CRITICAL CARE 1094-9194/98 $8.00 + .

00

MANAGEMENT OF AVIAN
FLOCK EMERGENCIES
M. Scott Echols, DVM, ABVP-Avian,
and Brian L. Speer, DVM, ABVP-Avian

When presented with an individual patient requmng emergency

treatment, an attending clinician is required to take an accurate history,
perform a physical examination, collect necessary diagnostic tests, and begin
appropriate therapy in a timely manner. With the avian flock, the conceptual
approach to emergency medicine is the same, but the individual steps
are handled quite differently (Fig. 1). This article clarifies how to recog-
nize, approach, and provide emergency care to a unique patient, the
avian flock. The authors believe that at present time, the nondomestic
bird flock is the least completely addressed patient in avian medicine.
The reader is asked to understand the basic concepts behind flock health
management rather than treating a pathogen alone. Although specific
pathogen management protocols are important in flock medicine, they
consistently fail to serve the overall needs of the entire flock unless
incorporated into a complete and comprehensive therapeutic approach.

DEFINING THE PATIENT

The American Heritage dictionary defines avicll/ture as "the raising

and keeping of birds"5 and a flock as "a group of animals, birds, or fish
considered collectively."" The authors more specifically define a flock as
a population of two or more birds. An aviary is a structure or location
that holds a flock. The authors further define an aviary to include all of
the physical buildings, displays, pens, pastures, and so forth that hold

From Oakley Veterinary and Bird Hospi tal , Oakley. California

VETERINARY CLINICS OF NORTH AMERICA: EXOTIC AN IMAL PRACTICE

VOLUME 1 • NUMBER 1 • SEPTEMBER 1998 59

60 ECHOLS & SPEER

History

Aviary Physical Examination Individual Bird Examination

.I.
Mission Statement
.I.
External Features

.I.
Aviary Map
.I.
Palpate Abdomen

.I.
Traffic Flow Map
.I.
Auscult Heart

.I.
Financial Records
.I.
Evert Cloaca

.I. .I.
~Oral Examination
Production Record,

Professional Recommendations for patient diagnostics,

management or therapeutics

Figure 1. Comparison between evaluating an aviary and an individual bird .

the collective flock and the owner in its definition. Most commonly, we
think of aviculturists as people who raise and propagate birds. Flock
medical principles apply not only to the aviculturist's aviary but also to
the pet stores selling birds, the conservationists working to propagate
or even to reintroduce captive-bred endangered species, and the zoos
displaying captive avian species. Although probably less appreciated,
avicultural medical management also applies to the household with two
or more feathered family members! The bulk of this article is oriented
toward managing facilities with numerous birds, but it is particularly
important for the reader to understand that the same principles dis-
cussed here apply toward smaller avian collections.

DEFINING A FLOCK EMERGENCY

When a lovebird is depressed, on the bottom of the cage, tachypneic

and fluffed, an attending clinician can easily state that this bird requires
emergency care. Flock-related emergencies are not always as easily de-
fined but still involve a condition (or conditions) of serious nature and
that requires immediate action. Immediate actions in flock terms may be
taken from hours to several days or weeks. As a general statement, flock
 MANAGEMENT OF AVIAN FLOCK EMERGENCIES 61

emergencies are serious conditions that affect, or may affect, the flock
and not just an individual bird. Flock emergencies may manifest in one
of several categories, such as sudden increase in mortality rates, poor
traffic flow, financial loss, markedly decreased production, environmen-
tal-related issues such as inclement weather, as well as true or perceived
outbreaks of infectious disease. Oftentimes, these are interrelated areas
that require an accurate history, physical examination, and appropriate
diagnostics before the most effective treatment can be instituted to best
serve the needs of the aviary.
Throughout this article the reader is asked to interpret disease as
"any deviation from or interruption of the normal structure or function
of any part, organ or system (or combination thereof) of the body."16
This definition also applies to a flock, which serves as the body and is
not limited to infectious causes. Flock-related diseases disrupt the overall
homeostasis of the flock and include, but are not limited to, diseased
production; financial loss; poor traffic flow; and compromised nutrition,
aviary design, and environment; and infectious disease.

