Author et al./ Zulfaqar Int. J. Def. Sci. Eng. Tech.

Zulfaqar J. Def. Sci. Eng. Tech. Vol.0 Issue 0 (0000) 0-0

ZULFAQAR Journal of
Defence Science, Engineering & Technology
Journal homepage: zulfaqar.upnm.edu.my

POTENTIALITY OF VARIOUS METHODS IN REDUCING SULPHUR EMISSION

ONBOARD MERCHANT SHIP
Muhammad Sufian bin Suhaimia,* Lt. Kdr. Ts. Mohd Azzeri bin M. Naiem TLDM (R)b

ab National Defence University Malaysia, Malaysia

ab Faculty of Defense Science & Technology, National Defence University Malaysia, Malaysia

*Corresponding author: 2190328@alfateh.upnm.edu.my

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

The aim of this research to reduce sulphur emission to follow IMO new regulation
based on their criteria by studying and compare potentiality of various methods.
Since 1st January 2020, a global sulphur limit of 0.5% is in place and it is obviously
important to all ship operators which also known as IMO 2020 Sulphur Cap. This is
because SOx can actually affect asthmatics by stimulating the nerves in the nose and
Keywords: throat. Other than that, SO2 can formed acid rain when being further oxidized with
Sulphur oxide, Marine NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) to sulphric acid H2SO4 which is dangerous to environment and
fuels, Scrubber, IM0 affect marine life. Sources like journal, articles and previous research papers were
2020 Sulphur Cap utilised to perform review using Decision Matrix Method (DMM). Based on the DMM
being tabled, the discovery suggest liquefied natural gas (LNG) with the highest
e-ISSN: point. However, the study suggest for ship owners to choose their point of reference
Type: Article before choosing the best possible method as LNG is a bit pricey in terms of cost for its
use. Recommendation for the next researcher is to learn more by focusing
significantly on the issues in Malaysia itself and whom affected by the new IMO
regulation in order to come out with one abatement method to reduce sulphur
emission. Optimizing the comparison being made by studying more on real life
situation regarding to the topic of reducing sulphur emission onboard merchant ship
by getting the feedback from shipowners or ship operators on what challenges they
are being through in order to comply.

© 2021 UPNM Press. All rights reserved.

Introduction

SOx is a usual term of one chemical compound that containing sulphur and oxygen element (Zis,
2018). Regarding to the marine transportation, SOx being produced during the combustion of bunker
fuels. It will also producing a major chemical compound sulphur dioxide (SO2) which has a relative mass
of 64.066 g/mole. Modest level of SO2 have been found in atmosphere clearly. It is produced during
sulphur oxidation when fossil fuels are combusted which are coal and oil. SO x has been reviewed as both
local and global contaminants. International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has introduced IMO 2020
Sulphur Cap onto the sulphur content on board ship and started since 1 st January 2020 (IMO, 2020).
Before this emission control area (ECA) on certain area had been introduced aimed to cut sulphur
emission but later the new regulation has been initiated. The matter arise related to the cutback of
sulphur emission is cover in this research.
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Literature review

Researcher will dive deeper into the progression of the regulation amended by IMO throughout
these recent years. Also this chapter will cover the possible methods that can be chosen as one
compliance option. The blend, assessing and recognizing pertinent of literature in certain area is
literature review.

i. Open Loop

The procedure of seawater to purify exhaust gas and then discharge back into the sea is a
process of open loop scrubbing. This is because the natural seawater as composition that used to
neutralise SOx. Basically, sulphur oxides from ship exhaust gas is sulphur dioxide, SO2 which will be
further oxidised into sulphur trioxide, SO3. Sulphur dioxide is ionising to sulphite as well as bisulphite
when dissolved in seawater in which are easily oxidised into sulphate in the seawater that full with
oxygen. Excessive H+ ions is produce by ionisation to sulphite and bisulphite which is acidic . Open loop
is less favourable than closed loop exhaust gas cleaning system because the wash water will be transfer
back into the sea after having been purify causing acidic sludge to be exposed to marine live.

