Assessment of groundwater contamination

from a hazardous dump site in Ranipet,

Tamil Nadu, India

G. Tamma Rao, V. V. S. Gurunadha Rao,

K. Ranganathan, L. Surinaidu, J. Mahesh
& G. Ramesh

Hydrogeology Journal
Official Journal of the International
Association of Hydrogeologists

ISSN 1431-2174
Volume 19
Number 8

Hydrogeol J (2011) 19:1587-1598

DOI 10.1007/s10040-011-0771-9

1 23
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 Author's personal copy
Assessment of groundwater contamination from a hazardous
dump site in Ranipet, Tamil Nadu, India
G. Tamma Rao & V. V. S. Gurunadha Rao &
K. Ranganathan & L. Surinaidu & J. Mahesh &
G. Ramesh
Abstract Tanneries located in an industrial development
area of Ranipet (India) manufactured chromate chemicals
during 1976–1996. A large quantity of associated hazard-
ous solid wastes has been stacked about 5-m high above
ground level, spread over 3.5ha inside one of the factory
premises. The study area receives an average annual
rainfall of 1,100mm. The granitic formation in the north-
ern part of Palar River catchment has high infiltration rates
and has resulted in fast migration of the contamination to
the water table. Chromium levels in the groundwater were
found up to 275mg/l. The available hydrogeological,
geophysical and groundwater quality data bases have
been used to construct a groundwater flow and mass
transport model for assessing the groundwater contami-
nation and it has been calibrated for the next 30years. The
migration has been found to be very slow, with a
groundwater velocity of 10m/year. This is the first field-
scale study of its kind in this industrial area. The findings
are of relevance to addressing the groundwater pollution
due to indiscriminate disposal practices of hazardous
waste in areas located on the phreatic aquifer. Further, it
has been reported that the untreated effluent discharge
adjacent to the chromium dump site is most influential in
the migration of contaminants.
Received: 3 June 2010 / Accepted: 24 July 2011
Published online: 27 August 2011
* Springer-Verlag 2011
G. T. Rao : V. V. S. Rao : L. Surinaidu : J. Mahesh : G. Ramesh
National Geophysical Research Institute,
Groundwater Bldg., Room 109, Uppal Road, Hyderabad,
5000007Andhra Pradesh, India
G. T. Rao ()) : V. V. S. Rao : L. Surinaidu : J. Mahesh : G. Ramesh
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Groundwater Bldg., Room 109, Uppal Road, Hyderabad,
5000007Andhra Pradesh, India
e-mail: gopingri@gmail.com
Tel.: +91-40-23434635
Fax: +91-40-23434651
K. Ranganathan : J. Mahesh : G. Ramesh
Central Pollution Control Board, Southern Zonal Office,
2nd floor, A-block, Thimmaiah Main Road, 7th D cross, Bangalore,
560010Karnataka Stateh, India
Hydrogeology Journal (2011) 19: 1587–1598
Keywords Hexavalent chromium . Contamination .
Groundwater flow . Conceptual model . India
Introduction
Chromium is utilized in many industrial activities
(electroplating, fertilizers, varnish, metallurgy, wood
preservation) and is considered a major contaminant
arising from the tanning industry. The water chemistry,
environmental mobility and the toxicity of chromium
have been studied by many workers (for example,
Mertz et al. 1974; Baes and Mesmer 1976; Ringstad et
al. 1990; Govil et al. 2004). To date, limited effort has
been directed towards the assessment of tannery-waste
contaminated land and the potential risk for ecology
and the environment. Chromium is water soluble and
extremely irritating and toxic to human body tissue
owing to its oxidizing potential and permeability with
respect to biological membranes (Anderson 1999). Tri-
valent chromium (Cr3+ ) is considered to be a trace element
essential for the proper functioning of living organisms
(Zayed and Terry 2003; Wang et al. 2009). The oxidized
form, hexavalent chromium (Cr6+), readily mobile at usual
soil pH, is considered a skin irritant and a class A carcinogen
by inhalation; the reduced form, Cr3+, though much less
mobile, has low acute and chronic toxicity (James et al.
1997). High doses of chromium cause skin damage, damage
to the lungs, asthma attacks (ATSDR 2005), and liver and
kidney damage, and chromate dust is carcinogenic (SEGH
2001; Mugica et al. 2002).
With the increasing sense of awareness about the
environment and the recognition of the need for its
protection, the study of solute transport related to ground-
water contamination has become the focus of numerous
researchers. Groundwater modeling is an established tool
to study the aquifer response for given input–output stress.
There are a large number of reports and papers also available
to describe the groundwater flow and mass transport models
that are used to study contaminant migration; examples of
model applications to field problems include Konikow and
Bredehoeft 1974; Robson 1974; Konikow and Bredehoeft
1978; Rao and Thangarajan 1998; Rao and Gupta 2000;
Majumdar et al. 2002; Rahman et al. 2004; Dhakate et al.
DOI 10.1007/s10040-011-0771-9
 Author's personal copy
1588
2008; Igboekwe et al. 2008; Mondal and Singh 2008;
Thangarajan et al. 2008; Tiwary et al. 2005; Singh et al.
2009).
Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB, unpub-
lished report, 1996) estimated that ∼150,000 tons of solid
chromium waste accumulated over two decades of plant
operation has been stacked in the open yard (stack height
varies from 4 to 5 m) on 3.5 ha of land within the Tamil
Nadu Chromate and Chemicals Limited (TCCL) premises,
Ranipet, Thamil Nadu, India. The leachate generated from
infiltration of rain water has been polluting the ground-