Collecting an Accurate History

The mechanics of collecting a thorough medical history and per-

forming a good physical examination of a flock are probably the two
most challenging but very important components to understand. An
accurate history should include questions that pertain to the overall
homeostasis of the flock and the sick or dead bird(s) if present. With
every bird presented, whether apparently healthy, clinically ill, or de-
ceased, inquire: Do you have any other birds? If the answer is yes, an
attending veterinarian has the opportunity to offer flock medical ser-
vices. Again, the flock is defined as any population of two or more birds.
Your avicultural client may have two pet birds and is seeking to obtain
another, a pair of cockatiels in the house and a single duck in the
backyard, or 150 mixed psittacine species in a large outdoor building.
Once a client has been identified as an avicultural client, additional
historical questions help clarify the degree of relative risk or potential
impact of the presenting complaint(s). Consider the following questions:
How many other birds do you have? When were the last physical
evaluations of these birds performed? What degrees of direct or indirect
exposure have the birds had? Do you have a conceptually closed aviary
(see discussion later in text)? These types of inquiries apply to the owner
who presents with a sick, deceased, or clinically healthy bird and are
intended to provide information about the flock. Continue with inquiries
related to history of infectious and noninfectious conditions, and any
present concerns of possible specific disease processes that may exist
within the aviary. These questions may help build or support a flock
differential diagnosis list.
After collecting a basic history and establishing that a flock is
involved, define the potential severity of the problem. Obviously, the
62 ECHOLS & SPEER

more information available, the better the flock-related questions that

can be asked. The next and last set of generic questions support the
degree of relative concern for a true flock emergency. Are any other
birds having problems? If so, what are their signs and over what time
period? Which species and which age group are involved (if known)?
Have any new birds been added within the past 1 to 3 months? If new
birds have been added, from what source, when did they arrive and
where were they placed within the aviary? Has anything recently
changed within the aviary or the environment (this may include changes
in diet, medications, outdoor pesticide use, new carpet, and so forth)?
At this point, the battery of basic questions and examination find-
ings of the birds presented (if already performed) will, it is hoped, lead
you into additional inquiries. One of the more simple but challenging
aspects of flock medical management is to keep in mind that not all
flock emergencies are the result of infectious disease. If only concerned
about pathogens and their resultant infectious disease issues, an at-
tending clinician may miss obvious or subclinical nutritional disease,
inappropriate traffic flow, and other factors that may be the underlying
cause to the disease outbreak. Perhaps one of the key deficits that
occur in handling flock medical emergencies is that traditionally, flock
managerial recommendations have been made based solely on informa-
tion obtained from individual birds that are presented.
If not already completed, focus attention to the bird(s) presented-
whether dead or alive. Sometimes, flock-related questions come well
after you have examined or necropsied an individual bird. One of the
most valuable flock diagnostic tests is the list of detailed diagnoses
established in individual ill birds and necropies. This list is only avail-
able for use and reference if the attending veterinarian maintains a
designated flock file with a current and updated problem file. Consider
yourself an avicultural veterinarian whenever working with a client
owning two or more birds, and maintain designated flock files for these
clients as you may be called upon to serve their flock medically or
epidemiologically.

CLOSED AVIARY CONCEPT

As mentioned above, establish if the aviary is conceptually open or
closed. A conceptually closed aviary is one that has effective control
over human, animal, and fomite traffic flow into and within an aviary. 2,
12, 14 In a closed aviary, the birds must earn their way into an aviary by

passing a predetermined set of criteria. Movements of people and poten-

tial fomites are similarly controlled. The details of the earning process
differ between aviculturists and the species involved but will always
include a physical evaluation, screening labwork, and a set time frame
for a quarantine period. This concept is foundational because if an aviary
is open, meaning no control of the above-listed factors, infectious disease
becomes a much more random and unpredictable event. Open aviaries
are prone to both chronic and acute types of infectious disease, in
 MANAGEMENT OF AVIAN FLOCK EMERGENCIES 63

