Food Control 22 (2011) 977e981

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Control
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodcont

Effect of processing of apple puree on patulin content


Lucie Janotová*, Helena Cí  ka, Michal Voldrich
zková, Jan Pivon
Department of Food Preservation and Meat Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Technická 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Mycotoxin patulin represents potential health hazard especially in apple based baby food. There are
Received 7 August 2010 already a lot of data to predict the fate of the toxin during the processing of fruits, but not enough for the
Received in revised form apple puree and the existing data for apple puree are not usually consistent. The objective of the study
23 November 2010
was to evaluate the course of patulin degradation during the processing of apple puree under the
Accepted 4 December 2010
conditions close to the real production process. The apple samples were spiked with patulin at four levels
of concentration (539 mg/kg, 140 mg/kg, 23 mg/kg and <2 mg/kg). The patulin content changes during the
Keywords:
processing were followed. The samples were taken after the homogenization, pulping, pasteurization
Patulin
Apple puree
and aseptic packaging. All operations of apple puree production contributed to patulin reduction. The
Processing stage principle operation was pulping, where the patulin levels were reduced from 29% to 80% of original
content.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Mycotoxins represent a possible chemical hazard in food
production. They should always be considered in hazard analysis
and risk assessment during implementation and maintenance of
the HACCP concept in food processing. During the processing of
fruits, the mycotoxin patulin is of special importance, especially in
apples, but also in other fruits (apricots, oranges, grapes), some
vegetables (e.g. tomatoes), grains and refrigerated products, such as
cheese and cured meat.
Many negative influences were discovered through research,
mutagenic, teratogenic, neurotoxic and immunotoxic effect on rats,
as well as gastrointestinal effects are attributed to it (Hopkins,
1993). Due to its toxicity, the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee
on Food Additives (JECFA) set the provisional maximum tolerable
daily intake for patulin at 0.4 mg/kg body weight/day (WHO, 1995).
The occurrence of patulin in apple products is a worldwide
problem, which is why maximum limits for patulin were estab-
lished by international recommendation and regulations that are in
valid for all European Union member countries. The maximum
admissible patulin levels set by the Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006
(European Commission, 2006a) apply to fruit juices, nectars and
apple wine, as well as other fermented drinks made from apples or
containing apple juice. Allowable amounts are 50 mg/kg for fruit
juices, nectars and apple wine, and for other fermented drinks
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ420 220 443 002; fax: þ420 233 337 337.
E-mail address: lucie.janotova@vscht.cz (L. Janotová).
made from apples, 25 mg/kg for other apple products, and 10 mg/kg
for apple products intended for infants’ and children’s nutrition
(European Commission, 2006a).
Apples are a worldwide basic raw material for production of
many products, particularly those related to infants’ and children’s
nutrition. Thus apple products, if contaminated apples are pro-
cessed, are a very considerable source of patulin in the human diet
(WHO, 1995).
Contamination of apples by patulin is usually associated within
the areas of spoiled tissue. Several studies indicate that the diffu-
sion of patulin in apples is limited to a depth of 1e2 cm from the
rotted area. It was concluded that contamination of apple deriva-
tives could generally be avoided by trimming and removing
a portion of healthy tissue extending 2 cm from the rotted area. The
risk of mycotoxin diffusion was found to also depend on the
consistency of the fruit and the species of organism involved
(Barkai-Golan & Paster, 2008). The role of fruit-tissue integrity was
raised by Lindroth, Niskanen, and Pensala (1978), who evaluated
the distribution of patulin in finished fruit products. Patulin was
found to diffuse to all levels of jam and storage temperature and
water activity influenced both fungi growth and diffusion rates.
