Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lo Spazio Ionico e Le Comunita Della GRE
Lo Spazio Ionico e Le Comunita Della GRE
Diabaseis 1
a cura di
Claudia Antonetti
Edizioni ETS
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ISBN 978-884672849-4
THESPROTIA
DURING THE LATE CLASSIC AND HELLENISTIC PERIODS.
THE FORMATION AND EVOLUTION OF THE CITIES
In the last quarter of the 4th century BC, the course of historical events was
determined by the active involvement of Philip II King of Macedon in Epirus’
politics and the strengthening of Molossians. Under their pressure, Thespro-
1
For the history of Thesprotia and Epirus in general Hammond 1967; Dakaris 1972; Sakel-
lariou, Hatzopoulos, Loukopoulou 1997, 46-81; Liampi 2009, 11-23.
2
Ps.-Scyl. Peripl. 30.
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
tians lost their entire eastern and southern territory and progressively extended
north of the Kalamas River against Chaonians.
At the same time, under political pressure, the Thesprotian koinon was cre-
ated and almost immediately joined the Epirote Alliance, organized in 333-323
BC by Molossians and Thesprotians. From this point onwards, the history of
Thesprotia is identified with the history of the Epirote Alliance, and its terri-
tory is stabilized at the limits of the modern prefecture, plus the southern part
of today's Albania with the river Pavla at its northern border.
Epirus prospers during the reign of Pyrros (293-272 BC), who had managed
to become the most powerful ruler of the Greek mainland during his time. In
order to strengthen the defence of his extensive kingdom, from Epidamnos in
Southern Illyria to the Korinthian Gulf, Pyrros promotes the establishment of a
series of citadels and forts on natural hills, which controlled over the valleys,
river crossings, and the intersections of major roads. The antiroyalist trends
occurred in the years of the successors of Pyrros, at a time when Epirus was
under pressure of the Aitolians, and led to the final abolition of the monarchy
and the transformation of the Epirote Alliance into the Epirote koinon, which
was active from 232 to 167 BC.
During the 200 years from the mid-4th to the 2nd century BC, Thesprotia ac-
complished a unique economic and residential development, as well as popula-
tion growth, which are reflected in the creation of organized cities for the first
time in its history. These settlements would serve as centres of individual tribal
groups, forming at the same time a confederation, the ‘Thesprotian koinon’.
The first of all fortified settlements is Elea3, the seat of the tribe of Eleans or
Eleates, which dwelled in the southeast part of modern prefecture. Elea is the
only Thesprotian city which mints her own currency, around 360 BC. The mint-
ing of Eleates4 includes four groups. The oldest one has a representation of Pe-
gasus on the obverse, and a trident and the inscription ΕΛΕΑΙ(ΩΝ) or ΕΛΕΑ-
ΤΑΝ on the reverse. The three issues that follow bear the head of Persephone
on the obverse and a three-headed Cerberus on the reverse (Fig. 1). The wide
use of underworld deities’ symbols indicates that the nearby Nekromanteion,
the “Oracle of the Dead”, was on Elea’s territory5.
The other fortified settlements of Thesprotia are dated a little after Elea, in
the 2nd half of the 4th cent. BC:
− Dymokastro (ancient Elina)6, the seat of Elinoi Thesprotoi, a tribe who lived
3
Dakaris 1972, 37; Riginos, Lazari 2007a; Riginos, Lazari 2007b; Riginos, Lazari 2008a;
Riginos, Lazari 2008b.
4
Franke 1961, 40-51; Riginos, Lazari c.d.s. a.
5
Sakellariou, Hatzopoulos, Loukopoulou 1997, 61-62.
6
Dakaris 1972, 37; Lazari, Tzortzatou, Kountouri 2008.
36
Thesprotia during the Late Classic and Hellenistic Periods
17
Dakaris 1972, 39-41; Kanta-Kitsou, Lambrou 2008.
18
Metallinou 2008, 86-87.
19
Dakaris 1972, 35-36; Kanta-Kitsou 2008b.
10
Franke 1961, 50-51; Dakaris 1972, 35-37, 117.
11
Sakellariou, Hatzopoulos, Loukopoulou 1997, 62.