addition to noninfectious diseases, and are usually best managed with

crisis intervention protocols only.
The pet store serves as a special aviary in that it is comparatively
much more potentially open, and control of infectious agent movement
becomes more challenging. Most pet stores cannot afford the space pr
time to have each bird entering in to the store physically examined,
tested, and quarantined, owing to the nature of the business. If a pet
store is both breeding birds and buying birds wholesale, it is advised
that the breeding population and progeny be treated as a closed aviary.
Aviculturists who frequently move birds around (as when showing birds)
also are at increased relative risk of breaking closed aviary rules.

PHYSICAL EVALUATION

Assuming a sick lovebird has been presented from a flock poten-

tially at-risk, consider recommending evaluation of both patients: the
individual bird and the aviary. Use those findings plus their relevant
histories to help set a plan. Just as the lovebird deserves a thorough
physical examination, so, most likely, does the aviary from which it
came.
Several aspects of the initial aviary physical examination do not
require an actual site visitation. In fact, visiting the aviary before ob-
taining some basic information may not be cost or time efficient for you
or your avicultural client. There are five basic components to the aviary
examination: the mission statement, the aviary map, the traffic flow
map, the financial records, and finally, the production records.] ' 2 Once
you have evaluated these five basic components, you can better direct a
focused on-site aviary visitation as may be needed.

Mission Statement

A mission statement is simply a written declaration of who the

client is, what the client is trying to accomplish and how, and in what
time frame the client wishes to achieve the stated goals. The mission
statement is most appropriately included in the client's avicultural flock
medical record. All aviculturists should be encouraged to have a mission
statement that is current and periodically updated as situations and
goals change. When addressing a flock emergency, clearly understanding
the actual mission to be served is essential for properly delivering
medical care.
It is generally agreed that most aviculturists wish to raise and sell
birds, but how they desire to do it varies tremendously. The mission
statement should govern how avian veterinarians can help manage an
aviary, particularly during emergencies! Understandably, most multiavian
pet owners do not have a mission statement, but it is still important to
understand and document how clients feel about their collection and
how they wish to have an avian veterinarian approach their aviary.
64 ECHOLS & SPEER

Mission statements should be simple and to the point. For example,

I, Panama Jack, owner of Amazons-R-Us, wish to sell a low number of
high-quality birds at a higher than average price to the pet bird market,
or I, Val U. Smith, owner of Birds by the Bucket, operate a high-volume
aviary selling low-cost Amazon parrots to the wholesale market. These
mission statements differ greatly. Although both owners are raising and
selling Amazon parrots, their goals alone set them apart. Given a disease
outbreak, Mr. Jack may want to identify and eradicate the problem while
saving all of the birds if possible. On the other hand, Ms. Smith may
only want to eliminate or isolate the exposed birds and move on with
production.

Aviary Map

Aviary maps depict the basic physical anatomy or layout of an

aviary. The map can be a simple line drawing of a house up to a
multibuilding avian complex. The drawing should include cages, feeding
areas, foot baths, walls, doors, and other details. Maps should demon-
strate location of individual birds and breeding pairs or colonies and
give approximate spatial relationship to surrounding structures. With
more intensive and regular aviary management, in-depth detail can be
added to the map. For the flock emergency, a simple aviary map can be
drawn in minutes (Fig. 2).
Aviary maps are for identification of disease locations. By mapping
the location of infectious and noninfectious diseases, avian veterinarians
and aviculturists can quickly determine if the problem is disseminated,
regional, or localized. By assessing the distribution of the disease within
the aviary, avian veterinarians and their avicultural clients can formulate
a concise diagnostic and therapeutic approach.
For example, Panama Jack has several sick Amazon parrots and has
provided his aviary map showing that only birds in bedroom #1 are
apparently affected. Regardless of the disease, an avicultural veterinarian
can initially focus diagnostic and treatment efforts on bedroom #1, rather
than testing and treating all of the birds. By viewing the same map, an
attending veterinarian can advise where to move visibly unaffected birds
and can set up appropriate barriers and direct traffic flow (discussed
below) in an effort to prevent dissemination of a pathogen or other
disease process. Mapping locations of sick birds also gives you informa-
tion on potential mode of transmission and virulence of infectious dis-
ease processes when present.