ii. Closed Loop

In order to neutralise and clean exhaust gases, freshwater added with the sodium hydroxide as
an alkaline chemical will be use. Using the closed loop of system exhaust gas cleaning in which requires
the addition of a chemical and the use of freshwater is the process of sulphur oxides removal by
freshwater together with the chemical addition (EGCSA Handbook 2012, 2012). Using the closed loop
of system exhaust gas cleaning in which requires the addition of a chemical and the use of freshwater is
the process of sulphur oxides removal by freshwater together with the chemical addition. The majority
of closed loop EGCS that used caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) were typically sold as a 50 percent
solution to eliminate the use of solid equipment . When compared to open loop exhaust gas cleaning
system, closed loop exhaust gas cleaning systems are less hazardous because the wash water is kept
and treated at the port before acidic solution being discharged.

iii. Hybrid Exhaust Gas Cleaning System

While hybrid EGCS is combination of closed loop scrubbers as well as open loop scrubbers, as
the mode is determined by the system design. Due to its high alkalinity, seawater is used in open water,
whereas addition in chemical required to enclosed water due to alkalinity of the seawater in the inlet
(Schinas & Stefanakos, 2014).
iv. Dry Exhaust Gas Cleaning System

Instead of water that includes calcium sulphate (CaSO4) as the reaction product, sufficient
amount of hydrated lime that granulated (calcium hydroxide – Ca(OH)2) will be used in medium
scrubbing in dry EGCS. The greater the use of granulate if it operates at low temperatures. The cleaning
process will remove SOx as well as particulate matter since it is designed to prevent exhaust gas flow
horizontally in order to optimise the chemical reaction. Fresh granules are kept on top of exhaust gas
cleaning unit in supply silo, while removal control of reacted granules and any particulate matter at the
bottom ensures proper gravity feed. To ensure compliance with regulations, an automation system
with an integrated exhaust emissions monitoring system is installed at the control cabinet (Bilgili,
2021)

v. Marine Diesel Oil

Marine diesel oil is the combination of heavy fuel oil (HFO) and many types of distillates. When
being stored MDO does not need to be heated like HFO. At the refinery, MDO can be blending with
dissimilar ratios or just use the over-ready blending of bunker fuels (Abadie et al., 2017). MDO also
known as intermediate fuel oil (IFO) because of its proportion. But in reality it only contain a small
proportion of heavy fuel oil. Contrary to MDO, IFO being classified as heavy fuel oil because of its higher
proportion of heavy fuel oil than MDO. Marine diesel oil can be classified as low sulphur fuel oil (LSFO).
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IFO 180 and 380 is the example of them as these fuel has been desulfurized to have low sulphur
content of 1%.

vi. Marine Gas Oil

Distillates is the major component of marine gas oil (MGO). Liquid from the process of
condensation in fractional distillation and crude oil that has been evaporated is the genuine distillates.
It is denser if compared to diesel and mainly have many kinds of distillates blend. Same like MDO, MGO
does not need to be heated when storage. Sulphur content in MGO can be produced with distinct level.
For instance low sulphur type of MGO has relatively 0.1% and DMA has 1.5%. The latter will be used by
shipowners if they retrofit a scrubber (Bilgili, 2021). While low sulphur type of MGO being used in ECA.
MGO emit less particulate matter and soot if compared to other alternatives of marine fuels. However
due to its higher cost of using MDO and MGO, heavy fuel oil is still being use in commercial shipping.
MGO is classified as ultra-low suphur fuel oil (ULSFO) and being chosen since Annex VI of the MARPOL
Conventions in 1 January 2015 declared the limit of sulphur content of 0.1% in ECA (Oiltanking , 2020).

vii. Liquefied Natural Gas

Cooling of natural gas has made liquefied natural gas (LNG). Little amount of noble gas, ethene,
propane, butane, nitrogen, ethane, CO2 (carbon dioxide) and hydrocarbon methane is the main
components of LNG. Sulphur content in LNG has 0.004%. The gas converted to liquid form and only
takes around 1/600th of its volume approximately at -160°C (Oiltanking , 2020). The gas is cleaned by
a complex process in a special equipment and then cooled in order to produce LNG. Before arrive at the
respective destination, LNG usually change to gas and will be heated at the terminals before sent by
pipelines. Pipelines of the natural gas is not connecting in the routes is the main cause why natural gas
being liquefied. This is more beneficial when it is being sent over a long distance since it needs quarter
the energy of the gas and convoluted. Now LNG tanker using LNG as their ship’s oil. It shows that LNG
has become an option in shipping industry. Significantly, in order to reduce sulphur emission, LNG has
become an alluring option for shipowners. Since there is less port giving LNG bunkering or pipelines
for LNG, it become less favourable to ship owners (Li et al., 2020).