In 2003 the Codex Alimentarius Code of Practice, for the
prevention and reduction of patulin contamination in apple juice
and apple ingredients in other beverages, was published (Codex
Alimentarius Commission, 2003). The code very generally summa-
rizes patulin retention data, as well as recommending methods for
preventing patulin contamination in apple based fruit beverages
during primary production (GAP) and processing (GMP). The GMP
recommendation for processing includes reduction of the transport

0956-7135/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.12.005
978 L. Janotová et al. / Food Control 22 (2011) 977e981

and pre-processing period, in order to prevent mould growth and
toxinogesis. GMP further recommends the examination of fruit for
internal rots, especially for the varieties with an open calyx, the
removal of mouldy fruits and washing, using potable or treated
water, etc. During subsequent processing steps, the growth of
moulds must also be prevented by limited interoperation durations,
cold storage, etc. and examination for patulin content during the
process is also recommended. Heat treatment should be thorough
enough to inactivate all microorganisms.
Patulin content in apples correlates well with the degree of
mould spoilage in fruits. Rotten parts may contain approximately
up to 100 mg/kg of patulin, although concentrations of patulin in
partly decayed fruit are usually not above 1e2 mg/kg (Horubala,
1992; Sydenham et al., 1995; Taniwaki, Hoenderboom, Vitali, &
Eiora, 1992). Patulin content might be reduced by up to 80% of
original level by the transfer to the washing water within the initial
water treatment steps. In the case of apples, the highest concen-
trations of patulin are usually found in decayed part of fruits and its
diffusion into the remaining flesh of apples is significantly lower
than in tomatoes, peaches and oranges (Horubala, 1992; Sumbu,
Thonart, & Bechett, 1982). Subsequent decreases of patulin
content in fruit puree, juice or concentrate can be explained by the
degradation reactions proceeding in the products.
Patulin is relatively heat-resistant. Heating only affects the rate
of chemical degradation reactions. The course of degradation
depends on the presence of other reacting compounds and on the
pH and general composition of the food matrix. No degradation was
observed in model systems, when patulin remained active during
boiling at 100  C at pH 2 (Pohland & Allen, 1970). Mycotoxin is
stable at pH ranging between 3.0 and 6.5. If the pH value is higher,
the lactone ring is opened and the toxic effect is lost. Another
method for patulin degradation is reaction with bisulphite ion
ðHSO 3 Þ to the conjugated system in the patulin lactone structure
and similar additional reactions are also described for thiols. It is
believed that HSO 3 would also add to the incipient aldehyde
function of the hemiacetal moiety of patulin (Pohland & Allen,
1970; Ritieni, 2003). Ascorbic acid has also been reported to elim-
inate patulin from apple juice, although optimal conditions for
inactivation have not been fully established (Aytac & Acar, 1994;
Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2003). The degradation of the
lactone ring of patulin or adducts formation yields less toxic
products compared with patulin (Woller & Majerus, 1982). Patulin
degradation in apple juice by yeast fermentation is also known, but
no patulin was observed in apple cider when apple juice was added
after fermentation (Moss & Long, 2002).
Preventive measures cannot reliably exclude patulin presence in
products. Many stability studies were published within the last
twenty years. Summarized stability data are given in Table 1. The
table reviews the effect of various processing steps of apple
concentrates and juices as to their increase, prevalence, or reduc-
tion of patulin. The content of patulin can be lowered, according to
the way of production, by 0e80%.
However, for apple puree and the products derived from it, such
as apple based baby foods, apple sauces and beikosts, the infor-
mation on patulin persistence and transformation during process-
ing is not found in the literature. Only data for patulin
concentrations in final commercial apple purees are reported.
According to Barreiraa, Alvitob, and Almeidac (2010), in most cases
patulin is under the detection limit, but in 5 of 76 samples, its
presence was quantified and it was close to the legal limit.
As the technology of processing generally plays a considerable
role in reduction of potential threats of mycototoxin contamination,
patulin occurrence during the production of apple puree can be
expected to follow similar trends as in juices and concentrates.