Traffic Flow Map

As the third component to the flock physical examination, traffic

flow maps are fairly easy to make and evaluate. Clients are asked to
draw daily movements on a copy of the aviary map. Traffic flow maps
 MANAGEMENT OF AVIAN FLOCK EMERGENCIES 65

o
Figure 2. Simple aviary map depicting someone's home. Numbered boxes = bird cages;
arrows = doors in and out of house; ovals = sinks; thick lines = walls/barriers between
individual rooms.

should clearly demonstrate how the birds are fed, cleaned, and treated
(if appropriate) and in what order. Ideally, traffic flow maps should
reveal concise, orderly movements throughout the aviary. Traffic flow
maps with lines going everywhere that frequently cross over, suggest
inappropriate and inefficient movements, which often serve to help
disseminate pathogens (Fig. 3). With some species, poor or excessive
traffic flow can also be disruptive to the birds.
In emergency situations, evaluating traffic flow is key in allowing
all parties to understand how potential pathogens and noninfectious
disease processes are being or have been introduced into and within the
aviary. With infectious-disease-related flock emergencies, it is easy to
blame the problem on an agent, rather than understanding the actual
pathogenesis that allows that organism to disseminate. In reality, most
epidemic proportion losses to infectious disease outbreaks in aviaries
are usually the result of diseased traffic flow! A common situation
involves placing susceptible birds, such as weaning babies, in or near
areas of high traffic flow. An infectious pathogen introduced into an
environment with poorly controlled traffic flow almost predictably re-
sults in a clinically diseased aviary.

Financial Records
Finances are sometimes difficult to discuss with clients. This is
especially true when the client does not know the status of his or her
66 ECHOLS & SPEER

Figure 3. Traffic flow map completed by tracing daily movements throughout the aviary
(house) over a copy of the aviary map. This map shows particularly disorganized traffic
with several areas crossing paths. Numbered boxes = bird cages; arrows = doors in and
out of house; ovals = sinks; thick lines = walls/barriers between individual rooms; thin
lines = daily movements as sketched by the aviary owner.

avicultural financial situation. It is important that avicultural clients at

least know their basic credits and debits. Veterinary expenses, of course,
are included as part of the debits and should also be a part of a financial
plan. The specific details of the client's finances should be left to a
trained accountant, but as attending veterinarians, we need to under-
stand clearly how our services and fees can monetarily effect a client. If
it has not already been approached and an emergency develops, avian
veterinarians should discuss finances with the avicultural client before
establishing a diagnostic and therapeutic plan.
Individually, diagnosing and treating multiple birds can be very
expensive and potentially devastating to an aviculturist. For example, a
pet-store client brings you a dead bird that you subsequently determine
has an infectious disease. If you proceed to test, quarantine, and treat
all of the store birds, assuming you charge appropriately for your ser-
vices, you may easily become a significant component of your client's
financial loss. As an attending veterinarian, you may have saved the
individual birds, but the true patient, the aviary, is now financially
diseased! Although many private aviculturists tend to absorb their losses
and subsidize their aviary, inappropriate avian veterinary costs can place
significant financial strain on a business and potentially weaken the
doctor-client relationship.
 MANAGEMENT OF AVIAN FLOCK EMERGENCIES 67

