Stochos: Software for Real-Time Synthesis of Stochastic Music

Author(s): Sinan Bokesoy and Gerard Pape

Source: Computer Music Journal, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Autumn, 2003), pp. 33-43
Published by: The MIT Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3681800
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SinanBokesoy*and GerardPapet
Centre de Creation Musicale lannis Xenakis
18 Rue Marcelin-Berthelot
94140 Alfortville, France
*bokesoy.sinan@wanadoo.fr
t gerard.pape-ccmix@wanadoo.fr
Stochos is a real-time stochastic, chaotic, and de-
terministic event generator implemented as a Max/
MSP patch with a unique control interface for
assigning stochastic, chaotic, or deterministic
curves to different sound transformation and syn-
thesis parameters.It provides a compositional envi-
ronment with access to a wide range of time scales
for these operations. As Stochos is still under de-
velopment, we will present its current capabilities
and our long-term goals for this program.Stochos
was designed, programmed,and realized by Sinan
Bokesoy in collaboration with GerardPape, who
conceived and directed the project. The program
currently runs on Macintosh computers.
Indeterminacy in the 20th-century music has
been applied on different levels by composers like
John Cage ("chance music"); Karlheinz Stockhau-
sen, Pierre Boulez, and Luciano Berio ("aleatoric
music"); and lannis Xenakis ("stochastic music").
It is useful to begin our discussion with a definition
of the term "stochastic music" taken from Trevor
Wishart:
Stochastic music is based on a process in
which the probabilities of proceeding from one
state, or set of states, is [sic] defined. The tem-
poral evolution of the process is therefore gov-
erned by a kind of weighted randomness,
which can be chosen to give anything from an
entirely determined outcome, to an entirely
unpredictable one. (Wishart 1994)
The idea of stochastically distributing sonic
events in sound space was first realized by Iannis
Xenakis, beginning with his work Achorripsis
(1957), followed by his "ST" series of compositions.
(See, for example, Pape 2002.) The approachof Xe-
nakis in his "ST" series of compositions combined
ideas of stochastic music with algorithmic event
generation. He proposed the use of probability
Computer Music Journal,27:3, pp. 33-43, Fall 2003
? 2003 Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Stochos: Software
for Real-Time Synthesis
of Stochastic Music
functions and invented the "Dynamic Stochastic
Synthesis" concept that resulted in his program
Gendyn (1991-1994). In his book Formalized Mu-
sic, he described the mathematical backgroundof
these models and also provided examples of compo-
sitional applications.
The physicist Denis Gabor (1946, 1947) had the
initial idea of a quantum representation for sound,
and lannis Xenakis was the first to develop a com-
positional theory for "sound quanta" or "grains."
Out of those ideas was born the concept of "granu-
lar synthesis" whereby very short sound events
that contain a synthetic or sampled waveform are
seen as musical quanta. These quanta are distrib-
uted in sound space using parameterslike density,
grain size, and a windowing function to envelope
the waveform. Changing the pitch and the ampli-
tude of the original waveform along with those pa-
rameters brings secondary effects in the spectral
domain. Here we can see granularsynthesis as a
possible consequence of stochastic music synthe-
sis-possibilities that occur on the micro-time
scale. We will provide examples of granularsynthe-
sis applications.
Composer/researchersCurtis Roads and Barry
Truax have done extensive research on the musical
applications of granularsynthesis for composition.
Roads (1996, 2001) proposed the terms synchronous
granularsynthesis (SGS)and asynchronous granular
synthesis (AGS).De Poli and Piccialli have imple-
mented pitch-synchronous granularsynthesis
(PSGS),which is an analysis-resynthesis technique
applied on the granularboundaries of sound (De
Poli and Piccialli 1991).
The real-time granulation of sampled sound was
made possible in the 1980s with the DMX-1000
signal processor by BarryTruax (Truax 1987).
Mr. Roads's Cloud Generator software, which is a
non-real-time application, provides an example of
how a user can control the event distribution pro-
cess in AGS and SGS by selecting starting and end-
ing states for granularsynthesis parameters.The
Bokesoy and Pape 33
Figure 1. Basic structure
of Stochos.
Basic Structure
result is clouds of grains that fill up a sound space
changing in time. A more recent application by
Mr. Roads, Pulsar Generator, works with very
short waveforms. By controlling granularsynthesis
parameters, this programcan simulate formant
synthesis.
Stochos also allows manipulation of sound at the
micro-time level; in addition, it provides multiple
control sources working in parallel to manipulate
the sonic parameters on any event time level. The
main advantage is the flexible algorithm, which
distributes the events by assigning different proba-
bility distributions for onset time and event dura-
tion. Furthermore,the density is controlled by
probability distributions as in the Achorripsis
model of Xenakis. Stochos also provides extensive
user control of various synthesis parametersfrom
many modulation sources, which plays an impor-
tant role in this compositional environment.