12
From the well-known bronze coins of the Epirote koinon more frequently occurring are: 1)
Group 5: Head of a bearded Zeus and his wife Dione and thunderbolt; 2) Group 6: Head of
Dione and tripod; 3) Group 7: Head of Artemis and spear; 4) Group 12: Double conic helmet and
star. The most common silver coins belong to groups 3 and 4 and bear the head of bearded Zeus,
either alone or together with the head of Dione, and thunderbolt in an oak wreath. For more
information and classification of the Epirote coins see Franke 1961, 134-160.
13
Riginos 2006, 127-149.
37
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
14
Riginos, Lazari 2007a, 22-26; Riginos, Lazari 2008a, 7; Riginos, Lazari 2008b.
15
Ps.-Scyl. Peripl. 30: ἐνταῦθα ἐστὶ λιμὴν ᾧ ὄνομα Ἐλέα; Ptol. 3, 14, 5: Ἐλαίας λιμήν.
16
Kanta-Kitsou, Lambrou 2008, 15.
17
Lazari, Tzortzatou, Kountouri 2008, 22-25.
18
Kanta-Kitsou 2008b, 18-19.
19
Metallinou 2008, 76.
38
Thesprotia during the Late Classic and Hellenistic Periods
the prestige, power and autonomy of each city, as a public work of great scale,
requiring a strong central authority.
The form of the walls’ construction varies according to the location of the
settlement and the available material. Therefore, the fortifications of Doliani,
located in an area where the natural limestone is quarried on rectangular plates,
followed the isodomic or pseudo-isodomic style of masonry, while in most other
fortified settlements a polygonal style of masonry is being used. However, at
certain points in all fortifications, as towers, retrenchments and on gate pilas-
ters, isodomic style of masonry is being used at the same time with polygonal,
in order to maintain stability.
The construction method was dry. The sides of the stones are left in its natu-
ral form of digging and only near the edges rough carving with a needle is ob-
served. The walls are reinforced with frontal retrenchments and towers and of-
ten formed inside narrow passageways for the movements of the guards.
Sometimes, in front of the main wall there is a bailey, which acts as the first
line of city’s defence or, as in the case of Gitana20, protects public buildings, in
this case the theatre.
The walls of Elea21 can be dated from the time of the city-foundation into the
mid-4th century BC. For this dating argue both their construction with tight
and straight joints, and the thickness of the walls. The existence of a single
tower at the northeast corner is a further element of dating in this period. Since
the city lies on a raised plateau, surrounded by sheer cliffs, walls were only
built on the north-eastern side and in a triangular recess to the north. Monu-
mental is the way of building from the north-eastern gate to the northern tower
(Fig. 8).
In the case of Doliani22, which – like other large settlements of Thesprotia –
was fortified shortly after Elea, in the second half of the 4th century BC, the
layout of the walls is more complicated. The sides of the hill are surrounded by
two successive fortification walls, of which the internal one forms a kind of
citadel on the hilltop. The fortification of the citadel extends northwest, creating
a form of branch with two parts that ended in river Kalamas and ensured the
unimpeded access of the citizens to the river. The construction of the double for-
tification wall is reinforced with rectangular towers and frontal retrenchments,
an element introduced in fortification architecture during the 4th century BC.
In the case of Dymokastro23, the fortification consists of three consecutive
sectors. The two easternmost ‘citadels’ A and B were fortified by the estab-
20
Kanta-Kitsou 2008b, 22.
21
Riginos, Lazari 2007a, 27-32; Riginos, Lazari 2008a, 7-8; Riginos, Lazari 2008b.
22
Kanta-Kitsou, Lambrou 2008, 25-33.
23
Lazari, Tzortzatou, Kountouri 2008, 31-36.
39
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
lishment of the city, shortly after the middle and by the end of the 4th century
BC. During the Hellenistic period, the settlement, probably due to population
growth, expanded to the steeply sloping western slope.
In order to take better advantage of the terrain’s natural contour, the course
of the wall employed, at places, the so called serrated arrangement, meaning
that the axis of the wall was slightly transposed. The most vulnerable segments
of the curtain wall were strengthened with eleven rectangular towers. For even
better protection of the upper part of ‘citadel’ A, in addition to the outer wall,
the main residential core of the city was isolated from the lower area with an
interior partition wall24, parallel to the eastern part of the external wall.
