1

THE RAJAS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

Signature of Student
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

This is to certify that Vinith Roshan, a

student of class XII has successfully
completed the Biology project under the
guidance of Mrs. Sunitha and Mrs. Thilaka
during the year 2021-2022 in partial
fulfillment of AISSCE examination. Further,
I certify that this is a record of Bonafide
work carried out by the student.

Date
PRINCIPAL

Internal Examiner
External Examiner
2
 e
r
C
O
4. T
y N
p T
1. In e E
tr s
o N
o
d
f T
u
ct p
S
io o
n l
l
2. W i
h n
at a
is t
p i
ol o
li n
n
at •!•
io Cross
n Pollin
? ation
•!•
3. P Self-
ar Pollin
ts ation
of
fl
o
w
3
5. Agents of
pollination
•!• Biotic
agents:
Ornithophi
ly,
Entomoph
ily
•!• Abiotic
agents:
Anemophi
ly,
Hydrophil
y
6. Methods
for cross
pollination
7. Artificial
hybridizati
on
8. Advantages
&
Disadvanta
ges Of
cross
pollination
4
 1. INTRODUCTION
All living organisms have one major goal in common, which is to pass along their
genetic information to the next generation by creating offspring. Flowering plants
create seeds, which carry the genetic information of the parents and develop into
a new plant.

There are two critical stages in the life cycle of a flowering plant:

1) The transfer of pollen from anther to stigma. As we will saw in the lecture on
"Breeding Systems", most flowering plants have different types of mechanisms to
promote the transfer of pollen from an anther in one flower to a stigma in a
different flower, and hopefully this flower will be on a different plant.
2) The dispersal of seeds away from the parent plant.

Plants often solicit the aid of animals, as well as abiotic forces such as wind, to
accomplish both of these.

Much of the flower diversity that you have observed thus far this semester is
because of adaptations for pollination by different mechanisms. In this lecture, we
will discuss the main types of pollination mechanisms. However, please keep in
mind that there are always exceptions; plants and animals that visit flowers have
minds of their own!

The vast majority of flowering plant species are pollinated by insects; in fact, it
seems that flowering plants and many major groups of insects co-evolved together.
Animals other than insects can also be important pollinators: bats, birds (especially
hummingbirds), and even a few mammals.

5
2. WHAT IS POLLINATION?
'POLLINATION' is the process of transfer of pollen grains from anther of a
flower to the stigma of the flower.

Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a flower
to the female stigma. The goal of every living organism, including plants, is to
create offspring for the next generation. One of the ways that plants can produce
offspring is by making seeds.

Abiotic pollination refers to situations where pollination is mediated without the

involvement of other organisms. Only 10% of flowering plants are pollinated
without animal assistance. The most common form of abiotic
pollination, anemophily, is pollination by wind. This form of pollination is early
dominant in grasses, most conifers, and many deciduous trees.

The process of pollination requires pollinators: organisms that carry or move the
pollen grains from the anther to the receptive part of the carpel or pistil (stigma).
This is biotic pollination.

FLOWER: It is the reproductive part of the plant (angiosperms).

6
 Parts of a Flower
Petal
Attracts insects
and other pollinators

tigma
Traps
pollen

Anther travels throughhere

Makes pollen
Pistil
Provides support
Stamen

Fonnerly protected
the flower bud
Sepals

7
3. PARTS OF FLOWER
There are four whorls of a flower which are as follows:

Whorl #1: The Calyx

The calyx, which is the outermost whorl of a flower, protects the inner whorls,
especially when the flower is in its bud state. The calyx is made up of sepals, which
are two small green structures at the flower's base that look like tiny leaves.

Whorl #2: The Corolla

The second whorl of the flower is the corolla, which is composed of the flower's
petals. The petals serve two purposes: to protect the reproductive organs of the
flower and to attract pollinators. Because of this second purpose, they are usually
brightly colored and scented so that animals and insects will come close to them
and move around the flower's pollen.
► The first two whorls of the flower -- the calyx and the corolla -- are
collectively
called the Perianth.

Whorl #3: The Stamens

The third whorl of a flower is the stamen, the male reproductive part. The stamen
is made of a thin vertical thread-like structure called a fdament and circular or
oblong structure called an anther. The anther produces pollen, which is the male
contribution to the reproduction process in plants. It consists of microsporangium
which may be monothecous or dithecous.

8
Whorl #4: The Carpels
At the center of the flower is the fourth whorl -- the carpels, which contain the
pistil of the flower. The pistil is the plant's female reproductive organ, which is
composed of three parts: the ovary, the style, and the stigma.
The ovary contains the eggs, or ovules, of the plant, and when the ovules are
fertilized, the ovary sometimes turns into a fruit to house the seed.
The top of the ovary leads to a vertical structur e called a style, which supports the
stigma.
The stigma catches grains of pollen that the wind or pollinators disperse, and the
pollen grains travel down the style to the ovary.