From the above data, it is evident that the course of patulin
degradation varies and any prediction of the final patulin levels
cannot be exact. Individual factors should also be taken into the
consideration, e.g. different requirements for the quality of raw
material, different production steps, heat treatment and final
product composition. The objective of the study was to evaluate the
course of patulin degradation during the processing of apple puree
under conditions close to the actual technological processing.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Apple homogenate production
To assess the influence of the chosen technological procedures
for reduction of patulin content, cv. Golden Delicious apples were
purchased from the local supermarket. They were deliberately
contaminated by Penicillium expansum DBM 4061, a suspension of
which was injected by syringe about 3 cm below the inside surface,

Table 1
Patulin degradation during the various treatments of apple products.

The stages of Patulin before treatment Treatment Patulin reduction Reference

processing
Selection 0.19 mg/kg Hand removal of rotten and 71% Betina, 1990, p. 288
damaged fruit
Washing 350 mg/l Initial water treatment step 14e15% Acar, Gokmen, & Taydas, 1998
20 mg/l Initial water treatment step 25% Acar et al., 1998
0.92 mg/kg Initial water treatment step 80% Betina, 1990, p. 288
Processing 221 mg/l Evaporation (70  C, 20 min) 9.4% Kakadal & Nas, 2003
unknown Filtration and enzyme treatment 3e4.5% Bissessur, Permaul, & Odhav, 2001
221 mg/l Pasteurization (90  C, 20 min) 18.8% Kakadal & Nas, 2003
1500 mg/l Pasteurization (90  C, 7 min) 60% Taniwaki et al., 1992
Formulation unknown Addition of sulphur dioxide 42% Aytac & Acar, 1994
(100 mg/kg)
unknown Addition of ascorbic acid 50% Aytac & Acar, 1994
(500 mg/kg)
1 mg/l g-irradiation (0.35 kGy) 50% Zegota, Zegota, & Bachmann, 1988
155 mg/l Pressure treatment 13% Br
una et al., 1999
(500 MPa, 20  C, 20 min)
155 mg/l with Pressure treatment 17% Br
una et al., 1999
100 mg/kg Na2S2O5 (500 MPa, 20  C, 20 min)
Storage 155 mg/l Storage at 20  C (18 days) 40% Br
una et al., 1999
155 mg/l with Storage at 20  C (18 days) 42% Br
una et al., 1999
100 mg/kg Na2S2O5
 L. Janotová et al. / Food Control 22 (2011) 977e981
i.e. close to the core of whole, healthy apples. Then the apples were
kept for 12 days at a temperature of 25  C (Pitt, Spotts, Holmes, &
Cruickshank, 1991), washed and homogenized by Utra-turax.
Parts of 50, 25, 5 and 0% contaminated, homogenized material
was added to the healthy, raw apple mash, so the resulting patulin
content of the final homogenate was 539 mg/kg, 140 mg/kg, 23 mg/kg
and <2 mg/kg, respectively.
2.2. Apple puree processing
Approximately 1 kg of the apple homogenate was processed
according to the technological diagram derived from actual
industrial conditions (Fig. 1). Samples were collected, in duplicate,
after the homogenization, pulping, pasteurization, cooling and
aseptic packaging (final product). The procedure was repeated
three times for each concentration.
2.3. Model heat and storage experiments
Samples of apple homogenate, after pulping (sample 2 from
Fig. 1), were pasteurized at a temperature of 100  C for 10, 20 and
30 min.
The final apple puree product (sample 4 from Fig. 1) was stored
at 20  C for a period of 6 months.