water regime in the downstream areas of TCCL (Rao et al.
NGRI, unpublished report, 2009; Sankaran et al. 2009).
The residential colonies in the downstream side of TCCL
have been subjected to soil and groundwater contamina-
tion with Cr6+ (Sankaran et al. 2009). The factory started
production during 1976 and was closed by TNPCB during
1996 due to the reported contamination of groundwater
with Cr6+. Even though operations have ceased in the
factory, the stack of chromium waste in the TCCL
premises has been causing groundwater contamination
through the action of leachate generation from infiltration
of monsoon rainfall to the groundwater regime. Hydro-
geological and groundwater quality monitoring has been
carried out in the watershed covering the TCCL, with the
primary data collected during 2008. Groundwater quality,
groundwater flow and mass transport modeling studies
have been carried out to understand the subsurface
geological features controlling the groundwater movement
and to assess the present status of groundwater contam-
ination in and around the TCCL dump site. This report
details the groundwater flow and mass transport deter-
mined using the models MODFLOW and MT3D. The
results would be useful for the actions to be taken for
groundwater and contaminated soil remediation.
Study area
Ranipet is a medium-sized municipality located along
Palar River bank in the Vellore District and 120 km from
Chennai. TCCL had manufactured sodium, chromate,
chromium salts and basic chromium sulphate tanning
powder used in the leather tanning process. The raw
materials used for manufacturing chromium salts include
chromate ore, limestone soda ash, sulfuric acid and
sodium chlorate. The TCCL is located in Plot No. 25 of
the SIPCOT Industrial area about 3 km north-west of
Ranipet Town adjacent to old Chennai-Bangalore National
Highway. The watershed covering the study area spreads
over 54 km2 (Fig. 1). Near TCCL there is a small lake,
which receives the treated effluent from the common
effluent treatment plant (CETP) from the tannery cluster.
The small lake has been connected to Puliankannu Lake.
Some additional field channels have been found that also
release treated/untreated wastewater into various streams
that reach Puliankannu Lake. Puliankannu and Karai lakes
receive treated wastewater from the CETP, discharged into
the streams leading to these lakes.
Hydrogeology Journal (2011) 19:1587–1598
Geology and hydrogeology
The study area presents undulating topography, falling in
the pediment zone, and with structural hills on the
northern side. The flat to undulating pediplain character-
istic continues and extends to the flood plain of Palar
River. Topographically, the vicinity of the factory slopes
southeast towards Puliankannu and Karai Lakes and
further downstream to Palar River. The northern side of
the factory area is in an elevated zone and the southern
portion is in low-lying land. Palar River, running from
west to east, is one of the major drinking-water sources of
this region. Discontinuous unconfined to semi-confined
aquifers down to 150 m below ground level (bgl),
restricted to the weathered zone and fracture zone, have
been encountered in the granite and gneissic formations in
the Palar Basin Fig. 1 (GSI 2000). The TCCL area is beset
with Archean granite with highly metamorphosed gneissic
complex as basement with secondary structures such as
joints and fractures, and intrusion of dolerite dykes and
quartz veins. The major dolerite dyke, striking NE–SW,
passes through the factory area (Sankaran et al. 2009). The
hydraulic behavior of the dyke acts as a natural barrier to
the lateral and vertical extent of the pollution zone in and
around the chromium dump site. Quaternary sediments are
represented by alluvial sand and clays, restricted to the
Palar River and its tributaries. Groundwater occurs in
alluvial deposits as well as in Achaean rocks under water-
table conditions. The groundwater in the alluvium and
clay occurs in unconfined to semi-confined conditions
down to 50 m bgl. Puliankannu and Karai Lakes are the
major surface-water bodies, which are polluted by
discharge from various industrial effluents including the
TCCL dump site. Sub-surface data indicate that the
alluvium of Palar River is a highly transmissive aquifer
(Rao and Thangarajan 1998).
Topography in the watershed varies from 190 to 162 m
above mean sea level (amsl) from Pulianthangal village to
the Palar River and the ground slope is in the NW–SE
direction towards Palar River (Fig. 2). The ground surface
elevation within the TCCL factory varies from 190 m
(amsl) in the dump behind the factory to 187 m (amsl)
near TCCL gate, and further downgradient the ground
elevation is 179 m (amsl) at the dug well near Pulian-
kannu Lake. The depth to groundwater level has been very
shallow and varies between 0 and 6.28 m (bgl) within the
watershed during post monsoon (January 2008). Regional
groundwater level contours of post-monsoon season
clearly indicate that the predominant groundwater flow
direction is from TCCL site towards the Puliankannu and
Karai Lakes and Palar River in the south (Fig. 3).
Materials and methods
A network of 29 observation wells was established in the
area for monitoring water level and water quality (Fig. 1),
which includes pumping wells, open wells and hand
pumps. Groundwater samples were collected in 1,000-ml
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Fig. 1 Location of observation wells and surface-water sites, and geology map of the study area