Based on the recent years there are many researchers that have identify suitable measures to
comply with IMO 2020 Sulphur Cap. However there were little research on how ship owners can have
the guidelines in order to choose the suitable method and applying on their merchant ship. Mustafa et
al., 2015 has use decision matrix method (DMM) to compare the possible options of friction material
against the criteria he chosen. Another research, Gianni et al., 2021 also applied DMM to undergo a
study on comparison of viable solution of power plant but with a help of system solution. Thus
researcher has found a method which is Decision Matrix Method (DMM). This method being choose as
it can select any method that being compared thoroughly against the criteria.

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Methodology

This chapter will consist of research design for qualitative data. Research methodology will be
explained in detail and a method to analyze data that will be collected. Researcher will be reviewing on
how the data being collected and the ways to achieve the aim of this study.

Figure 1: Flow chart

There are two levels of research that will be carried out. Final year project 1 (FYP1) comprises
the researcher gathering much information from previous research. The data collected will be analysed
using the Decision Matrix Method (DMM) to get a good result. Researcher also will identify possible
method in order to analyse data in the next FYP2. When it comes to the FYP2 the researcher will analyse
the data that will be collected. DMM is a functional technique that helps in decision making process.

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Figure 2: DMM steps

The first step in order to choose the best method for shipowners to comply with IMO regulation is the
selection of criterion. Previous studies will be benchmark for researcher to select certain criteria to compare
those various methods.

i. Sulphur content
ii. Capital cost
iii. Proficiency of discarding junk
iv. Linked to human healthcare
v. The capacity of desulphurisation unit taken up
vi. Cost of the maintenance and functional
vii. Proficiency of reducing PM
viii. Proficiency of reducing GHG emission
ix. The desulphurisation system heaviness
x. The cost of fuel
xi. Proficiency of reducing sulphur

Based on the table 1, it shows that weight to the respective criteria. Weights can be defined as the
relatively significant on each criteria in order to compare various methods. For example, giving the range
from 1 to 5 where the highest number indicate that how very significant one criteria can be. On the other
hand the insignificant criteria can be seen from the smallest number of the range.

Table 1: Weights to the respective criteria

Criteria Sulphur Capital Proficiency Linked to The Capacity of Cost of The Proficiency Proficiency The The Proficiency

Content Cost of Human Desulphurisation Maintenance of of Desulphurisation Cost in

Discarding Healthcare Unit Taken Up and Reducing Reducing System of Reducing

Junk Functional PM GHG Heaviness Fuel Sulphur

Method Emission

Weights 5 4 1 3 2 4 1 1 2 4 5

Next step is the designing of the point system. Researcher giving a range of point system (1,2,3,4
and 5). Like the weighting process, same procedure appertains to the point system designation. Higher
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number will portray the excellent score while the lower number will portray the inferior score. This
process will describe how well one method fulfil the needs of one criterion.

The last step is where the best possible method will be recognised. After researcher have
determined the point scored by each method which depends on how good it suits respective criterion.
The value (point score) then will be multiplied to each weight of the criteria. This will giving the total
score of each type of methods derived from the evaluation of researcher through the data gathered. Thus,
one possible method will be chosen as having the highest total score.

Analysis

Researcher will evaluate those types of fuels and emission abatement technologies based on
proficiency in reducing sulphur, proficiency of trash discharge, proficiency of reducing PM, the
desulphurization system heavinesss, the capacity of desulphurisation unit taken up, linked to human
health, cost of the maintenance and functional, the cost of fuel, sway on ship safety, sulphur content and
capital cost.

Sulphur Content

7%
6%
31% 6%
6%

19%
25%

Open Loop Closed Loop

Hybrid Exhaust Gas Cleaning System Dry Exhaust Gas Cleaning System
Marine Diesel Oil Marine Gas Oil
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Figure 3: Sulphur Content

Figure 3 shows the percentage of the sulphur content for the possible methods of reducing
sulphur emission. Pie chart above shows that closed loop, hybrid exhaust gas cleaning system and dry
EGCS shared the same percentage 6% which are the lowest, MDO gets 19% and 25% of percentage by
MGO. The highest percentage is LNG with 31%. Thus, it can be seen that LNG has the lowest content of
sulpur.