Stigmi.'I Mature Flower

Styl _ ...,..
fi lam1;11t

Coonee1lve

re nanth
Petal:Corolla -
Se I: Catyx

'- Anthe,
Mkrosporanglum
Floral
ax•
Articulation
Pedicel

9
4. Types of Pollination
It is of two types:
• Natural Pollination which occurs naturally in plants.

• Induce d Pollination which is done by artificial means.

•!• Natural pollination is of two types :

• Self-Pollination

• Cross pollination

SELF POLLINATION

The pollination of a flower by pollen from the same flower (autogamy) or from
another flower on the same plant (geitonogamy).

Ex: pea plant, groundnut, barley

Stigma (receives SElF·POWNATION

pollen)

-- Anthttl
(p,oduc.pollen
grefnt, Whlch
contain male
gamelee)

10
Self-pollination is promoted by certain floral adaptation. Accordingly self
pollination is of two types i.e., autogamy & geitonogamy.

Autogamy:
It is a type of self-pollination in which an intersexual or perfect flower 1s
pollinated by its own pollen.

Autogamy occurs by two methods:

Homogam y: The anthers and stigmas of chasmogamous or open flowers are
brought together by growth, bending or folding.
Ex: peas, beans, hibiscus

Cleistogamy: In cleistogamous flowers, the anther dehisce inside closed

flowers. Growth of style brings the pollen grains in contact with stigma.
Pollination and seed set are assured. Polli nators are not required.
Ex: oxalis, viola

11
 - Ch as mognm ous
nower

l .-C dl st ogam ous

flowers

(cl

Geitonogamy:
It is a type of pollination in which pollen grains of one flower are transferred to
the stigma of another flower belonging to either the same plant or genetically
similar plant. In geitonogamy flowers often show modifications.

12
Advantages of Self Pollination:

1. It maintains the parental characters or purity of the race indefinitely.

2. Self-pollination is used to maintain pure lines for hybridization experiments.

3. The plant does not need to produce large number of pollen grains.

4. Flowers do not develop devices for attracting insect pollinators.

5. It ensures seed production. Rather it is used as fail safe device for cross
pollinated flowers.

6. Self-pollination eliminates some bad recessive characters.

Disadvantages of Self Pollination:

I. New useful characters are seldom introduced.

2. Vigor and vitality of the race decreases with prolonged self- pollinatio n.

3. Immunity to diseases decreases.

4. Variability and hence adaptability to changed environment are reduced.

13
 CROSS POLLINATION (xenogamy /allogamy)
Cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to
the stigma of a genetically different flower. It is also called xenogamy (Gk. xenos
strange, gamos- marriage). The term allogamy (Gk. alios- other, gamos- marriage)
includes both geitonogamy and xenogamy. Cross pollination is performed with the
help of an external agency.

When pollen lands on a stigma of another flower, this is

c ross - pollination.

14
5. Agents of Pollination
fu angiosperms, pollen are immotile and thus have to be carried to the stigma by
external pollinating agents.

Depending upon their nature the agents may be -

1. Biotic agents: Insects, Birds, Snails etc.
2. Abiotic agents: Wind, Water.

Types of Pollination
0.4% -. ■ Polllnat'lon by
water (hydrophlly)
4% ablotic
■ Polllnatlon by Pollination
\

air (anemophily)
19.6%
Pollination by
biotic
organisms
80%
Pollination

15
BIOTIC AGENTS
I. Entomophily :
It refers to the transfer of pollen grains through the agency of insects like moths,
butterflies, wasps, bees, beetles, etc.
Ex: Salvia, Yucca, Ficus
Characters:
■ They are showy or brightly colored.
■ Most insect pollinated flowers have a landing platform.
• The pollen grains are spiny, heavy and surrounded by a yellow oily sticky
substance called pollen kit.
■ Stigmas are often inserted and sticky.
■ Some flowers provide safe place to insects for laying eggs, e.g., Yucca.
Ct.0$£0 STIGMA

SHEODiNGOF
POU.EN
GRAINS ON
THE BACK OF
INSECT

STefltLE
A
ANTI1ERLOBE
NeOTAAIFEROUS s1Gw.
OtSC , AECEIVll«:l
l>OLl1:N
GRAfNS
m<>MTHESACl<
• OF IN$£CT

WITHERING
C ANTHER 0
Fig. 2.22.P ollination In S".flvia. A, flower with mature an1hers.
ciosoo stigma and short style. 8 , shedding of p01ren gra ins
041 the bacl< of entering inseel. C. rtower wilh mature stigma
and witl'lerltlg anther.sD, S1igma receiving pollen gra111s
trorn the back of entering insect.

16
II. Ornithophily

It refers to the pollination brought about by birds.

\ ·,
.., .i !
- • ;. ."""
.; ,
, . ,,,...
,

.,,

ill. Psychophily
Pollination by butterfly, example the Indian paintbrush (Castilleja sp.) by
swallowtail butterfly.

17
ABIOTIC AGENTS
I. Anemophily
It is a mode of cross pollination or transfer of pollen grains through the agency of
wind.
Ex: Coconut palm, Date palm, Maize, many grasses, Cannabis.
Characteristics:
■ The flowers are colorless, odorless and nectarless.
■ Pollen grains are light, small and winged or dusty, dry, smooth, non-sticky
and non wettable.
■ Stigma is hairy, feathery or branched to catch the wind-borne pollen grains.
■ Pollen grains are produced in very large number.

