Biological Sciences

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Human and Biomedical Sciences

Week 011 - Human and Biomedical Sciences

What is Biomedical Science? It is the study of the biology of diseases. There

are many aspects biomedical science. It includes the physiology of human
tissues and organs, the biology of human disease processes, and the
molecular reactions that occur in diseased cells. It may also be the
application of modern analytical techniques to aid diagnosis and treatment of
disease. Biomedical scientists working in the pathology department analyze
tissue and blood samples and provide healthcare staff with the information
they for effective patient treatment and care.
Biomedical science is the study of the human body. It deals with the role of
structure and function in health and disease. Biomedical scientists require an
understanding of medical biochemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, cell
and molecular biology, anatomy, physiology, infectious diseases and
neuroscience, among other fields.
Biomedical science is a set of applied sciences are of use in healthcare or
public health. The disciplines involved include medical microbiology, clinical
virology, clinical epidemiology, genetic epidemiology, and biomedical
engineering.
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. discuss the current problems in health sciences and research
2. identify important non-communicable diseases afflicting mankind
3. identify important communicable diseases afflicting mankind
4. explain the importance of vaccine and drug development
“A physician ought to have his shop provided with plenty of all necessary things,
as lint, rollers, splinters: let there be likewise in readiness at all times another
small cabinet of such things as may serve for occasions of going far from home;
let him have also all sorts of plasters, potions, and purging medicines, so
contrived that they may keep some considerable time, and likewise such as may
be had and used whilst they are fresh.”
- Hippocrates

Course Module
Immunity, Infections and Cancer

Figure 1. The main function of the immune system is to fight off

infections.

Organisms, including humans, have a wide array of adaptations for

preventing parasites and onset of diseases. In vertebrates, there are complex
and multilayered defense mechanisms in place which interact with other
defense systems like complex and specific pathogen recognition and memory
mechanisms. Research continues to unlock the complexities and
vulnerabilities, as well as the ability of the immune system to adapt.

Despite the initial and poorly held understanding about the body in the early
18th century Europe, the practice of inoculation has been used as a method
in preventing deadly diseases including smallpox. This method involves
using a limited level of infection with the virus. This is done by introducing
pus of an affected individual to an uninfected person. The symptoms of this
infection are a lot milder than what is seen in normal infections. Importantly,
the inoculation gives the individual immunity to the disease. This may be
considered a raw and crude form of vaccination. The principles are basically
the same: a weakened or harmless derivative of a pathogen is introduced
into the individual. Immunity is then induced. This lowers the ability of the
disease to infect the person via normal means of infection.

A modern understanding of the causes of the infectious disease refined this

method and the discoveries associated with the mechanisms of the immune
system help us develop vaccinations strategies in the modern times.
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Human and Biomedical Sciences

Origins of cancer?

Human cancers have been unearthed in in Egyptian mummies dating 5,000

years old. Cancer is believed to concurrently arise with advent of
multicellular life forms starting from the Cambrian explosion 700 million
years ago. This happens because each cell gains the ability to multiply
independently. The mechanisms of proliferation propelled the needs of the
organism for growth, however, uncontrolled growth, may happen if this is
not regulated. With the human body containing 30,000 billion cells,
regulation of this process is not 100% accurate. The chance of failing over the
course of a human life time is high. In simplistic terms, this is the initial cuse
of cancer.

Dietary factors may also initiate cancer especially in the digestive tract. Of
note, stomach cancer is more common in Japan than in the USA. Colon cancer
occurs as frequently in Africa as in USA. Statistical studies show that the
causes are unlikely to be genetic since Japanese migrating to Hawaii quickly
adopt US pattern of cancer incidence. Moreover, it has been shown
repeatedly that 90% of cancers are caused by environmental factors,
pollution or contaminants like those coming from tobacco smoke. About 3%
of cancer cases may be due to occupational exposure. Evidently, most cancers
seem to be caused lifestyle in combination with genetic predisposition.