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Capital Cost

6%
17%
22%
11%

11%
22%
11%

Open Loop Closed Loop

Hybrid Exhaust Gas Cleaning System Dry Exhaust Gas Cleaning System
Marine Diesel Oil Marine Gas Oil
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Figure 4: Capital Cost

Figure 4 shows the percentage of the capital cost for the possible methods of reducing sulphur
emission. As can be seen from the pie chart above, there are three possible methods shared the same
percentage of 11% which are closed loop, hybrid exhaust gas cleaning system and dry EGCS. Open loop
model gets 17%. The highest percentage is acquired by both MDO and MGO with 22% and the lowest
percentage is 6% by LNG. The higher the percentage, the lower capital cost is needed. Thus the more one
workable method managed to meet this criterion.

Proficiency of Discarding Junk

6%
7% 6%
31%
6%

19%
25%

Open Loop Closed Loop

Hybrid Exhaust Gas Cleaning System Dry Exhaust Gas Cleaning System
Marine Diesel Oil Marine Gas Oil
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Figure 5: Proficiency of Discarding Junk

In figure 5 shows the percentage of the proficiency of discarding junk for all the types of
abatement option. There are three abatement options have the same percentage of 6% which are closed
loop, hybrid EGCS and dry EGCS. MGO and MDO have the percentage of 25% and 19% respectively. The
lowest percentage is secured by open loop model while the highest percentage of 31% gets by LNG. That
means LNG managed to meet the criteria of the proficiency of discarding junk in which the method
produced less waste.

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Linked to Human Healthcare

19% 15%

14%
14%
14%
10%
14%

Open Loop Closed Loop

Hybrid Exhaust Gas Cleaning System Dry Exhaust Gas Cleaning System
Marine Diesel Oil Marine Gas Oil
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Figure 6: Linked to Human Healthcare

From Figure 6 shows the percentage of the linked to human healthcare by all seven abatement
options. As can be seen there are four types of abatement option gets the same percentage of 14% which
are closed loop model, hybrid EGCS, dry EGCS and MGO. Open loop model gets 15% of percentage linked
to human healthcare. On the other hand, the highest percentage is obtain by LNG and the lower
percentage is obtained by MDO. The lower the percentage obtained by a method means that it can affect
human’s health.

Linked to Human Healthcare

19% 15%

14%
14%

14%
10%
14%

Open Loop Closed Loop

Hybrid Exhaust Gas Cleaning System Dry Exhaust Gas Cleaning System
Marine Diesel Oil Marine Gas Oil
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Figure 7: The Capacity of Desulphurisation Unit Taken Up

Figure 7 shows that percentage of the capacity of desulphurisation unit taken up by all
abatement methods. Based on the pie chart, the highest percentage is acquired by MDO with 29%. Open
loop mode and hybrid EGCS have the same percentage of 14% while LNG, closed loop model and dry
EGCS have 7% of percentage respectively. Marine gas oil gets 22% of percentage for the capacity of

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desulphurisation unit taken up. Abatement method with higher percentage had taken up less space
onboard ship.

Cost of The Maintenance and Functional

11% 17%
5%
22%
11%

28% 6%

Open Loop Closed Loop

Hybrid Exhaust Gas Cleaning System Dry Exhaust Gas Cleaning System
Marine Diesel Oil Marine Gas Oil
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Figure 8: Cost of The Maintenance and Functional

The percentage of the cost of the maintenance and functional is shown in figure 4.6. The lowest
percentage is obtained by closed loop model with only 5% while the highest percentage is obtained by
MDO with 28%. LNG and hybrid EGCS shared the same percentage which is 11% while open loop
model gets 17%. Marine gas oil acquired about 22% and dry EGCS only gets 6%. Abatement method
with low percentage means that had the higher cost of the maintenance and functional to operate
onboard ship.