2.4. Patulin determination
To isolate patulin from the samples, the modified method of ISO
8128-1:1993 was used. Patulin was extracted into ethyl acetate
(3  10 ml), and the extract was drained, dried and evaporated to
a dry state in a vacuum. The evaporation residue was dissolved in
chloroform (5 ml), and re-cleaned by means of gel permeation
chromatography (GPC) on BioBeads SX3 (polystyrene gel beads),
with chloroform as the mobile phase (flow rate 0.7 ml/min). The re-
Mash from contaminated apples Healthy raw material
Homogenate
Blanching
(1 min, 80 °C - 90 °C)
Pulping
(I sieve 4 mm and II sieve 1.25
Waste after pulping
Pasteurization
(10 min, 90°C)
Cooling
(35 °C - 45 °C)
Aseptic packaging
Final product
Fig. 1. Flow diagram for apple puree production and samples taken (samples 1 to 4).
979
cleaned extract was then allowed to evaporate to a dry state in
a vacuum. Acetate buffer (1 ml) was added to the evaporation
residue and the sample was analyzed by means of high-perfor-
mance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Separations were performed
on a Supelcosil LC-18 stainless steel analytical column (250 
4.6 mm i.d., 5 mm). HPLC conditions were set up using a constant
flow at 0.8 ml/min and acetonitrile-water (4/96 v/v) as the mobile
phase and the UV detector was set up at 276 nm (International
Organisation for Standardisation, 1993).
2.5. Statistical analysis
Box plot and one-way ANOVA were applied to test the effect of
each stage of apple puree production on patulin levels. StatisticaÒ 8
program was used.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Method validation
The procedure and results of method validation were in accor-
dance with Regulation (EC) No 401/2006 (European Commission,
2006b). Relevant parameters were evaluated after analyses of
apple puree, spiked by patulin, at two concentration levels
(15 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg).
The recovery of patulin obtained by spiking the apple puree
with 15 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg was 98% and 81%, respectively; the
repeatability (RSD) was 15.2% and 6.4%, respectively. The limit of
detection (LOD) was 2 mg/kg, the limit of quantification (LOQ) was
5 mg/kg and the linearity was 0.05e2000 mg/l.
3.2. Effect of apple puree processing
In the first stage of the process, the effect of raw apple material
contamination by the fungus P. expansum was monitored. After
four-days in storage, a visible expansion of the fungus around the
point of puncture could be seen after cutting the apples, the surface
staying intact and without visible decay. It wasn’t until a longer
period of storage (7e12 days) that fungal expansion took place,
both inside and on the surface of the apples, up to a visible growth
of colonies.
Contaminated apples were then washed (simulation of washing
Sample 1
the raw material with brushes) and patulin content was measured in
non-washed apples, washed apples and in wash water. A decline of
patulin content by 0e50% was found after washing, depending on
the original content and on the type of microbial contamination
(visible fungus growth on the surface versus fungus only inside the
fruit). Wash water contained from 50 mg/l to 14 mg/l of patulin.
Mash from individual washed fruits contained from 0.5 mg/kg to
5 mg/kg of patulin and the final averaged mash contained 1.1 mg/kg.
Sample 2 About 50, 25, 5 and 0% of contaminated, homogenized mash was
added to the healthy, raw apple mash, so the resulting patulin
content of the final homogenate was 539 mg/kg, 140 mg/kg, 23 mg/kg
and less than 2 mg/kg, respectively. Initial concentrations were
Sample 3 chosen according to limit values required by the actual legislation.
Processing of homogenates followed, according to the flow diagram
(Fig. 1).
The patulin concentrations, measured in contaminated samples
gained during individual technological stages, are given in Fig. 2.
These show that patulin levels can be considerably reduced
through processing steps. One way ANOVA tests show the influence
of processing stages of apple puree production. A summary of
Sample 4 ANOVA, applied to all samples, is illustrated in Table 2. Moreover,
the Scheffe test separates the stages of pulping and pasteurization
from the others. The most significant procedure contributing to
980 L. Janotová et al. / Food Control 22 (2011) 977e981

patulineproducing toxigenic fungi was subjected to the skin and

cores of apples that were subsequently removed by pulping. Espe-
cially for internally contaminated apples, as mentioned above,
removing the cores on sieves would significantly reduce the level of
patulin in the final product.