Production Records
Many avicultural clients maintain records of their birds' production
such as clutches/year, eggs/clutch, fertile eggs, infertile eggs, and so
forth. Evaluating production records allows avian veterinarians and
aviculturist together to evaluate birds individually, by groups, and
throughout the entire aviary. Establishing a record system has been
discussed elsewhere. 2.13 Evaluating established records can become very
useful during an emergency but can also be very time consuming if not
already created. For those aviaries already on an established flock health
program with evaluated production records, avian veterinarians can
look for trends in production deficits that might help pinpoint a dis-
ease source.
By reviewing production records during most flock emergencies,
avian veterinarians can key in on birds with poor or rapidly decreasing
production. Disease outbreaks can sometimes be traced back to birds
with subclinical illness whose reproductive performance has been poor.
Sometimes the chicks carry the legacy (pathogens, genetic disease, and
so forth) of their parents, and chicks that are doing poorly can also
point to the source. If available, production records can hold valuable
information capable of characterizing the true breadth, scope, and effect
of underlying causes concerning flock emergency situations. If record
systems are not yet established, aviculturists should be encouraged to
maintain records and have flock profiles performed regularly.

DEFINE THE PROBLEM OR PROBLEMS

The history, aviary physical examination findings, and individual
bird diagnoses (past and present) are used to build an accurate flock
differential diagnosis list. For clients who do not have an established
flock health program, production records, and so forth, an attending
veterinarian should at least understand the client's mission statement
and obtain a copy of the aviary and the traffic flow map. Consider
reviewing medical records, laboratory data and necropsy reports from
the aviary's past as an additional tool with which to help characterize
or better delineate problems within the aviary.
Whether presented with a live bird or a necropsy specimen from
the flock, attempt to obtain a definitive diagnosis when relevant to the
client's mission statement. Avicultural clients who limit the ability to
definitively diagnose an individual bird's problem only make it more
difficult to evaluate and treat the flock. It is extremely important to keep
in mind that one bird does not necessarily characterize or define the
health status or disease process(es) of the flock.

Primary Pathogens Versus Secondary Disease

Use the aviary map to map out disease locations (Fig. 4). In other
words, by reviewing medical histories, pathology reports, and current
68 ECHOLS & SPEER

oITJ
[I]
I, tY
' <-0 )

o
Figure 4. Using the aviary map to define disease locations. This map shows that although
birds from two separate cages are affected with a disease, as indicated by the X, the
diseased individuals are localized to one section of the aviary. By identifying disease
locations, veterinarians can better focus a flock diagnostic and therapeutic plan rather than
approach all birds within the aviary. Numbered boxes = bird cages; arrows = doors in
and out of house; ovals = sinks; thick lines = walls/barriers between individual rooms; X
= disease location.

physical examination or necropsy findings, mark sick-bird locations on

the aviary map and the approximate dates of morbidity and mortality.
Also define the disease process as best as it is known. Very quickly,
any potentially relevant or significant disease patterns can be identified
if present.
Disease occurs as a result of imbalances between potential patho-
gens (agents), the animal itself (host), and the surroundings (environ-
ment). For example, healthy birds are constantly exposed to viruses,
bacteria, and fungi because these organisms are present in the environ-
ment. A nutritionally compromised bird is far more likely to develop
respiratory mycoses than is a healthy bird. 4. 7. 15 Occasionally exposing
hand-feeding psittacine chicks in a closed facility and nursery to low
numbers of infectious agents may not result in significant disease prob-
lems. Take the same facility and add nutritional, temperature, humidity,
and other stresses to the chicks, and the probability of disease outbreaks
becomes more likely. These examples are very simplistic, but the concept
is very important: pathogens create disease based on their interaction
with host and environmental factors and not necessarily by themselves.
As a result, testing and treating for disease-associated agents may well
be incomplete or inappropriate flock management in some settings.
 MANAGEMENT OF AVIAN FLOCK EMERGENCIES 69