Vaccines and Drug Development

Vaccines for Prevention
Limited numbers of effective antiviral drugs for HIV and influenza illustrates
how long we need to go in terms of disease prevention. However, we have to
take into account that the primary method of controlling viral disease is only
by vaccination. Vaccination protocols prevent outbreaks by building
immunity to virus family. A vaccine is developed using weakened live
viruses, or molecular subunits of the virus, that the body’s cells can
recognize. Live attenuated viruses lead show better immune response. The
possibility of the disease also occur at low frequency. Subunit vaccines on the
other hand are incapable of causing the disease, but are in general leading to
less effective or long-lasting immunity.
Weakened live viral vaccines are developed to cause very few symptoms in
while giving effective immunity against future infections. One successful
example is the vaccine for polio. Mass immunization campaigns in the U.S. in
the 1950s to 1960s essentially eradicated the disease in the whole country.
This disease in known to caused muscle paralysis in children. The success of
the polio vaccine paved the way for the routine use of childhood vaccines
against measles, mumps, rubella, chickenpox, and other infectious and often
deadly diseases.

Course Module
Live vaccines are made by weakening the disease-causing virus. This is done
by growing it in the laboratory. For example, the virus may be grown in a test
tube or in eggs. These new “hosts” induce mutations in the virus’ genomes.
This also allows the virus to grow better while inhibiting their ability to
cause disease in bigger organisms. Note that these attenuated viruses can
still cause an infection. But because they do not grow very well our immune
response will have time to develop and prevent major or life-threatening
disease symptoms. There is, however, a low but significant risk that these
viruses will revert to their disease-causing form through re-adaptation to the
host, in most cases livestock or humans.
Some vaccines are in continuous development. Diseases needing these types
of vsccines include influenza and HIV. These viruses have a high mutation
rates compared to other viruses. Mutation in influenza genes factors for the
“decorations” of surface molecules. This helps the virus evade the protective
immunity. Thus, we have to get vaccinated yearly for influenza. Childhood
diseases like measles, mumps, and rubella, mutate at very slow rates. Booster
vaccines are needed every few years in adulthood.

Vaccines and Antiviral Drugs for Treatment

In some cases, vaccines can be used to treat an active viral infection. For
example in rabies, a fatal neurological disease transmitted by the saliva of
infected animals like dogs and rodents, the disease needed to be prevented
by combating and inducing the immune response against the virus as soon as
possible. This will give enough time to vaccinate an individual suspected to
be infected by rabies through a bite by a rabid animal. This allows and boosts
the immune response to prevent the virus from entering the nervous tissue.
This approach has also been used for the treatment of Ebola. It is one of the
fastest and most deadly viruses affecting humans. This virus causes mortality
in 70–90 percent of the infected patients within two weeks. Because of
current vaccine technology, the hope for better control of the virus, reduction
of mortality, and lowering epidemics are high in almost all viral diseases.
A medical breakthrough occurred in 1993 when the first bionic arm was
created through the process of biomedical engineering. This arm contained a
number of motors, pulleys, and electronic equipment that would allow users
to actually grip items because artificial fingers were available. By 1998,
people were able to use these devices thanks to brain impulses that could be
translated into movement inputs.
Antiviral drugs can be used as an alternative for preventing virus-caused
diseases. Their main use is to control and reduce symptoms for a wide
variety of viral diseases. These drugs inhibit the virus by blocking the activity
of one or more of viral proteins. Thus, viral growth is inhibited without
damaging the patient. There are large numbers of antiviral drugs available to
treat infections. Some are specific for a particular virus and others that can
kill multiple viruses in the same family.
The most common and popular antivirals include those that are able to treat
genital herpes and influenza. For genital herpes, this includes drugs such as
acyclovir that can make the symptoms of the disease more manageable. For
influenza, drugs like Tamiflu can reduce the duration of symptoms. The most
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Human and Biomedical Sciences

successful and effective of antivirals is for the treatment of the HIV. This
disease was previously untreatable and if untreated, pateints die within 10–
12 years post-infection. However, with Anti-HIV drugs, viral replication can
now be controlle. Individuals receiving these drugs can now survive
significantly and comparable to uninfected individuals. Anti-HIV drugs act by
inhibit viral replication at many different phases of the HIV life cycle. Fusion
inhibitors, reverse transcriptase inhibitors, integrase inhibitors, and protease
inhibitors are among these mechanisms of preventing HIV. When any of
these drugs are used together, the virus’ high mutation rate and resistance
are solved. The mixture of these different drugs, referred to as a drug
“cocktail” attacks the virus at different stages of its replication cycle. New
anti-HIV drugs are constantly being developed to lessen the side effects and
make more effective treatment for patients.