polythene bottles pre-cleaned with double distilled water.
The collected samples were filtered by Whatman filter
paper prior to their analysis in the laboratory. The samples
were analyzed for all major ions by following standard
methods (APHA 1998) including hexavalent chromium
(Cr6+) for both pre- and post-monsoon during 2008.
Immediately after sampling, pH and electrical conductiv-
ity (EC) were measured in the field. Total dissolved solids
(TDS) were calculated from EC multiplied by 0.64
(Brown et al. 1970). Nitrate (NO3), and sulphate (SO4)
analyses of the water samples were carried out using a
spectrophotometer, and sodium (Na) and potassium (K)

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Fig. 2 Topography contour map of the study area
were determined using a flame photometer. The Cr6+
concentrations in samples were determined using color-
imetry by using a spectrophotometer at 540 nm and the
diphenylcarbazide (DPC) method (APHA 1998).
Mass-transport modeling was used to attain an under-
standing of pollutant migration (TDS plume). The
preparation of a conceptual model for (mass transport)
computation of dissolved chemical species in an aquifer at
any specified time and space has been undertaken by
several researchers using Visual MODFLOW-pro ver. 4.2
(Zheng 1990; Guiger and Franz 1996; McDonald and
Harbaugh 1988; Zheng and Wang 1999; Harbaugh et al.
2000 ). The theoretical basis for the equation describing
pollutant transport has been well documented in the
literature (Bear 1972). In these cases, the initial period in
model simulation has been the period of anthropogenic
input of the contaminant to the environment.
Fig. 3 Groundwater level contour map of the study area
Hydrogeology Journal (2011) 19:1587–1598
Groundwater quality
Water-quality analysis has been carried out for major ions
and hexavalent chromium on 26 groundwater samples and
3 surface-water samples during pre- and post-monsoon in
2008 (Tables 1 and 2). The pH of groundwater samples
taken from wells located within the TCCL premises
ranges from 6.8 to 11.5 with an average of 8.9 for the
pre-monsoon period, and 6.9 to 11.7 with an average of
9.0 for the post-monsoon period. Whereas, from wells
located outside of the TCCL premises, the pH of ground-
water samples varies from 6.2 to 8.0 with an average
value of 7.2 for the pre-monsoon period, and 6.6 to 7.9
with an average value of 7.2 for the post-monsoon period.
The surface-water sites, R16 (inside the TCCL premises)
and R19 (outside the TCCL premises) were dry during the
pre-monsoon period. The sample collected from Pulian-
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6+
Table 1 Major ion and chromium (Cr ) concentrations in groundwater, 2008
Well No. Pre-monsoon (June 2008) Post-monsoon (December 2008)
pH TDS Cl SO4 NO3–N Na K Cr6+ pH TDS Cl SO4 NO3–N Na K Cr6+
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
R1a 10.7 1,594 78 136 0.96 531 1.6 103 10.6 1,465 85 159 4.9 309 1.8 109
R2a 7.7 1,025 37 80 0.69 368 8 69.9 8.1 1,120 50 236 8.4 277 6.6 64
R3a 7.9 655 23 30 0.83 217 2 38.6 7.8 956 43 152 6.1 255 3.1 53
R4a 6.8 1,933 27 1,605 0.6 265 1.05 220 6.9 2,304 41 855 5.1 728 2.6 185
R5a 11.5 1,990 146 213 0.76 510 4 95.6 11.7 2,176 85 156 4.2 314 8.4 275
R6 7.6 1,901 293 666 0.2 260 7.75 160.9 7.4 2,105 299 725 1 214 14.1 225
R7 8 2,298 457 72 0.05 535 13 0.9 7.9 1,664 292 579 BDL 269 17.1 0.01
R8 7.8 1,101 178 152 1.76 183 10 0.21 7.2 1,102 203 90 BDL 203 11.9 0.63
R9 7.2 905 201 103 1.7 120 1.44 BDL 6.9 903 187 132 8.23 147 3.8 0.44
R10 6.6 1,039 174 186 1.51 102 0.26 BDL 6.8 1,005 203 172 9.51 155 0.8 BDL
R11 6.7 898 183 101 1.63 97 0.96 0.02 6.8 863 180 113 9.62 135 1.7 BDL
R12 6.9 659 82 235 0.1 100 34 BDL 7.7 835 185 140 9.47 172 10.5 BDL
R13 7 848 224 79 0.48 158 4.6 0.02 7.6 1,067 258 147 18.8 196 4.4 BDL
R14 6.8 523 96 65 3.09 50 1.87 0.06 6.8 358 75 44 8.54 86.8 2.4 BDL
R15 7.1 1,907 540 341 1.78 230 3.2 0.02 6.9 2,464 749 354 16.5 272 4.5 BDL
R18 7.5 3,533 745 128 0.26 1,010 20 0.04 7.5 2,624 749 230 0.2 840 15.2 BDL
R20 6.8 1,734 306 687 12.68 273 2.5 0.02 7.1 1,132 251 413 15.8 244 3.3 BDL
R21 7.1 549 114 50 0.76 88 2.9 BDL 6.9 1,318 218 348 12.8 215 1.6 BDL
R22 6.2 174 14 39 1.27 20 1.39 3.43 7.2 171 22 50 5.7 54.1 2.3 0.33
R23 7.9 1,459 380 151 63.8 237 4.7 BDL 6.6 1,395 346 135 51.2 229 8.3 BDL
R24 7.2 1,587 434 150 14.2 193 4.7 0.04 7.8 1,196 276 108 51.9 209 1.5 BDL
R25 7.2 1,389 370 147 3.31 115 1.6 0.05 7.1 1,388 361 83 16.18 171 4 BDL
R26 7.7 1,318 265 210 3.91 157 2.4 BDL 7.1 729 172 92 2.4 149 1.7 BDL
R28 6.9 659 82 235 0.1 100 34 0.02 6.8 1,264 209 312 0.06 203 7.8 BDL
R29 7.2 497 82 68 0.41 77 3.1 BDL 7.2 471 88 68 0.84 134 5 BDL
a
TCCL groundwater samples
BDL below detection limit