Proficiency of Reducing PM

18% 15%

11%
11%
15%
15%
15%

Open Loop Closed Loop

Hybrid Exhaust Gas Cleaning System Dry Exhaust Gas Cleaning System
Marine Diesel Oil Marine Gas Oil
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Figure 9: Proficiency of Reducing PM

Figure 4.7 shows the percentage of the proficiency of reducing PM by all abatement
methods. The highest percentage is acquired by LNG with 18% and the lowest percentage is shared
by two different abatement options which are closed loop model of scrubber and MGO. There are

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four types of abatement option that get the same percentage which are open loop, hybrid EGCS, dry
EGCS and MDO. The higher the percentage means that the lower one possible method tends to
emit PM.

Proficiency in Reducing GHG Emission

12%
25%
12%

13%
19%

13%
6%

Open Loop Closed Loop

Hybrid Exhaust Gas Cleaning System Dry Exhaust Gas Cleaning System
Marine Diesel Oil Marine Gas Oil
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Figure 10: Proficiency in Reducing GHG Emission

Figure 10 shows percentage of the proficiency in reducing GHG emission. LNG gets the highest
percentage with 25% and the lowest percentage is acquired by dry EGCS with only 6%. Open loop and
closed model of scrubber shared the same percentage with 12%. MGO gets 19% while hybrid EGCS and
MDO have the percentage of 13% respectively. Possible method with higher percentage has met the
criterion of the proficiency in reducing GHG emission.

The Desulphurisation System Heaviness

7% 14%

22% 7%

14%

29%
7%

Open Loop Closed Loop

Hybrid Exhaust Gas Cleaning System Dry Exhaust Gas Cleaning System
Marine Diesel Oil Marine Gas Oil
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Figure 11: The Desulphurisation System Heaviness

Pie chart in the figure 10 shows the percentage of the desulphurisation system heaviness. Marine
diesel oil gets the highest percentage with 29% while LNG, closed model and dry EGCS gets the same
percentage with 7% which is the lowest. Open loop model and hybrid EGCS have the same percentage

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with 14% while MGO acquired 22% of the percentage. Abatement method with lower percentage means
that having hefty equipment onboard ship.

The Cost of Fuel

19% 16%
4%
16%
15%
15%
15%

Open Loop Closed Loop

Hybrid Exhaust Gas Cleaning System Dry Exhaust Gas Cleaning System
Marine Diesel Oil Marine Gas Oil
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Figure 12: The Cost of Fuel

Figure 12 shows the percentage of the cost of fuel. The lowest percentage is obtained by MGO
with only 4%. MDO, dry EGCS and hybrid EGCS get the same percentage of the cost of fuel with 15%. The
highest percentage is obtained by LNG with 19% while open and closed model of scrubber get 16%
respectively. The lower the percentage means that higher the cost of fuel for one possible method.

Proficiency in Reducing Sulphur

17% 11%

17%
14%

10% 14%

17%

Open Loop Closed Loop

Hybrid Exhaust Gas Cleaning System Dry Exhaust Gas Cleaning System
Marine Diesel Oil Marine Gas Oil
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Figure 13: The Proficiency in Reducing Sulphur

Figure 13 shows the percentage of the proficiency in reducing sulphur by all abatement methods. The
highest percentage is 17% and acquired by three abatement methods which are LNG, closed loop model
of scrubber and dry EGCS. The lowest percentage is 10% obtained by MDO and open loop scrubber gets
11%. Marine gas oil and hybrid EGCS have the same percentage with 14%. The higher the percentage
acquired by one abatement method, the higher proficiency of in reducing sulphur.

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Table 1 depicts the judgement of the 7 types of abatement method postulated on DMM (Decision Matrix
Method).

Table 1: Decision matrix table

Criteria Sulphur Capital Proficiency Linked to The Capacity of Cost of The Proficiency Proficiency The The Proficiency Total

Content Cost of Human Desulphurisation Maintenance of of Desulphurisation Cost in

Discarding Healthcare Unit Taken Up and Reducing Reducing System of Reducing

Junk Functional PM GHG Heaviness Fuel Sulphur

Method Emission

Weights
5 4 1 3 2 4 1 1 2 4 5
Open Loop
1 3 1 3 2 3 4 2 2 4 3 84
Closed Loop
1 2 1 3 1 1 3 2 1 4 5 77
Hybrid EGCS
1 2 1 3 2 2 4 2 2 4 4 81
Dry EGCS
1 2 1 3 1 1 4 1 1 4 5 77
MDO
3 4 3 2 4 4 3 2 4 3 3 104
MGO
4 4 4 3 3 4 4 3 3 1 4 108
LNG
5 1 5 4 1 2 5 4 1 5 5 112