The existence of an internal partition wall, which isolates the administrative
centre of the city, is also found in the fortified settlement of Gitana25, although
in this case is not yet clear if this was constructed at the same time with the ex-
ternal fortification or belongs to a later period (Fig. 9).
The outer fortification26 of Gitana surrounds the city from all sides and is re-
inforced with frontal retrenchments and rectangular towers. The retrenchments
are constructed on the west and south sides of the fortification, where there is
natural protection, while the towers are on the north side, which is more vul-
nerable. The unique semicircular fortification tower of this period in Thesprotia
dominates the north-east corner of the walls of Gitana, overseeing Kalamas’
valley to its mouth.
Gates. Gates were opened at key points of the fortifications where the com-
munication roads with the surrounding area ended, as well as the roads inside
the ancient settlements. They were usually of monumental construction and
protected with towers and retrenchments.
Elea’s east gate27 is bridged by at least four covering beams, with the exter-
nal operating as a lintel. In the place of the threshold there were three polygo-
nal stones, which are probably the remains of a structure to strengthen the sta-
bility and simultaneously decrease the height of the entrance at a later building
stage.
In relatively good condition, inside the obtuse angle of the northern fortifica-
tion, is preserved the northern postern, which was also built with large rectan-
gular blocks on both sides, whilst it is bridged with four oblong lintels. On the
contrary from the main western gate, only the jambs, which were carved out of
natural rock and one of the large lintels remain.
24
Lazari, Tzortzatou, Kountouri 2008, 37.
25
Kanta-Kitsou 2008b, 35-37.
26
Kanta-Kitsou 2008b, 27-35.
27
Riginos, Lazari 2007a, 33-34; Riginos, Lazari 2008b; Tranoulidis 2006.
40
Thesprotia during the Late Classic and Hellenistic Periods
The elements of the gates’ superstructure are missing from the main gates,
as well as from the smaller auxiliary ones both in Dymokastro and Gitana. In
Dymokastro28 the main gate at the south-east end of ‘citadel’ A is located be-
tween two parallel branches of the wall. The small width and a strong inner
tower ensured control of the entrance, complicating access to the enemy. Addi-
tional openings in the bedrock would allow communication between the three
‘citadels’. The existence of a coastal gateway to enter ‘citadel’ C is considered
probable.
In the case of Gitana29, access was provided by three main gates and three
smaller posterns. The main gate was at the middle of the north side of the forti-
fication. A second gate connects the southern part of the settlement with the
theatre. The south gate leads to a riverside harbour facility and three more
gates were constructed along the inside partition wall to allow communication
with the other part of the settlement.
Distinctive in its architectural form is the main gate of the outer fortification
wall of Doliani30, framed on both sides by two rectangular towers. The monu-
mental character of the gate is attributable to its arched lintel, based on two
posts, with simplified Lesbian kymatia on the capital ridges (Fig. 10). The
area of the entrance behind the arched opening was probably covered by a
wooden floor.
The layout of the settlements. The layout of the settlements was affected
both by their role as commercial and administrative centres inside the Thespro-
tian and Epirote koina and by available space. Some sections seem to remain
free from buildings either for defensive reasons or to ensure future residential
living space. Thus, in Elea almost the entire north-eastern part of the settle-
ment remains unstructured, while in Dymokastro very sparsely populated
should be most of ‘citadel’ C. In Gitana free of buildings should have been the
sloping side of the hill above the agora and in Doliani the branch of the fortifi-
cation above Kalamas. In these unstructured parts of the settlements should
have taken refuge the rural population during enemy attacks.
The urban organization varies. An elementary Hippodameian urban planning
system is followed in Elea31, based on the axis of one main artery (Fig. 11).
Right and left, retaining walls form the space into smaller and larger terraces.
Parallel or perpendicular to the principle artery are smaller roads, which cross
the flat section of the settlement, marking out the boundaries of private resi-
28
Lazari, Tzortzatou, Kountouri 2008, 36.
29
Kanta-Kitsou 2008b, 30-35.
30
Kanta-Kitsou, Lambrou 2008, 33; Tranoulidis 2006.
31
Riginos, Lazari 2007a, 36-37; Riginos, Lazari 2008a, 10-11, 18; Riginos, Lazari 2008b.