kannu Lake (R27) showed a pH value of 8.4 pre-
monsoon. All the surface-water samples’ (R16, R19 and
R27) pH ranged from 8.0 to 11.5 with the mean of 9.6
post-monsoon. The pH is high indicating that the ground-
water is alkaline in nature.
TDS in TCCL groundwater samples varies from 655 to
1,990 mg/l with a mean of 1,439.4 mg/l pre-monsoon, and
956 to 2,304 mg/l with a mean of 1604.2 mg/l post-
monsoon. Whereas, outside of the TCCL premises, the
concentration of TDS varies from 174 to 3,533 mg/l with
a mean of 1303.8 mg/l pre-monsoon, and 171 to
2,624 mg/l with a mean of 1,220.4 mg/l post-monsoon.
TDS concentrations in groundwater samples within the
TCCL premises rose from 1,933 to 2,304 mg/l at R4 and
from 1,990 to 2,176 mg/l at R5 for the pre- and post-
monsoon seasons respectively. Groundwater samples from
the hand pump (R6) in Maruthur Gopalan Ramachandran
(MGR) Nagar were found to have TDS concentrations of
1,901 mg/l pre-monsoon and 2,105 mg/l post-monsoon.
At site R27, the surface water showed 7,552 mg/l TDS
pre-monsoon; the surface-water samples’ TDS ranged
from 1,689 to 3,904 mg/l with an average value of
2,468 mg/l post-monsoon.
It is possible that the infiltrating rainwater may be
leaching through the dump, immediately elevating the
TDS concentration in groundwater after the North East
monsoon rainfall, whereas surface-water samples show
higher concentrations of TDS because of contamination
by untreated effluents from the nearby industries that are
polluting the Puliankannu and Karai Lakes. The chloride
(Cl) concentration in TCCL groundwater samples varies
from 23 to 146 mg/l with an average of 62.2 mg/l pre-
monsoon, and 41–81 with an average of 60.8 mg/l post-
monsoon. Outside of the TCCL premises, Cl concen-
tration in groundwater samples varies from 14 to 745 mg/l
with an average of 271.77 mg/l pre-monsoon, and 22–
745 mg/l with an average of 277 mg/l post–monsoon. The
surface-water sample of R27 has 1,537 mg/l pre-monsoon;
the surface-water samples’ Cl concentration ranged from
98 to 822 mg/l with an average 480 mg/l post-monsoon.
So that Cl concentration in groundwater also has shown
elevated ranges during the post-monsoon period compared
those of pre-monsoon. Furthermore, the Cl concentrations
in groundwater adjacent to the TCCL premises have been
found to be elevated relative to the values found in
groundwater from wells inside the TCCL premises. As