The Decision Matrix Table is a visual representation of a set of decisions. The following table
outlines the decision and selection of the advantages and disadvantages of six methods of organic waste
management from cruise

As can be seen, the benefits and drawbacks for the choosing of one abatement method depicts by
DMM table in table 1. Based on the collection of data from different sources in literature review the
judgement and selection of the method have been made. Liquefied natural gas obtained the highest point
accumulated with 1120 while closed loop scrubber and dry EGCS acquired the lowest point score with
770 out of 1600. Thus, the concluding method is chosen based on the highest point score on the DMM
table. The final abatement method is LNG with 112 points.

As the final abatement method is LNG with the highest score acquired however there are still
pluses and minus of this method. Researcher has made a comparative study and has identified in terms of
the capital cost and the cost of the maintenance and functional is very high. This one can be the main
consideration for shipowners to be taken into account economically. Nevertheless, ship owners and
operators shall choose their point of reference to select the best possible method.

Besides, marine gas oil is more optional compared with marine diesel oil. However, there are
some key differences for both abatement methods. MGO is quite expensive rather than MDO in terms of
fuel cost but the proficiency of reducing sulphur and sulphur content of MGO is way better. Also, good to
mention that in terms of the reducing PM and GHG emission criteria, marine gas oil is better.

Furthermore, open loop scrubber is more optional for shipowners who choose to retrofit
onboard ship. But hybrid EGCS got the upper hand in terms of the proficiency in reducing sulphur and
also to avoid the compliance for certain ports in maritime area that prohibit sludge discharged.

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Conclusion

To conclude, all this research’s objectives have been met. The primary objective of this research
is to examine the different methods of reducing emissions of sulphur. Throughout chapter 2, it has been
discovered that are seven different methods of reducing emissions of sulphur like open loop scrubber,
closed loop scrubber, hybrid scrubber, dry exhaust gas cleaning system, marine diesel oil, marine gas oil
and liquefied natural gas. Articles, reports, websites, journal and archives are the example of sources
gathered by researcher. Moreover, all these possible methods are varied in terms of sulphur content,
capital cost, proficiency of discarding junk, linked to human healthcare, the capacity of desulphurisation
unit taken up, cost of the maintenance and functional, proficiency in reducing PM, proficiency in reducing
GHG emission, the desulphurisation system heaviness, the cost of fuel and proficiency in reducing
sulphur.

Furthermore, the next objective is to compare the various methods of reducing sulphur emission
to comply with IMO regulations. To achieve the objective, the data gathered by researcher have been
analyzed. Besides to come out with valuable suggestion for shipowners to comply with, researcher had
chosen DMM (Decision Matrix Method) to evaluate all the data gathered.

Lastly the third objective is to suggest potentiality of a method for ship owners as an abatement
choice according to IMO Sulphur Cap. Upon completing the two preceding objectives, this last objective
can be attained which is liquefied natural gas (LNG) as the best abatement method for shipowners to
comply with. Nevertheless, LNG is quite pricey in terms of capital cost and the cost of maintenance and
functional which some shipowners really being particular about.

Recommendation

i. Optimizing the comparison being made by studying more on real life situation regarding to the
topic of reducing sulphur emission onboard merchant ship by getting the feedback from
shipowners or ship operators on what challenges they being through in order to comply.

ii. Learn more by focusing significantly on the issues in Malaysia itself and whom affected by the
new IMO regulation in order to come out with one abatement method to reduce sulphur
emission.

References

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emissions regulations: Fuel switching or installing a scrubber? Transportation Research Part D:
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https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.09.017

Bilgili, L. (2021). Life cycle comparison of marine fuels for IMO 2020 Sulphur Cap. Science of The Total
Environment, 774, 145719. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145719

EGCSA Handbook 2012. (2012).

Gianni, M., Bucci, V., & Marinò, A. (2021). System simulation as decision support tool in ship design.
Procedia Computer Science, 180, 754–763.
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