3.3.3. Heat treatment

Controversial results were mentioned in the studies evaluating
the effect of pasteurization on levels of patulin in apple products
(Sant’Ana, Rosenthal, & Massaguer, 2008). In our experiment, when
90  C for 10 min was applied, a mild decrease in patulin content
occurred (from 4 to 13% of original content according to its initial
concentration).
For the purpose of proving the effect of heat, independent
samples of apple puree were prepared with patulin concentrations
Fig. 2. Trend of patulin decrease from homogenate to final product for different initial
concentrations. of 23 mg/kg and 140 mg/kg, which were submitted to heat at 90  C
for 10, 20 and 30 min. During heat treatment, patulin decrease
actually occurs; in 30 min, patulin content was reduced by 17.4%
reduced patulin levels (from 29 to 80% of original content, and 20.7%, respectively, depending upon the initial concentration.
according to its initial concentration) was pulping. The largest decrease was recorded during the first 10 min of heat
According to this assumption, neither healthy, clean, raw when the patulin content was reduced by 8.6% and 17.9%, respec-
material, nor the apple puree produced from it contained patulin, tively. In samples exposed to a temperature of 90  C for 30 min, we
whereas it was possible to monitor higher or lower levels of patulin monitored the negative influence of high temperature on the
content from contaminated homogenate to the final product. colour of apple puree. These results correspond with the results
obtained by Kakadal and Nas (2003), who monitored the influence
of heat treatment in apple juice on patulin content as well as
3.3. Factors affecting patulin content decrease
change of colour. In trials they performed, patulin content dimin-
ished depending on the initial amount by 18.8% and 25.9%,
3.3.1. Fruit washing
respectively, at a temperature of 100  C over 20 min. Reduction of
The contamination of apples with patulin is usually associated
patulin content is caused by the degradation reaction of patulin
with spoiled tissue areas and removing rotted tissue from the fruit
with sulphites, thiols or other compounds in the food matrix. The
on brush washers can reduce patulin levels. Lowering of patulin
result depends on individual reaction kinetics and this is also
content by up to 50% was achieved by the washing step in prepa-
probably the reason published data on thermal patulin degradation
ration of contaminated apple mash.
is insufficiently consistent.
Similar and even more effective results could be expected in
industrial production, as most natural fungi contamination begins
3.3.4. Storage
with the mechanically damaged surface of the calyx area. However,
Changes in patulin content in apple products while storing
due to certain harsh environmental conditions, cracks in the seed
consumer packages are only rarely described in literature. Some
cavity can occur and the doormat spores of fungi can grow and
studies indicate the stability of patulin during storage of apple
produce patulin inside the fruit while the outer surface looks sound
juices results in a slight reduction in their levels (Sant’Ana et al.,
(Tournasa & Memonb, 2009). Such internally contaminated apples
2008).
can pass the fruit inspection unnoticed and cannot be efficiently
This very slight change corresponds with our results of storage
influenced by washing.
tests in which patulin content was monitored in apple puree
aseptically sealed in 200 ml twist-off jars. The initial concentration
3.3.2. Pulping
of patulin was 32 mg/kg and 61 mg/kg. During a six-month storage,
After blanching, apple mash was passed through a pulper, with
the non-statistically significant decrease in patulin content
4 mm and 1.25 mm sieves that remove peel, blossoms, stems and
occurred to the mean value of 31 mg/kg and 52 mg/kg, respectively.
cores and define texture. Pulping was the most efficient stage of
Similar to the case of heat treatment, decreases in patulin
puree production for the reduction of patulin. This result corresponds
content depends on the reaction rate of various degradation reac-
to the fact that, in model contaminated apples, the growth of
tions. This rate is affected by several factors, such as the concen-
tration of reactants in the products, sulphites, thiols, ascorbic acids,
Table 2
etc. and confirming our former results (Br una, Voldrich, Marek, &
The effect and significance of processing to relative patulin (in % of original content)
decreases in partly contaminated homogenates. Kamarád, 1999) the higher content of natural or residual sul-
phites in apple concentrate, the faster the decrease of patulin
Stage of puree production Initial concentration
content during storage. Similar effects are also probably caused by
(mg/kg)
other compounds reacting with patulin.