41
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
dences and public buildings. It appears that neither were the roads absolutely
straight, nor were the blocks of a constant shape or size.
More regularity has the Hippodameian urban planning system of Gitana32.
The city plan is based on a system of intersecting roads, which form orthogonal
construction insulae of similar dimensions. Each insula was divided by a cen-
tral alleyway into two rows of houses, whose number varies per city block. The
main roads led to the gates of the outer fortification and the inside partition
wall, while narrower passages were probably to be found along the fortification.
A similar road was running along the fortification circuit of ‘citadel’ A and
the north wall of ‘citadel’ B at Dymokastro33. In this case urban planning dif-
fers. Here, buildings, singly or in clusters, are made on natural or artificial pla-
teaus formed on different-level terraces, defined by retaining walls. Roads be-
tween neighbouring buildings have been scarcely discovered. There is no uni-
form system of orientation, even in those cases that the buildings are separated
by a single wall or a narrow passage.
Unfortunately, data on urban organization of Doliani34 is very limited due to
the development of the newer settlement inside the ancient citadel. The only
remnants of Classic and Hellenistic periods are limited to a small part of an an-
cient street in front of two adjacent houses close to the fortification wall.
As far as the construction of the roads is concerned, with the exception of
some main streets at Gitana, for example the one that leads to the theatre (Fig.
12), which were paved, all the other arteries were surfaced with pebbles, stone
chips, broken tiles and packed clay.
32
Kanta-Kitsou 2008b, 38-47.
33
Lazari, Tzortzatou, Kountouri 2008, 38-40.
34
Kanta-Kitsou, Lambrou 2008, 34-35.
35
Lazari, Tzortzatou, Kountouri 2008, 45-46.
42
Thesprotia during the Late Classic and Hellenistic Periods
36
Riginos, Lazari 2007a, 41-51; Riginos, Lazari 2008a, 23-27; Riginos, Lazari 2008b.
37
Lazari, Tzortzatou, Kountouri 2008, 40-43, 63-70.
43
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
‘citadel’ A is the only example of a Hellenistic peristyle house with a large cen-
tral courtyard and peripheral wings (Fig. 15). Apart from individual homes, we
also find more complex buildings with many rooms in irregular order. In these
cases separation of individual buildings is not always clear.
The constructive elements of the buildings are not much different than those
of the houses in Elea. They are founded on the bedrock; the lower part of the
walls is of stone and the superstructure of raw bricks and wood. The differences
in height often imposed construction on successive levels communicating
through rock-cut staircases.
A particular characteristic of the settlement is the extensive use of the natu-
ral bedrock both for laying out foundations as well as for forming interior and
exterior architectural features (walls, floors, steps, benches). Luxurious build-
ings have also been found with floors made of sea pebbles and walls plastered
with white and red stucco. Structures that can reliably identify the use of the
rooms are scarce: fireplaces and stone mills for the kitchens, clay bathtubs for
the bath rooms, while a square room with a carved base for couches around its
walls was identified as an andron. In a few cases storage rooms have been
found, as we can conclude from the parts of the pithoi (the storage jars), which
have been found in situ within the buildings.
The construction differences between Elea and Dymokastro and especially
the finds from private houses indicate also the different economic orientation of
the inhabitants of the two settlements. In Elea the existence of large storage
spaces with dozens of pithoi and rooms where hundreds of looms where found,
suggest an agricultural nature of the economy, based on production and storage
of goods grown in the valley of Paramythia and exploitation of the wool and
milk products of sheep and goats. On the contrary, the residents of Dymokastro
had developed trade relations and exchanges with the opposite coast of Corfu
and other Ionian islands, perhaps also southern Italy and Sicily, and they had
adopted a more luxurious way of living.
38
Riginos, Lazari 2007a, 54-70; Riginos, Lazari 2008b; Riginos, Lazari c.d.s. b.
44
Thesprotia during the Late Classic and Hellenistic Periods
bordered by stoae. Other buildings were gradually built near the stoae and were
used for public purposes or for storing the public goods (Fig. 16).
Of special ground plan is a stoic building on the west side of the agora, bear-
ing on the east side a stone colonnade consisting of eleven Doric columns. An
architectural specificity of the building is the pattern of seven equal sized rooms
in the central part, of which every two or three communicate with each other
and with an external perimeter corridor via acentric doorways. This ground
plan dictates the use of the building as a hostel or restaurant for the city's ar-
chons.