POLLENGRAINS

FeATHERY
ST!G!J-.A

, .,'.-'rif: ..).C\,••
, .. .
'<:f: ?.;;.,-:,,._ •

STIGMAS POLLEN GRAll'IS Fig. 2.2().Featho,y stigmas and

OF ANOTHER PUINT
versatile anthers ina flower of Grass.
Fi'g. 2.19. An$mophily in Maize.

18
II. Hydrophily
It is the mode of pollination or transfer of pollen grains through the agency of
water.
Ex: Zostera, Vallisneria
Characters:
• Flowers are small and inconspicuous.
• Nectar and odor are absent.
• Pollen grains are light and non-wettable due to presence of mucilage cover.
• Stigma is long, sticky but wettable.

It is further divided into two parts:

► Epihydrophily: Pollination occurring on the water

surface. Ex: Elodes, Hydrilla, Vallisneria.

Female
Male flower flower

(a)

Figure U . (a) PoUinal:lon by waler ill VaUb-neria;

19
► Hypohydrophily: pollination occurring beneath the water
surface. Ex: Najas, Ceratophylum, Zostera.

FSNALB

Hypohydrophily in zostera

20
6. Methods to Ensure Cross pollination

Dichogamy:
The maturation of the stamens and pistils of a bisexual flo wer at different times,
so that self-pollination is prevented.

-Protoandry
Anthers mature earlier than the stigma of the same flower. There pollen grains
become available to stigmas of the older flowers. , ex: Sunflower, Salvia.
Protandry - the a ndro e cium mat ures
before theg ynoecium

•
•anthers
• shedding
pollen

21
-Protogyny
Stigmas mature earlier so that they get pollinated before the anthers of the same
flower develop pollen grains, e.g., Mirabilis jalapa (4 O'clock).

Protogyny - 1he gynoecium ma1ures

before 1he andr0-ecium

+- stig mas
recep1i, e

♦ an1hen
no1 shed
ding pollen

Herkogamy
It is a common strategy employed by hermaphroditic angiosperms to reduce sexual
interference between male (anthers) and female (stigma) function.

Self-incompatibility (SI)
It is a general name for several genetic mechanisms in angiosperms, which
prevent self fertilization and thus encourage outcrossing and allogamy.
Heterostyly
The condition (e.g. in primroses) of having styles of different lengths relative to
the stamens in the flowers of different individual plants, to reduce self-fertilization.

22
 Fig. 2.24. Ttisty/y.,A Flower with long style,
medium and short stamens . 8 , Flowe, w,lh
medium style and IOfi9 and short stamen.
s C, Flower with short style, medium and
long
stamens.

Prepotency
Pollen grains of another flower germinate more rapidly over the stigma than the
pollen grains of the same flower, e.g., Apple, Grape.

Dicliny (Uni-sexuality)
Flowers are unisexual so that self-pollination is not possible. The plants may be
monoecious (bearing both male and female flowers, e.g., Maize) or dioecious
(bearing male and female flowers on different plants, e.g., Mulberry, Papaya).

23
7. Artificial Hybridization
Artificial hybridization refers to instances in which these crosses occur under
controlled conditions, often under the direction of plant or animal breeders.
PROCEDURE:

1. Emasculation:
The removal of the anthers of a flower in order to prevent self-pollination or the
undesirable pollination of neighboring plants.

2.Bagging
The emasculated flowers are immediately covered by paper, plastic or polythene
bags. The process is called bagging. It prevents unwanted pollen to come in contact
with emasculated flowers. This prevents contamination from foreign pollen grains.

24
3. Rebagging
When the flower is bagged flower attains receptivity, mature pollen grains
collected from anthers are dusted on the stigma and the flower is rebagged.

Sllpna

25
8.Advantages Of cross Pollination
■ Cross pollination introduces genetic re-combinations and hence variations
in the progeny.
■ Cross pollination increases the adaptability of the offspring towards changes
in the environment.
■ It makes the organisms better fitted in the struggle for existence.
■ The plants produced through cross pollination are more resistant to diseases.
■ The seeds produced are usually larger and the offspring have characters better
than the parents due to the phenomenon of hybrid vigour.
■ New and more useful varieties can be produced through cross pollination.
■ The defective characters of the race are eliminated and replaced by better
characters.
■ Yield never falls below an average minimum.

Disadvantages of Cross Pollination

■ It is highly wasteful because plants have to produce a larger number of pollen
grains and other accessory structures in order to suit the various pollinating
agencies.
■ A factor of chance is always involved in cross pollination.
■ It is less economical.
■ Some undesirable characters may creep in the race.
■ The very good characters of the race are likely to be spoiled.

26
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.google.co.in
www.wikipedia.org
www.slideshare.net
www.biology.lifeeasy.org
www.yourarticlelibrary.com
www.biologyreference.com

27