Table 2 Major ion and chromium (Cr6+) concentrations in surface water, 2008
Well No. Pre-monsoon (June 2008) Post-monsoon (December 2008)
pH TDS Cl NO3–N SO4 Na K Cr6+ pH TDS Cl NO3–N SO4 Na K Cr6+
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
R16a 11.5 1,811 98 5.2 125 317 13.8 100
R19a 9.3 1,689 521 5.5 252 314 3.2 30
R27 8.4 7,552 1,537 8.18 3596 1,863 3.3 BDL 8.0 3,904 822 0.2 191 900 23.6 BDL
a
Wells R16 and R19 were dry in the pre-monsoon period

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regards surface water, the Puliankannu Lake (R27) water
has shown elevated pre-monsoon Cl concentration. Cl
concentration was higher during the post-monsoon season
indicating leaching from upper soil layers due to industrial
and domestic activities and dry weather (Srinivasamoorthy
et al. 2008).
Inside the TCCL premises, sulphate (SO4) concentra-
tion in groundwater samples was 30–1,605 mg/l with an
average of 412.8 mg/l pre-monsoon, and 152–855 mg/l
with an average of 311.6 mg/l post-monsoon. Outside the
TCCL premises, the SO4 concentration in groundwater
samples ranges from 39 to 687 mg/l with a mean of
213.2 mg/l pre-monsoon, and 44–725 mg/l with a mean of
232 mg/l post-monsoon. Surface-water sample R27
showed 3,596 mg/l SO4 pre-monsoon; surface-water
samples’ concentration was 125–252 mg/l with an average
value of 189.3 mg/l post-monsoon. SO4 concentrations
were slightly elevated during pre–monsoon in ground-
water samples. Elevated SO4 concentration of 1,605 mg/l
pre-monsoon and 855 mg/l post-monsoon in groundwater
has been reported in well R4, adjacent to the chromium
dumpsite. It is possible that the waste sludge in the dump
may be contributing as chromium sulphate. Outside the
TCCL premises, the well R6, near MGR Nagar, has also
reported elevated SO4 concentrations of 666 and 725 mg/l
respectively for pre- and post-monsoon. The pre-monsoon
SO4 concentration in well R20 (687 mg/l), located in the
premises of SIPCOT Ltd (in an industrial area) has
indicated the severe nature of groundwater contamination.
Significantly, there is no nitrate contamination reported in
the surface-water samples during either season. There is no
nitrate contamination in groundwater samples, except pre-
monsoon at R23 (63.8 mg/l NO3–N) and R24 (14.2 mg/l) in
Vavoc Nagar and post-monsoon at R13 (18.8 mg/l), R23
(51.2 mg/l), R24 (51.9 mg/l) and R25 (16.18 mg/l) in Vavoc
Nagar, and R20 (15.8) in the SIPCOT area, due to
anthropogenic activities. The sodium (Na) concentrations
in TCCL groundwater samples range from 217 to 530 mg/l
with a mean of 378.2 mg/l pre-monsoon, and 255 to 728 mg/
l with a mean of 376.6 mg/l post-monsoon. Outside of TCCL
premises, the Na concentration varies in groundwater from
20 to 1,010 mg/l with a mean of 204.6 mg/l pre-monsoon,
and 54.1 to 840 mg/l with a mean of 214.9 mg/l post-
monsoon. The surface-water sample R27 has shown
1,863 mg/l Na pre-monsoon; surface-water samples’ Na
concentration ranges from 314 to 900 mg/l with a mean of
510.3 mg/l post-monsoon. Na was higher in the pre-
monsoon season indicating weathering from plagioclase-
bearing rocks (Srinivasamoorthy et al. 2008). There are no
significantly high potassium (K) concentrations reported in
either groundwater or surface-water samples for pre- and
post-monsoon seasons.
Chromium occurs in higher concentrations in the
wastes from electroplating, paints, dyes, chrome tanning,
paper industries, etc. The maximum contaminant level of
chromium (Cr6+) for drinking water is 0.05 mg/l (WHO
1984). The hexavalent chromium (Cr6+) concentrations in
groundwater inside the TCCL premises varies from 38.6
to 220 mg/l with an average of 105.4 mg/l pre-monsoon,
Hydrogeology Journal (2011) 19:1587–1598
and 53 to 275 with an average of 137.2 mg/l post-
monsoon. Outside of the TCCL premises, the concen-
tration of Cr6+ varies from 0.02 (BDL) to 160.9 mg/l with
an average of 21.7 mg/l pre-monsoon, and 0.01 to
275 mg/l with an average of 64.8 mg/l post-monsoon.
The well near MGR Nagar (R6) has shown higher
concentration levels (Cr+6 ∼160.9 mg/l for pre-monsoon
and 275 mg/l for post-monsoon seasons) due to the
chromium dump contaminating the downstream area (Rao
et al. NGRI, unpublished report, 2009). Whereas for
surface water there is no Cr+6 contamination in R27
samples in both seasons, high post-monsoon concentra-
tions were found in well R16 (100 mg/l) inside the TCCL
premises and R19 (30 mg/l) outside of TCCL premises.
The surrounding rocks are predominantly granite, where
chromium concentration is always below 50 mg/kg, so is
not possible that groundwater derived such high levels of
Cr from rocks (Srinivas Gowd and Govil 2007). There-
fore, the source of Cr appears to be anthropogenic, from
some industries producing textiles and from the chro-
mium-containing dump material in the area.
Groundwater flow and mass transport modeling
Conceptualization of the model
The groundwater-flow model in the watershed covering
TCCL, Ranipet, has been conceptualized as a two-layered
weathered and fractured aquifer system spread over
54 km2. The total thickness of the aquifer varies from 40
to 50 m. The groundwater flow model has 53 rows and 57
columns of cell sizes 220 m×220 m and 55 m×55 m. The
fine-grid spacing is around the chromium dumpsite and in
the immediate downstream area. Active and inactive
regions and hydraulic conductivity map of the ground-
water model domain are shown in Fig. 4. Variable aquifer
parameters assigned to five different hydrogeologic units
distributed in the model are given in Table 3. There were
21 observation wells used for calibration of the ground-
water flow and mass transport models. The block wise
permeability of the saturated granitic gneissic rocks varies
from 2 to 3 m/day in the major part of the watershed,
whereas due to continuous disposal of treated wastewater,
greater weathering conditions would have developed in
the downstream area and the permeability has been
slightly increased to 4 m/day. The hydraulic conductivity
of Palar River bed is quite high and is about 48 m/day and
the intervening zone between Palar River and Puliyan-
kannu Lake has a conductivity of 13 m/day (Rao et al.,
NGRI, unpublished report, 2009). The permeability values
for the region have been taken from published literature
(Karanth 1987; Rao and Thangarajan 1998). The water-
shed has natural hydraulic boundaries of the Ponnai River
and joining Palar River in the west, and the Palar River in
the south. Some lateral inflow may be entering from the
northern boundary and it has been simulated with a
constant head boundary with a hydraulic head of 188 m
(amsl). The Palar River and Ponnai River have been
simulated with river boundary conditions. The hydraulic
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Fig. 4 Active and inactive cells and hydraulic conductivity map of the simulated groundwater flow and MT3D model domain. Assigned
conductivity values of different zones are shown in Table 3