Primary flock diseases, when present, are responsible for the bulk
of flock morbidity or mortality. Examples of primary diseases, which
may cause a flock emergency, include Polyoma viral disease in the
nursery, starvation when feeding a novel medicated food that is poorly
accepted, stray voltage from an improperly grounded wire, and nutri-
tional stunting in psittacine chicks. Primary flock diseases may manifest
or present differently in individual species and age groups; however, by
themselves, they are capable of causing disease.
When multiple diseases are involved in an aviary emergency, the
organisms involved are best viewed as secondary to an unhealthy aviary
with other underlying problems. These secondary invaders, when pres-
ent, take advantage of the aviary's compromised health. Poor traffic
flow, nutrition, aviary design, extreme environmental conditions, and
owner fatigue are underlying disease issues that can weaken the aviary's
health. Even organisms that would be considered primary invaders in a
healthy aviary can be one of many secondary pathogens in an overall
improperly managed or unhealthy aviary.
Distinguishing between primary and secondary diseases becomes
important in managing the disease. Primary disease processes may actu-
ally be easier to control because usually one deals with only the causative
organism or process. Secondary diseases point to underlying aviary
imbalances and require that the present pathogens or disease processes,
as well as the aviary's overall health and homeostasis, must be managed.

TREATING THE AVIARY

Containment

Until such time that the contagious and the infectious character or
population effect of the flock emergency is understood, containment
policies are key to protection of the flock at risk. Moving birds within
the aviary should be very specific and planned carefully so as not to
further disseminate the disease process or expose at-risk birds. Aviary
disease outbreaks are not limited to infectious disease because starvation,
extreme environmental conditions, mass exposure to toxins, and other
hazards can result in flock emergencies. Appropriate isolation is used in
conjunction with characterization and identification of the problem(s)
presented and underlying in the facility.
Updated aviary maps, with the disease and its locations depicted,
may reveal where the problems lie. Traffic flow maps may help define
potential routes of the pathogen, toxin, and so forth as well as the
transmission and the dissemination. These two maps are used together
to set up functional roadblocks. Isolate areas with affected individuals
and establish an orderly traffic flow in a manner that does not allow
additional subpopulations of birds within the aviary to be placed at risk
(Fig. 5). Directing traffic flow is not limited to the birds and owner but
also includes any other possible fomites like food and water bowls and
70 ECHOLS & SPEER

I. .·.•:.·
.. . R'

c
A B

G F E

Figure 5. Containing an aviary disease outbreak. Traffic is carefully directed so that birds
grouped in different rooms are all cared for separately. Because birds in room E are in
relative close proximity to room C (containing diseased birds marked with an X), foot baths
are placed at the door/opening into rooms C, 0 , and E. Until the disease concerns have
passed, birds in room C are also cared for last within the aviary. Containment measures
can also involve moving affected or unaffected birds into other locations, in addition to
redirecting traffic flow. Numbered boxes = bird cages; arrows = doors in and out of house;
ovals = sinks; thick lines = walls/barriers between individual rooms; X = disease location;
thin lines = carefully directed traffic flow; solid rectangles = foot baths; bold letters A-G
= individual rooms.

air that may also have a role in the pathogenesis of the flock disease.
During the movement process, do not break closed aviary rules in an
effort to control the aviary's disease.
If one large room is involved and it is not possible to establish
barriers (i.e., walls, doors, and so forth), consider moving unaffected
individuals outdoors (weather permitting) or to another building or
house (preferably with no other birds), or evacuate all of the affected
birds (if only a few are involved). Be careful not to expose additional
avian species by moving unaffected birds (which may be subclinical
carriers) into a healthy aviary.
These basic containment principles apply to a house, a pet store, a
nursery, or a large aviary and can be instituted before a definitive
diagnosis is made. In many cases, the emergency is corrected at this
point as deficits in the traffic flow and bird locations within the aviary
may be the direct cause of the emergency.
 MANAGEMENT OF AVIAN FLOCK EMERGENCIES 71

