is incident on the junction, a small reverse saturation current flows through the junction. This reverse current is due to thermall, ted electron- hole pairs and is called dark current. When light of frequency v is incident on the junction, such that the energy of its photons is greater than the band gap of the semiconductor (i.e., hv > E,), additional electron- hole pairs are created due to the excitation of electrons from valence band to the conduction band. The photogenerated charge carriers increase the conduc- tivity of the semiconductor. Larger the intensity of incident light, larger would be the increase in the conductivity of the semiconductor. Fig. 14.35 A reverse biased photodiode Illuminated with light. When a photodiode is illuminated with light photons of energy ftv > E, , and increasing intensities Ty, ly Ty ete, the value of reverse saturation current increases with the increase in intensity of incident light, as shown in Fig. 14.36. Hence, a measurement of | the change in the reverse saturation current illumination can give the values of light intensity. Scanned with CamScannerA photodiode « Bee sin fam its current ON and OFF in saree he pt ca Be ted a fastest phot Photodiodes are used for following ane for following 1. In detection of optical signals 2. In demodulation of optical signals . In light-operated switches, In speed reading of computer punched card: 3. 4, 5. In electronic counters, A photodiode is ‘ prefer: ’ bias condition. Consider nae ence reverse majority carrer (electron) density is much lance the minority hole density i eenererntun with igh both See peer ihe inated ~All pes of carriers increase equally in W=n+an + hp Now >> p and An=Ap an ae 2 ap Thatis, the fractional increase in majority carriers is much less than the fractional increase in. minority carriers, Consequently, the fractional change due to the photo-effects on the minority carrier dominated Teverse bias current is more easily measurable than the fractional change in the majority carrier dominated forward bias current, Hence, photodiodes are preferable used in the reverse bias condition for ‘measuring light intensity. 44.29°% LIGHT EMITTING DIODE 33. What is a light emitting diode ? Draw a circuit diagram and explain its action. How do we choose the sanvconductor, tobe used in these diodes, ifthe emitted radiation, is to be in the visible region ? Give advantages Oy LEDs over conventional incandescent lamps: Light emitting, diode (LED). It is ¢ forwart-biased pen junction which spontaneously core oe Pit ical energy into optical energy, like infrared and SDC light. A pat made from a tenet 7 eee ania phvice dium ani ee ‘with metallised contacts, as j js forward biased through junction ——___ SEMiconbuctor DEVICES AND DIGITAL CIRCUITS _ potential barrier reduces and its depletion region becomes so thin that holes and electrons are free to cross the barrier, Electrons injected into the pregion encounter holes and recombine. Similarly, holes injected into the mregion encounter electrons and recombine. When each electron-hole pair recombines, a single photon is released. The energy of the photon is equal toor less than the band gap of the semiconductor as is clear from Fig. 14.38. Fig. 14.37 A forward biased LED. When the p-t junction is forward biased, its Non-radiative transition pe oe 4 1 BE co Re ||a= | |e E a a E, Fig. 14.38 Different transitions giving spontaneous radiation. Choice of the semiconductor material used in LED. The wavelength of visible light ranges from 0.4 um to 07 um (energy from 3 eV to 1.8 eV). For a semiconductor to emit visible light, the minimum band gap must be 1.8 eV. The compound semicon- ductor Gallium ~ Arsenide ~Phosphide (GaAs, _, P,) is used for making LEDs of different colours. GaAsog Po4 (E,*19 eV) is used for red LED. GaAs (E, =14 eV) is used for infrared LED. Advantages of LEDs over conventional incan- descent lamp: 1. Low rational volt and less power anemia ae . 2. Fast action and no warm up time required. 3, The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 A to500 A iie,, the light is nearly monochromatic. 4. Long life and ruggedness. a e 5. Fast ON/OFF switching capability. Scanned with CamScanner14.24 PHYSICS-Xil Uses of LEDs : 1, Infrared LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems. 2. In optical communication. 3. In image scanning circuits for picture phones. 4, LEDs are used as indicator lamps in radio receivers and other electronic equipment. 5. Hand calculators, cash registers, digital clocks, etc. use seven-segment red or green displays. Each segment is an LED and depending on which segment is energised, the display lights up the numbers 0 to 9, as shown in Fig. 14.39. Fl oi234 5679 Fig. 14.39 Seven-segment display each segment is an LED. 14.30 SOLAR CELL 34, What is a solar cell ? Briefly describe the construction and working of a typical p-n junction solar cell. Give its V-I characteristic. Name the materials commonly used to prepare solar cells. Solar cell. It is a junction diode which converts solar energy into electricity and is based on photovoltaic efect (generation of voltage due to bombardment of light photons). Construction. It consists of a p-n junction made from Si or GaAs. Here a thin layer of ptype is grown (by diffusion of a suitable acceptor impurity or by vapour deposition) on an rtype semiconductor. The top of the player is provided with few finger oan Nee “A nt, = Bx aaa! =? @ Oy Fig. 14.40 (2) A typical p-n junction solar cell, (0) Sectional view of the solar cell, electrodes. This leaves open enough space for the light to reach the thin player and hence the underlying p-n junction. The bottom of the mlayer is provided with a current collecting electrode, Working. When light photons (with energy hy > E,) reach the junction, they excite electrons from the valence band to conduction band, leaving behind equal number of holes in the valence band. These electron-hole pairs generated in the depletion region move in opposite directions due to the barrier field, Photo-generated electrons move towards r-sides and holes towards pside. The collection of these charge carriers makes pside a positive electrode and mside a negative electrode. Hence photo-voltage is set up across the junction. When a load resistance R, is connected in the external circuit, a photo-current I flows, as shown in Fig. 14.41(a). This current is proportional to the intensity of illumination. Be Fig. 14.41 (a) Photo-current through an p-n junction. (b) V- characteristic of a solar c Fig. 14.41(6) shows the V-I characteristic of cell. The open circuit illumination. Hence Scanned with CamScannerThe important criteria for the selection of a material for solar cell fabrication are : (i) Band gap (from 1.0 eV to 1.8 eV). (ii) High optical absorption (~ 104 cm=! ). (iii) Electrical conductivity, (iv) Availability of the raw material. (v) Cost factor. The advantages of solar cells are : (i) pollution free, (ii) long lasting, and (iii) maintenance free. They can be used anywhere as a self-generating source of electricity. But solar cells have high cost of installation and low efficiency. Uses of solar cells : 1. We can use solar cells to charge storage batteries in day time and use the batteries for power during nights. 2. Solar cells, or better called photocells, are used in light meters in photography. 3. Some wrist watches and hand calculators are powered by solar cells. 4. Spacecrafts make use of arrays of solar cells or solar panels to provide electrical energy. Scanned with CamScanner