conductivity of the granitic aquifer system varies from 26 Palar River and a weathered aquifer of 30-m thickness
to 48 m/day from in the Palar River (Rao and Thangarajan away from the river. Effective porosity of 0.2, specific
1998). The area receives an average annual rainfall of storage 0.0002 m–1 and specific yield 0.15 were assumed
1,100 mm, mostly during the North East monsoon. The for the entire region based on geological features and
CETP wastewater flow adjacent to the dump site is these values were assigned to the model. The longitudinal
perennial and continuous dilution of the chromium dispersivity was assumed to be 30 m and the transverse
contamination could be possible due to close proximity dispersivity as 10 m.
and direct contact; thus, there is a possibility of some
additional recharge entering the groundwater regime along
the drainage network leading to the Palar River. Consid- Groundwater flow equation
ering all the possibilities, it can be suggested that, in Modeling translates the physical system into mathematical
general, groundwater recharge outside the dump site is terms. The governing flow equation for three dimensional
about 160 mm/year and inside the dump site and along the saturated flow in saturated porous media is
drainage it is about 330 mm/year. Groundwater pumping
for irrigation and industrial use is taking place in the area      
and this has been simulated at various pumping centers @ @h @ @h @ @h @h
with an average pumping rate of 100 m3/day. The above Kx þ Ky þ Kz  Q ¼ Ss
@x @x @y @y @z @z @t
hydrogeological data have helped to conceptualize a
phreatic aquifer of 10-m thickness of alluvium along the ð1Þ

Table 3 Variable aquifer parameters assigned to five different hydrogeologic units distributed in the model
Unit Description (see Fig. 4) Horizontal Vertical Ky Specific Specific Effective
Kx = Ky storage(Ss) yield(Sy) porosity
1 Block wise (each grid) 3 0.3 2×10–4 0.15 0.2
2 River bed (pink area) 48 4 2×10–4 0.15 0.2
3 Upstream: north portion of the TCCL (white) 1 0.1 2×10–4 0.15 0.2
4 Downstream: south portion of the TCCL (white) 4 0.4 2×10–4 0.15 0.2
5 Intervening zone (green and grey areas ) 13 1.3 2×10–4 0.15 0.2