The movable finds, belonging to the categories related to the organization
and conduct of meals also suggest this use. A fragmentary surviving jug with
the inscription ΔΑΜΟΣΙΑ on the shoulder is confirming the view that the sym-
posia held in the seven rooms of the stoa were public and organized for the offi-
cials or guests of the city, which fed on public expenses.
Supportively of this case functions the existence of a building in the north-
west corner of the agora, in close proximity to the stoa, the finds from the inte-
rior of which related to the storage of products and preparation of the meals.
The agora of Gitana39 is located on a flat area, on the foot of the hill of Vry-
sella. The area is formed as an open square, closed on its north by a stoa, with a
row of 26 Doric columns on the façade and 14 Ionian columns inside. The
southern part of the agora is delimited by a stone-paved road and a complex of
16 shops, in which financial life of Gitana was focused. The complex (Fig. 17)
is directly linked to the road leading to the south gate of the settlement, just
above riverbank, where there were probably the harbour facilities of the city.
Both the political events of the Thesprotian koinon and gatherings of the city
leaders were hosted in the stone-built theatre of Gitana40, which was discovered
between the western fortification and the river (Fig. 18). This is the only iden-
tified theatre in entire Thesprotia. Its construction is reasonably assumed to
have taken place around the mid 3rd century BC, a period of increased construc-
tion activity in Epirus, and of prosperity for Gitana.
The orthogonal stage construction had an internal row of tesserae, while the
front stage had a series of twelve monolithic half-columns. The koilon consists
of twenty-eight rows of benches. White limestone was the main construction
material of the benches, while part of the koilon seems to have been hewn di-
rectly on the conglomerate rocky substrate. A large number of benches bear, on
the front side, engraved inscriptions with names of persons, Menedamos, Cha-
ropidas, Pausanias, Kephalos, Dokimos, Nikomachos, etc.
39
Kanta-Kitsou 2008b, 49-51; Preka-Alexandri 1996.
40
Kanta-Kitsou 2008b, 59-60; Preka-Alexandri 1997a, 614-617.
45
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
Two stoic buildings were also excavated in Dymokastro41, where there is not
an organized agora. The two stoas are located in the western and northern part
of ‘citadel’ A. The west stoa, which had two rows of wooden columns, was very
close to a shrine complex, as we shall see below, and perhaps used in religious
rituals.
For the commercial activities was used the stoa at the northern end of ‘cita-
del’ A. It is an elongated space with a façade of seven wooden columns resting
on rectangular stone bases (Fig. 19). A large open area lies to the north of the
building, whereas to its east and south there are small auxiliary rooms. The
large elongated edifice running parallel to the stoa could have functioned as a
complex of magazines.
Apart from the agorae, two similar in ground plan public buildings were ex-
cavated in Elea42 and Gitana. Both are in peripheral parts of the settlements,
but very close to a strong point of the fortification, which seems to surround
them. They belong to the type of the building with wings developing around an
orthogonal court and they would also house workshops.
The lavishly made building at Gitana43 is identified with the prytaneum and
archive of the city because of the large number of clay document sealings found
inside a room in the north-eastern wing (Fig. 20). In some of the seals44 the
name of the city ΓΙΤΑΝΑ is distinguished, while the best-known one bears a
female figure and the inscription ΘΕΣΠΡΩΤΩΝ.
Particularly impressive is the entrance of the building through a monumental
propylon, while carefully constructed were the rooms for the symposia, around
the central courtyard, which had pebble or mosaic floors.
Religion. Religious life45 took place in temples and public places of worship,
which had usually occupied key positions within the settlements. It even seems
that some of the commercial and political activities were performed under the
protection of the gods, although it is not always clear which deity was wor-
shipped. Ancillary data in this field offer the sanctuaries at Dodona and Nekro-
manteion, where the couples Dione+Zeus (as her husband) and Aidoneas/Ha-
des+Persephone (depicted also on Elea’s currencies) were worshipped respec-
tively.