Course Module
Figure 2. The immune cells of the body are involved in infection and cancer.
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Human and Biomedical Sciences

Humans Interactions

The immune system comprises both of the innate and adaptive immune
responses. Innate immunity happens naturally. Our genetic disposition
makes the innate immune response to always be “on-guard.” It reduces the
workload for the adaptive immune response. Both the innate and adaptive
levels of the immune response involve secreted proteins, receptor-mediated
signaling, and cell-to-cell communication.

The innate immune system developed by evolution as an essential response

to infection. However, our innate immunity has a limited number of specific
targets. Pathogenic threat triggers a consistent sequence of events that can
identify the type of pathogen by the immune response. It mobilizes a highly
specialized adaptive immune response for clearance of these pathogens.

Physical and Chemical Barriers

Before any immune factors are triggered, the skin, being our largest organ,
functions as barrier to infection. Pathogens are killed or inactivated on the
skin’s acidity. In addition, microorganisms residing in our skin prevent
infections by competition. Regions of the body that are not protected by skin
produce tears and mucus to trap and rinse away pathogens. The cilia in the
nasal passages and respiratory tract push the pathogens out of the body. Low
pH of the stomach, blood proteins that bind and disrupt bacterial cell
membranes, and acidic urination are some of the ingenuous ways of the body
to protect itself from pathogens.

Despite these barriers, pathogens are also smart. They may enter the body
through skin punctures, or by collecting on mucosal surfaces. Some
pathogens evolved specific mechanisms allowing them to overcome physical
and chemical barriers. The innate immune system responds with
inflammation, pathogen engulfment, and secretion of immune factors and
proteins.

What have we learned?

In this module we discussed the current problems in health sciences and

research and identified important non-communicable diseases uplifting
mankind. We also enumerated important communicable diseases afflicting
mankind and explained the importance of vaccine and drug development.
Glossary

Course Module
Glossary
Brain - an organ of soft nervous tissue contained in the skull of vertebrates,
functioning as the coordinating center of sensation and intellectual and
nervous activity
Bone - any of the pieces of hard whitish tissue making up the skeleton in
humans and other vertebrates
Digestion - the process of treating a substance with heat, enzymes, or a
solvent to promote decomposition or extract essential components.
Lungs - each of the pair of organs situated within the ribcage, consisting of
elastic sacs with branching passages into which air is drawn, so that oxygen
can pass into the blood and carbon dioxide be removed. Lungs are
characteristic of vertebrates other than fish, though similar structures are
present in some other animal groups
Muscle - a band or bundle of fibrous tissue in a human or animal body that
has the ability to contract, producing movement in or maintaining the
position of parts of the body
Organ system - is a group of tissues that perform similar functions
Reproduction - the production of offspring by a sexual or asexual process
Senses - a faculty by which the body perceives an external stimulus; one of
the faculties of sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
Kadhila, N. (2007). Biology Module 1. London:Cambridge University Press.
Lodish, H., Berk, A., Kaiser, C.A., Krieger, M., Ploegh, H., Amon, A., & Martin, K.C. (2016).
Molecular Cell Biology, 4th Ed. New York: MacMillan.
Reece, J. B., & Campbell, N. A. (2011). Campbell Biology. 6th Ed. Boston: Benjamin
Cummings.

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

Anatomy of the Human Body; https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/body/; Date
accessed: 20 April 2017.
Biological Complexity; https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/biological-
complexity-and-integrative-levels-of-organization-468; Date accessed: 20 April 2017.
Human Sytems; http://www.austincc.edu/biology/assessment/pdf/Module7_Human-
Systems.pdf; Date accessed: 20 April 2017.
Organ Systems;
www.ntschools.org/cms/lib/NY19000908/.../114/Unit_11_Human_Body_PPT.pptx; ;
Date accessed: 20 April 2017.
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Structure and Functions of OOrgan Systems;

https://www.tn.gov/assets/entities/education/attachments/tcap_alt_science_module10
_life_sci_struct_func_growth_develop.pdf; Date accessed: 20 April 2017.
Tissue-Organ-Organ Systems;
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/principles-of-physiology/body-
structure-and-homeostasis/a/tissues-organs-organ-systems; Date accessed: 20 April
2017.

Online Instructional Videos

Atlas of the Heart; www.vhlab.umn.edu/atlas/right-atrium/; Date accessed: 20 April
2017.
Human Anatomy; sydney.edu.au/medicine/anatomy/; Date accessed: 20 April 2017.

Course Module