Pet Store

Pet stores typically serve as outlets for multiple sources of birds and
in essence can easily and repeatedly violate closed aviary rules. These
factors can make infectious disease outbreaks difficult to manage in pet
stores. If a pet store has a breeding facility on-site, the aviary should be
managed as discussed throughout this article. Noninfectious pet-store
emergencies are also managed similarly as with other aviaries.
The difference in managing the pet shop as a flock is with the birds
brought in from the wholesale market to be sold (retail) to the public at
the store. Even well-managed pet stores have occasional infectious dis-
ease outbreaks owing to the nature of the business.
When an infectious agent is identified within the store, traffic flow
should be immediately corrected with the intent to isolate affected
individuals and suspected subclinically afflicted (carrier) birds. The
source of the affected birds and suspected carriers should be contacted
and notified of the concerns present, particularly if disease is noted
comparatively shortly after the birds were acquired. This may open
more opportunity for emergency and standard flock health management.
Antibiotic use is discussed below and follows the same rules as with
other aviaries. The authors recommend keeping affected birds isolated
from the public and restricting their sale until the outbreak and the
disease concerns have passed.
If a large area that is readily visible must be treated and quaran-
tined, as with a chlamydia outbreak, it is best to divert attention away
from the public's concern and keep business going as smoothly as
possible. Zoonotic disease outbreaks must be treated and reported as is
standard per local, state, and federal laws for both legal and public
health concerns. Inappropriate recommendations or breaches in client
confidentiality may significantly damage a pet store's finances and repu-
tation. If possible, cover quarantined areas with dark paper or some
other opaque material to eliminate the public's viewing of the area. The
authors do not recommend encouraging shop employees to discuss
ongoing pet-store disease processes with their customer base. Consider
placing a sign such as "Construction in Progress" or "Remodeling Bird
Room," and so forth to help explain the diversion. Of course, the pet
store should follow through with the stated change.
Most important, shop owners should work with an attending veteri-
narian to understand how and from what source the infectious agent
came and how to prevent a reoccurrence. This is usually most effectively
accomplished by carefully and more critically evaluating the quality of
the sources from which birds are acquired. This should be established
as an effort to build an open and effective long-term relationship be-
tween the veterinarian, the pet store, and the wholesale sources. Open
communication and sharing goals is key to the viability of both the
pet store and the wholesaler through continued bird sales. Ultimately,
pathogen or sentinel-type management protocols within the pet shops
can or should be eliminated, as the overall incidence of infectious disease
72 ECHOLS & SPEER

is reduced drastically with good management and a healthy relationship

with suppliers.

Addressing Individual Pathogens

Mass medication or vaccination is not necessarily appropriate for all

flock medical emergencies-including those centered around individual
pathogens and their disease processes. Certain infectious diseases may
require group treatment and can be summarized into select groups.
These groupings include (1) when a single agent that is susceptible to
appropriate antibiotics is disseminated throughout the aviary, (2) when
zoonotic disease is present and its locations within the aviary are uncer-
tain, and (3) when definitive diagnosis or aviary management are not
permitted and shot-gun antibiotic therapy is requested.
Ideally, antibiotic treatment is limited to affected individuals and
populations of birds suspected to be subclinical carriers within the
aviary. Antibiotics should ideally be chosen according to susceptibility
patterns from cultured organisms. If culture and sensitivities are not
available as with most viral, fungal, and parasitic diseases, antibiotic
choices are based on available literature, if possible, and previous experi-
ence. For example, an initial antibiotic for a herpes or virus, Candida
albicans and Sternostoma tracheacolum infections, may include acyclovir,
ketoconazole, and ivermectin, respectively.3,8-11

Vaccination

The principles of vaccination imply that a vaccine serves to induce

antibody production that the clinician hopes will be protective for the
individual bird as well as the overall population at a later date. When
considering flock vaccination during an emergency, even the most appro-
priate vaccine will most likely not prevent disease in an exposed naive
population, but it may serve to protect an unexposed group or a pre-
viously vaccinated group of birds and prevent further dissemination of
the agent in question. Before vaccinating, understand the biology of the
organism being vaccinated against, the cost of vaccination (including
monetary costs and the effect of handling individual birds), and what
the anticipated effect is for the flock. Vaccines should be used as manage-
ment tools rather than specific disease treatments. In short, specific
vaccination protocols do not substitute for complete flock management.