Indicative of the worshipped deities are also the moulds for the construction
of deities’ figurines, as a matrix representation of Hermes from Gitana and the
41
Lazari, Tzortzatou, Kountouri 2008, 43-44, 72, 75.
42
Riginos, Lazari 2007a, 51-53; Riginos, Lazari 2008b.
43
Kanta-Kitsou 2008b, 55-59; Preka-Alexandri 1989a, 302-306.
44
Preka-Alexandri 1989b.
45
Metallinou 2008, 81.
46
Thesprotia during the Late Classic and Hellenistic Periods
display of the mythological scene of the theft of Apollo’s oxen by Hermes from
Elea46. Instead, the decorative motifs of plates and jewellery boxes which often
depict deities are not very indicative, as they probably follow the general style
of their time.
The temples have common features also known from the shrines of Dodona:
mainly their small size, their simple rectangular ground plan and the absence of
the surrounding colonnade.
A small temple was found in Elea47 on a high terrace, dominating the lower
part of the city. It was a rectangular building, divided into three rooms, the
porch, the cella, and the adyton. Visible in the centre of the cella is the bedding
for a ground altar for offerings from the faithful to the deity, who remains un-
known.
In Gitana48, a little smaller in size temple comprises a porch, a cella and a
paved courtyard in front of the entrance. In the same settlement, a place of
worship had also been uncovered at the north end of the stoa of the agora, as
suggests the discovery of a stone base, which is considered to have supported a
baetylus.
Two interesting shrines were excavated in Dymokastro49, one inside ‘citadel’
A and the other in ‘citadel’ B. The shrine complex of ‘citadel’ A consists of two
similar rectangular buildings, separated by a narrow corridor (Fig. 21). They
the architectural plan of simple temples with a porch at the front and a cella. A
built rectangular construction to the east can be identified as the altar.
A clay relief female head and part of a ceremonial clay pot confirm that the
buildings were a place of worship, while several architectural fragments and
marble pediment sculptures give us a picture of the superstructure. It is worth
quoting some lines from a letter50 written on November 19th, 1926: “I regret to
hear that the Italians, during the Italian bondage of 1917, had made excavation
in Dymokastro, where they had found a statue of a jumping horse, which they
had taken to Italy with them”. We do not know what happened to the statue or
the extent of illegal excavations; it is very likely, however, that the object comes
from this part of the settlement.
The excavated shrine in ‘citadel’ B has also tripartite internal division. To
the east there is a square rock-carved altar. The main entrance to the sanctuary
is located on the north side and is framed by pilasters. At the west part of the
46
Both unpublished.
47
Riginos, Lazari 2007a, 38-39; Riginos, Lazari 2008b.
48
Kanta-Kitsou 2008b, 53-54; Preka-Alexandri 1989a, 306-308.
49
Lazari, Tzortzatou, Kountouri 2008, 75-78, 84-86.
50
There is a copy from the letter in the archives of the 8th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Clas-
sical Antiquities of Corfu. Probably the receiver of the letter is the archaeologist G. Miliades
(1895-1975), while the name of the dispatcher is indistinguishable.
47
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
building there were two small rectangular niches. Excavation of the rich de-
struction layers produced great quantities of clay figurines and moulds, frag-
ments of miniature temple-like buildings, stone reliefs, vases and precious metal
objects.
The fall. The peak period of the fortified settlements in Thesprotia is fixed
between the 3rd and early 2nd century BC. The year 167 BC Epirus was devas-
tated by the legions of Aemilius Paullus and, according to ancient sources55, 70
towns were completely destroyed. This fate seem to follow all the large fortified
settlements of Thesprotia, with different, however, history from then on.
Elea fell after an onslaught from which the northern and most accessible part
of the strong fortification was almost fundamentally destroyed. The settlement
had since been almost completely deserted and was abandoned over a few years
time.
51
Kanta-Kitsou 2008b, 61-66; Preka-Alexandri 1995, 440-442; Preka-Alexandri 1995,
416-417; Preka-Alexandri 1997a, 610-611.
52
Kanta-Kitsou, Lambrou 2008, 19.
53
Lazari, Tzortzatou, Kountouri 2008, 60-62; Preka-Alexandri 1989a, 312-314.
54
Riginos, Lazari 2007a, 27.
55
Polyb. 30, 15.