23 140 539 A very slow decrease during the storage, caused by chemical
1 Homogenate 100 100 100 changes, can be expected in sterile and hermetically closed prod-
2 Pulping 52 71 20
ucts, without any microbiological changes. In the case of microbial
3 Pasteurization 48 58 16
4 Final product 39 51 15 spoilage, additional patulin degradation can occur by yeasts
fermentation, but the patulin content in such spoiled products can
ANOVA analysis p-value () <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 increase in the case of growth of toxinogenic thermo-resistant
No significant 23 34 34 fungi present or surviving in the products or intermediate products.
differences among 34
stages at a ¼ 0.05
Fortunately, such microbiological changes in apple puree or in the
intermediate products are apparent to the senses and should be
 L. Janotová et al. / Food Control 22 (2011) 977e981
easily recognized during interoperation controls or in the final
products.
Apple puree serves as a final product or is considered an inter-
mediary product produced during fruit harvest and that can be kept
in storage until further use in e.g. apple based baby foods, apple
sauces or beikosts production. It consists of, depending on the
recipe, mixing individual ingredients (sugar, citric acid, ascorbic
acid, modified starch etc.) with apple puree, pasteurization and
aseptic filling. During these procedures, a very mild decrease in
general concentration of included patulin can be presumed, because
of the thinning of apple puree with other raw materials, including
addition of ascorbic acid (20e50 mg/kg) and pasteurization.
4. Conclusion
The results of this study indicate that it is feasible to reduce the
patulin content during the technological processing of apple puree.
All stages of apple puree production contributed to patulin reduc-
tion and the most significant procedure (pulping) reduced the
levels from 29% to 80% of original content. Despite the efficiency of
processing, the main control of patulin should always be focused on
the apple pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest conditions, to
guarantee inhibition of fungal formation. The presence of patulin
serves as a good indicator of the quality of the processed raw
material. Proper apple selection, handling, sorting, storage, recep-
tion, and washing can assure that only good quality, uncontami-
nated fruit is used to make apple products. Uses of these good
manufacturing practices can assure effective reduce of patulin
contamination.
Acknowledgement
This project was supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth
and Sports of the Czech Republic (research project MSM6046137305).
The authors thank MSc. Dana Savická for her help during the
application of the Penicillium expansum fungus and during identi-
fication and quantification of microbial contamination.
References
Acar, J., Gokmen, V., & Taydas, E. E. (1998). The effect of processing technology on
the patulin content of juice during commercial apple juice concentrate
production. Zeitschrift für Lebensmitteluntersuchung und -Forschung A, 207(4),
328e331.
Aytac, S. A., & Acar, J. (1994). The effect of L-ascorbic acid and sulphur dioxide on the
stability of patulin in apple juice and buffer solutions. Nutrition, 18, 15e17.
Barkai-Golan, R., & Paster, N. (2008). Mouldy fruits and vegetables as a source of
mycotoxins: part 1. World Mycotoxin Journal, 1(2), 147e159.
981
Barreiraa, M. J., Alvitob, P. C., & Almeidac, C. M. M. (2010). Occurrence of patulin in
apple-based-foods in Portugal. Food Chemistry, 121, 653e658.
Betina, V. (1990). Mykotoxiny chémia - biológia - ekológia. Bratislava: ALFA.
Bissessur, J., Permaul, K., & Odhav, B. (2001). Reduction of patulin during apple juice
clarification. Journal of Food Protection, 64, 1216e1219.