MANAGE UNDERLYING DISEASE

In the authors' experiences, primary infectious pathogens are the

least common cause of aviary disease. Most aviary diseases are attribut-
able to traffic flow or financial, production, and environmental-related
 MANAGEMENT OF AVIAN FLOCK EMERGENCIES 73

diseases. Infectious diseases tend to occur secondarily to the above-

listed problems. All aviaries have infectious disease present, as various
bacteria, fungi, and virus particles are ubiquitous, but not all aviaries
have potentially infectious agents causing clinical disease associated
from the presence of these agents. When pathogen hunting, an avian
veterinarian is likely to find some infectious or even contagious organ-
isms and possibly even one or two that are causing disease in individual
birds or selected groups. Unless specifically guarded against, recognition
of infectious agents can easily lead veterinarians into pathogen manage-
ment or detection protocols being forwarded alone, without discussing
and explaining to the avicultural client the pathogenesis behind the
disease process. There is usually a reason for the disease, and it is often
a combination of problems rather than an infectious agent alone.
Most traffic flow issues are related to breaking closed aviary con-
cepts. An infectious agent is brought in and disseminated through im-
proper trafficking of animals, people, and fomites. Managing diseased
traffic flow requires first locating known and potential sites of infectious
disease and then identifying possible routes that could aid dissemina-
tion. Simply set an organized traffic flow intended to divert movement
away from disease-process locations. Ideally, the traffic movements
should end with areas considered diseased. By putting diseased birds
last on the daily route, there is less chance for other birds to become
exposed to a disease process.
Financial disease, in the authors' experiences, is more commonly
subclinical. Subclinical factors include insufficient funds for the proper
nutritional support of the birds, appropriate veterinary care, proper
cleaning materials, and facility maintenance. These factors often directly
create or feed increased owner and caregiver stress, which also contri-
butes to the pathogenesis of aviary disease. It is not uncommon for a
stressed or fatigued caretaker to make careless mistakes such as breaking
closed aviary traffic rules; feeding chicks with overheated formula (re-
sulting in crop burns); forgetting to feed, clean, or treat individual birds,
and so forth. These stresses may in part result from financial disease,
but nevertheless, affect the aviary as a whole.
Poor production simply results in fewer viable chicks. Whether it is
regarding raising ostrkhes for meat, Nene geese for display, or budgeri-
gars for the pet trade, aviculture exists because new birds are produced.
It is the production of birds, particularly for the pet trade, that feeds
birds to the public and patients to the avian veterinarian's office. Record
review is the key to assessing an aviary's production. Without an accu-
rate record system and a careful review, an aviary'S production statistics
are anecdotal, and true understanding of the effect of production losses
is difficult. Production may be poor because of inappropriate diet, over-
crowding and stress, chronic infectious disease, and so forth. Treatment
for decreased production is obviously based upon the definitive diagno-
sis, but an attending veterinarian and aviculturist must first recognize
that production deficits exist.
The environment plays a large role in aviary health. Everything
74 ECHOLS & SPEER

from changes with the seasons, weather conditions, environmental tox-

ins, wild animals, and many more factors can directly affect aviary
health or homeostasis. The overheated Teflon-coated pan can be just as
devastating to chicks in the kitchen as are the opossum and the cock-
roaches disseminating Sarcocystis spp. oocysts in an African grey aviary's
food supply. Both situations, though technically preventable, still occur.
When assessing aviary health, consider the role of the environment.
Managing the underlying disease processes, in fact, becomes the
basis of flock health management. Many flock emergencies present the
opportunity to offer and deliver the initial steps toward developing
an organized flock health program, especially with new clients. Even
established clients who have occasional disease outbreaks offer the per-
fect opportunity to explore aviary management as opposed to pathogen-
oriented and crisis intervention approaches, as has been the traditionally
accepted norm in most private avicultural and veterinary circles in
the past.

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 MANAGEMENT OF AVIAN FLOCK EMERGENCIES 75

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Address reprint requests to

M. Scott Echols, DVM
Oakley Veterinary and Bird Hospital
3807 Main Street
Oakley, CA 94561