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Where, In the mass transport modeling a variable source
concentration of TDS of 1,500–2,000 mg/l was assigned
Kx, Ky , Kz Hydraulic conductivity along the assumed at the dumpsite as well as to the stream passing adjacent to
x, y, z axes, m/s (L T –1) the dumpsite flowing to Puliankannu Lake. The chro-
h Piezometric head, m (L) mium-waste dumpsite acts as a point source, whereas the
Q Volumetric flux per unit volume representing stream carrying the untreated effluent acts as a distributed
source / sink terms, positive for outflow and source. The computed TDS plumes originating from the
negative for inflow, (T–1) chromium-waste dumpsite and along the stream course
Ss Specific storage coefficient defined as the have been found to be moving towards Puliankannu and
volume of water released from storage per Karai Lakes spreading laterally eastwards from the stream
unit change in head per unit volume of course, i.e. towards the hand-pump site in the MGR
porous material, (L–1) Nagar, after a simulation of 10 years (Fig. 5). After
t Time, s (T) 30 years’ simulation, the predicted TDS plume migrates a
distance of 300 m downstream with an average ground-
water velocity of 10 m/year using the present-day
calibrations (Fig. 6). In general the TDS plume is confined
to a narrow zone either side of the stream channel joining
Solute transport equation the TCCL site to Puliankannu Lake. In the absence of
Equation 2 represents the flux of solute mass through a heavy groundwater pumping in the downstream area,
control volume. The equation states that the sum of all there is a very slow migration of the TDS plume towards
mass, which consumes or creates solute with the control the Palar River. It is assumed that the TDS migration will be
volume, must be equal to a change in the concentration of a precursor for Cr6+ migration in the mass transport
the solute with the control volume. modeling. The hexavalent chromium concentration and
TDS concentrations have shown good correlation in the area.
      
@C @ @C @ @C @ @C
¼ Dx þ Dy þ Dz
@t @x @x @y @y @z @z
 
Model calibration
@ @
@
 ðVx C Þ þ Vy C þ ðVz C Þ The numerical model was calibrated under steady-state
@x @y @z
conditions through a series of groundwater flow simu-
ð2Þ lations. The conceptualization of the regional flow and the
relatively complex model architecture were precisely
Where, defined in the preliminary stage of the model develop-
ment. The computed groundwater level contours in Fig. 7
Vx, Vy , Vz Seepage velocities in x, y, z directions, show the trend of observed water levels during July 2008.
m/s (L T –1 ) During calibration, measured and model-computed heads
Dx, Dy , Dz Dispersion coefficients, m2 /s (L2 T –1 ) (water levels) are compared, and the difference is referred
C Solute concentration, mg/m3 (M L–3 ) to as the residual. Groundwater levels during July 2008
t Time, s (T) for 28 wells within the model domain were used as
calibration targets. The purpose of this modeling exercise
The governing equations for groundwater systems are is to solve an inverse problem, i.e. to find a set of
usually solved either analytically or numerically (McDonald parameters, boundary conditions and stresses that repro-
and Harbaugh 1988). duce the calibration values within a certain re-established
MT3D (mass transport in three dimensions) is a range of error (calibration targets). In this case, a trial and
computer model for simulation of advection, dispersion error calibration technique has been used. Then these
and chemical reactions of contaminants in three-dimen- parameter values are adjusted in sequential model runs to
sional groundwater-flow systems (Zheng 1990). Using the match the calibration targets. The calibration parameters
computed velocity field from the groundwater flow model, set in this modeling exercise are the generalized head
a mass transport simulation was carried out using MT3D boundary, recharge, evapotranspiration, hydraulic conduc-
software. The source loading from the TCCL dump site tivity, specific yield, etc. The computed versus observed
and the stream (effluent-carrying stream shown in Fig. 2) heads are presented in Table 4. It shows that the water
passing through the oxidation pond leading to Pulian- levels monitored from 28 observation wells during July
kannu and Karai Lakes has been simulated by assigning 2008 vary from 174 to 190 m (amsl), whereas the computed
variable TDS concentrations of 1,500–2,000 mg/l at the water levels from 175.99 to 188.78 m (amsl). It indicates the
water table during the last 30 years of simulation. minimum and maximum residuals are –0.351 and 3.985 m,
Background initial average TDS concentration in ground- respectively, between observed and calibrated hydraulic
water was assumed to be 450 mg/l. Mass-transport heads at the targets, with mean 0.222 m.
simulation was carried out for 50 years in steady state TDS concentration (C) was then calculated at all node
with 2008 pre-monsoon hydrological conditions. points for July 2008, a date up to which the system was