Br
una, D., Voldrich, M., Marek, M., & Kamarád, J. (1999). Effect of processing and
storage conditions on patulin content in apple juice concentrate. Journal of Food
Science, 17(4), 127e132.
Codex Alimentarius Commission. (2003b). Code of practise for the prevention and
reduction of patulin contamination in apple juice and apple juice ingredients in
other beverages. CAC/RPC, 50, 1e6.
European Commission. (2006a). Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December
2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. Official
Journal of the European Union, L 364/5.
European Commission. (2006b). Regulation (EC) No 401/2006 of 23 February 2006
laying down the methods of sampling and analysis for the official control of the
levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs.
Hopkins, J. (1993). The toxicological hazards of patulin. Food and Chemical Toxi-
cology, 31, 455e456.
Horubala, A. (1992). Influence of fungal metabolites on the quality of fruit and
vegetables and on the quality of resultant products. Przemysl Fermentacyjny i
Owocowo Warzywny, 36(6), 11e13.
International Organisation for Standardisation. (1993). Apple juice, apple juice
concentrates and drinks containing apple juice. Determination of patulin content-
part 1: Method using high-performance liquid chromatography. ISO 8128-1:1993.
Kakadal, C., & Nas, S. (2003). Effect of heat treatment and evaporation on patulin
and some other properties of apple juice. Journal of the Science Food and Agri-
culture, 83, 987e990.
Lindroth, S., Niskanen, A., & Pensala, O. (1978). Patulin production during storage of
blackcurrant, blueberry and strawberry jams inoculated with Penicillium
expansum mold. Journal of Food Science, 43(5), 1427e1432.
Moss, M. O., & Long, M. T. (2002). Fate of patulin in the presence of the yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Food Additives and Contaminants: Part A, 19(4),
387e399.
Pitt, J. I., Spotts, R. A., Holmes, R. J., & Cruickshank, R. H. (1991). Penicillium solitum
revived, and its role as a pathogen of pomaceous fruit. Phytopathology,
81, 1108e1112.
Pohland, A. E., & Allen, R. (1970). Stability studies with patulin. Journal of the AOAC,
53(4), 688e691.
Ritieni, A. (2003). Patulin in Italian commercial apple products. Journal of Agricul-
tural and Food Chemistry, 51, 6086e6090.
Sant’Ana, A. S., Rosenthal, A., & Massaguer, P. R. (2008). The fate of patulin in apple
juice processing: a review. Food Research International, 41, 441e453.
Sumbu, Z. L., Thonart, P., & Bechett, J. (1982). Action of patulin on a yeast. Applied
and Environmental Microbiology, 45, 110e115.
Sydenham, E. W., Vismer, H. F., Marasas, W. F. O., Brown, N., Schlechter, M.,
Westhuizen, L., et al. (1995). Reduction of patulin in apple juice samples e influence
of initial processing. Food Control, 6, 195e200.
Taniwaki, M. H., Hoenderboom, C. J. M., Vitali, A. A., & Eiora, M. E. U. (1992).
Migration of patulin in apple juice. Journal of Food Protection, 55, 902e904.
Tournasa, V. H., & Memonb, S. U. (2009). Internal contamination and spoilage of
harvested apples by patulin-producing and other toxigenic fungi. International
Journal of Food Microbiology, 133(1e2), 206e209.
WHO. (1995). World Health Organization, 44th Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert
Committee on Food Additives. Technical Report Series, 859, 36.
Woller, R., & Majerus, P. (1982). Patulin. Obsterzeugnissen-egenschaften, Bildung und
Vorkommen Flussiges Obst, 49, 564e570.
Zegota, H., Zegota, A., & Bachmann, S. (1988). Effect of irradiation and storage on
patulin disappearance and some chemical constituents of apple juice concen-
trate. Zeitschrift fuer Lebensmittel Untersuchung und Forschung, 187, 321e324.