48
Thesprotia during the Late Classic and Hellenistic Periods
56
Liv. 43, 21, 4; 45, 26, 3
49
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
FURTHER BIBLIOGRAPHY
ON THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THESPROTIA
50
Thesprotia during the Late Classic and Hellenistic Periods
51
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
52
Thesprotia during the Late Classic and Hellenistic Periods
53
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
54
Thesprotia during the Late Classic and Hellenistic Periods
Fig. 10. Doliani. The main gate with the arched lintel.
Fig. 11. Elea. Aerial view of the fortified settlement with the elementary
Hippodameian urban planning system.
55
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
56
Thesprotia during the Late Classic and Hellenistic Periods
Fig. 15. Dymokastro. Peristyle house with a large central courtyard and
peripheral wings.
57
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
58
Thesprotia during the Late Classic and Hellenistic Periods
59
Kassiani Lazari, Ekaterini Kanta-Kitsou
60
Avvertenza
ABBREVIAZIONI
FGE = Further Greek Epigrams. Epigrams before A.D. 50 from the Greek An-
thology and Other Sources, not included in ‘Hellenistic Epigrams’ or ‘The
Garland of Philipp’, edited by D.L. Page, revised and prepared for publica-
tion by R.D. Dawe & J. Diggle. Cambridge, London, New York, New Ro-
chelle, Melbourne, Sydney 1981 (digitally printed version 2008).
GE = Griechische Epigramme, hrsg. von J. Geffcken, Heidelberg 1916.
GG = Griechische Grabgedichte. Griechisch und Deutsch (= Schriften und
Quellen der alten Welt 7), hrsg. von W. Peek, Berlin 1960.
GPS = Greek Poems on Stone, I. Epitaphs From the Seventh to the Fifth Centu-
ries B.C. (= Textus Minores 36), ed. by G. Pfohl, Leiden 1967.
Gravestone = C.W. Clairmont, Gravestone and Epigram. Greek Memorials
from the Archaic and Classical Period, Mainz am Rhein 1970.
Greek dialects = K. Mickey, Studies in the Greek Dialects and the Language of
Greek Verse Inscriptions, Oxford 1981.
HGE = Historische Griechische Epigramme, ausgew. von F. Hiller von Gaert-
ringen (= Kleine Texte für Vorlesungen & Übungen 156), Bonn 1926.
HGIU = H.H. Schmitt, Historische Griechische Inschriften in Übersetzung, II.
Spätklassik und früher Hellenismus (400-250 v. Chr.) (= Texte zur For-
schung 68), Darmstadt 1996.
I.Achaïe = A.D. Rizakis, Achaïe III. Les cités achéennes: épigraphie et histoire
(= Meletemata 55), Athènes 2008.
I.Rhegion = L. D’Amore, Iscrizioni greche d’Italia: Reggio Calabria, Roma
2007.
IGCH = M. Thompson, O. Mørkholm, C.M. Kraay (eds.), An Inventory of
Greek Coin Hoards, New York 1973.
IGDS = L. Dubois, Inscriptions grecques dialectales de Sicile, Contribution à
l’étude du vocabulaire grec colonial (= Collection de l’École Française de
Rome 119), Rome 1989.
IGDS II = L. Dubois, Inscriptions grecques dialectales de Sicile, Tome II (=
Hautes études du monde gréco-romain 40), Genève 2008.
IGSI = Inscriptiones graecae Siciliae et infimae Italiae ad ius pertinentes, edi-
derunt et commentariis instruxerunt V. Arangio-Ruiz et A. Olivieri, Medio-
lani 1925.
Inscriptiones = Inscriptiones, seu Epigrammata graeca et latina reperta per Il-
lyricum a Cyriaco Anconitano apud Liburniam. Designatis locis, ubi quae-
que inventa sunt cum Descriptione Itineris, Romae 1747.
Kaibel, Epigrammata = G. Kaibel, Epigrammata graeca ex lapidibus conlecta,
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Kirchner, PA = J.E. Kirchner (ed.), Prosopographia Attica, I-II, Berlin 1901-
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526
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LfgrE = Lexikon des frühgriechischen Epos, hrsg. von B. Snell, H. Erbse, Göt-
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LSAM = F. Sokolowski, Lois sacrées de l’Asie Mineure, Paris 1955.
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