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Fig. 5 Predicted TDS plume around the TCCL site: scenario after 10 years in the mass transport model

Fig. 6 Predicted TDS plume around the TCCL site: scenario after 30 years in the mass transport model

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Fig. 7 Computed ground-
water level contours in m
(amsl) and velocity vectors

assumed to be in a steady-state condition. There was a
mismatch between observed and computed values of C.
Therefore, efforts were made to obtain a better match by
modifying the magnitude and distribution of the background
concentration and pollutant load. However, the situation
could not be improved much. This may be due to a variety of
factors, the most important being the lacunae and inaccur-
acies in the database. To obtain the real representation of the
aquifer system, field data (December 2008) were considered
for other steady-state conditions and were also run to
visualize the mass-transport model. The hydraulic conduc-
tivity was changed by 20% (Kx and Kz) of the value assigned
in the model at each node. Change in conductivity affects
groundwater velocity, causing redistribution of solute con-
centration. In general, the higher the conductivity, the faster
is the movement of the solute. The calibrated recharge values
have been divided into three zones: the extreme southern
zone is assigned as 160 mm/year; inside the dump site is
assigned as 130 mm/year; and the extreme northern zone is
assigned as 400 mm/year. However, the evaporation is
estimated to be a maximum rate of 70 mm/year with an
extinction depth of 3.0 m based on the type of crops and
plants that grow in the area. The longitudinal dispersivity
was increased to 50 m (from 30 m). Transverse dispersivity
was taken as one-third of the longitudinal dispersivity. No
significant changes in TDS concentration were noticed due
to increase in dispersivity. This shows that advection and not
dispersion is the predominant mode of solute migration in
the TCCL. The computed versus observed C is illustrated in
Fig. 8.

Table 4 Computed versus observed head values

Target pointa Observed head (m) Calculated head (m) Residual
R1 186 187.86 −1.86
R2 185 184.31 0.69
R3 183 181.91 1.09
R4 184 182.19 1.81
R5 187 184.37 2.63
R6 179 180.7 −1.7
R7 178 180.49 −2.49
R8 190 188.78 1.22
R9 185 185.9 −0.9
R11 177 176.32 0.68
R12 176 178 −2
R13 176 178 −2
R14 174 175.99 −1.99
R17 186 184.02 1.98
R20 187 185.45 1.55
R23 179 180 −1
R24 180 179.65 0.35
R25 178 178.77 −0.77
R26 182 181.16 0.84
R30 179 180.49 −1.49
R31 179 179.76 −0.76
Fig. 8 Calibration graph of computed versus observed TDS
a
Target points (observation wells) are shown in Fig. 1 concentrations (mg/l)

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 Author's personal copy
Conclusions
The groundwater quality data and hydrogeological studies
carried out during 2008 have helped in the development of
groundwater-flow and mass-transport models of chro-
mium associated with a dumpsite in the TCCL near
Ranipet, Vellore district, Tamilnadu. The mass-transport
model has simulated the TDS loading condition over the
last 30 years including the closure of the site for nearly a
decade. The mass transport model has computed the
predicted extent of the TDS plume in groundwater for
loading conditions at the dump site over a 30-year period.
The computed TDS concentrations explain groundwater-
flow direction responsible for the elevated TDS reported
in samples from a hand pump in MGR Nagar downstream
of the dump site. It is assumed that the TDS concen-
trations will be guiding the movement of even hexavalent
chromium in groundwater with its effective retardation
factor of 40, whereas TDS moves without retardation.
Thus, the mass transport modeling results depict the likely
hexavalent chromium migration pattern in the area in the
worst-case scenario. The prediction scenario indicates that
even though the present-day hexavalent chromium loading
is negligible, what has entered the groundwater system
earlier from the dump site is still moving in the ground-
water towards the Palar River. The migration of the
chromium plume monitored in the present study, if not
intercepted at the initial stages, is likely to magnify and
further contaminate the groundwater reservoirs posing a
major threat to the entire living community of the area.
Further the emission of untreated wastewater in the
adjacent stream channel also contributes to the elevated
TDS in the plume in the downstream area. The authors
recommend stopping emission from CETP immediately
and shifting the chromium dump to a safe location.
Acknowledgements The authors thank the Director, NGRI, for his
support and encouragement and giving permission to publish this
report. We wish to thank Sri J. S. Kamyotra, Member Secretary, for
encouraging the collaborative project. We thank the Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB), southern region, Bangalore, for
supporting this study. The authors are also thankful to the Editor and
honorable reviewers for their encouragement and guidance in
improvement of the manuscript. The report is dedicated to the late
Sri B.P. Shukla, who initiated the study through NGRI.
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