Another recent application that generates sto-
chastic events using probability distributions and
tendency masks to control their output for creating
texture and granularsounds is Cmask (Bartetzki
1997) for the Csound software sound synthesis en-
vironment. The programtakes a parameterfile as
input and makes a score file that can be used fur-
ther with Csound to render the sound output.
However, the programprovides no graphical con-
trols and does not allow real-time interaction,
which is the most important aspect of Stochos.
Other high-level compositional controls besides
stochastic functions for granularsynthesis have
been proposed (e.g., Bowcott 1989). Cellular autom-
ata have been used in generative processes for gran-
ular synthesis of sound; Chaosynth by Eduardo
Miranda (1998) is such an application.
34
Stochos
As previously mentioned, the starting point of
Stochos is the Achorripsis model of Xenakis (see
Xenakis 1992). We will see how Stochos has grown
from Xenakis's ideas and how it combines possibil-
ities for sound transformations and synthesis simi-
lar to granularsynthesis, dynamic stochastic
synthesis, sample granulation, and pulsar synthe-
sis, allowing the transformation of samples from
micro- to macro-time levels.
Figure 1 illustrates the structure of Stochos. To
define an event, one must first set its onset time-
that is, when an event starts in time-and also its
duration. Events will contain information regarding
timbre, intensity, and pitch, plus other synthesis
parametersassigned to them. We can think of an
event as a vector of sonic entity in sound space.
Events can fill a wide range of sound space from
very short microsounds, such as grains, to longer
sound objects. Because many parametersof Stochos
can be automated, the user can morph between dif-
ferent states of the event-generation process.
The event-generation process defines a cell as
having a mean duration on the timeline. Following
Xenakis's model, a cell is a unit of time in the
composition during which a certain number of
events are defined with a density value to be dis-
tributed inside that particular cell. Propertiesof the
cell also control the operation of stochastic func-
tions. The cell length gives a distribution range for
the durations of events and for the onset time in-
tervals between events. But how many events will
be distributed inside a cell and, therefore, what will
be the density of events? As in the Achorripsis
model, the Poisson distribution (which described
the appearancesof rare, random events) is imple-
mented in Stochos.
The probability that k events will be distributed
in a cell is given by the formula
2k
Pk = k e
The X parameterin the Poisson distribution,
which is set by the user, is the mean number of
events in a cell, as shown in Figure 2. According to
Computer Music Journal
Figure2. The Event Gener-
ation module.
the value set for the mean number of events X,
cells can have more or fewer events compared to X.
Stochos calculates the event number to be distrib-
uted for each cell with the help of the Poisson dis-
tribution;it drives the stochastic generators as
many times as the output of the Poisson distribu-
tion requires in order to calculate the required in-
formation for the required number of events per
cell. The user can also set the number of events per
cell as a constant. The total length of each cell is
roughly the sum of onset time intervals, which are
defined as the amount of time between successive
events calculated for each event in the cell. One
event can overlap another event and also overlap
the next cell, but cells cannot overlap in time.
Overlapscan happen by multiplying duration times
by some factor using the "Scale of Durations"
slider.
A number of different stochastic laws are imple-
mented in the software to distribute the events in
time-space and to control the curve generators,
which can be assigned by a control matrix to syn-
thesis parametersthat are linked with the event-
generationprocess.
StochasticFunctionsin Stochos
Eight stochastic functions are currently imple-
mented in Stochos. The first is called Exponential
(FirstLaw), which is simply the exponential distri-
bution from statistics. The density function is f(x)
= ce-cx, and the probability distribution function is
P(x) = 1 - e-x. In both equations, c represents the
cell length.
The function Linear (Second Law) is a simple lin-
ear distribution. The density function is
=2 (l
f(x) = -
and the probability distribution function is given
by
2x x2
P(x) = x -.
a a2
where a represents the cell length. Uniform is the
uniform distribution in which all events have equal
probability of occurrence. Up to now, this has been
the most commonly used distribution function.
Gauss is the Gaussian distribution, known also
as the Normal distribution. The density function is
-
f(x) = 7 e-
and a random lookup table procedure is used to ob-
tain the probability distribution values. The func-
tion Cauchy represents the Cauchy distribution.
The density function is
7rb 1 + (x-a)
and a random lookup table procedure is used to ob-
tain the probability distribution values.
Weibull represents the Weibull distribution. The
density function is
f(x) = afl-a xa-l e-,x/l)a
for x > 0, and the probabilitydistributionfunction is
P(x) = 1 - e-W/pla
Bokesoy and Pape 35
Figure 3. Matrix connect-
ing functions and their
destinations.
In Stochos, fi is chosen to be 1, and a is adjustable
by the user.
The Logistic Map function is a chaotic generator
in which x, = rx,_ 1 (1 - x,,J 1, where r is the
chaoticity factor. Here, a new iteration is being
triggeredwith every new event. Finally, the func-
tion Constant is not a stochastic distribution, but
rather a constant value that is assigned to various
parameters like duration, onset time interval, etc.
To drive each function (except the logistic map),
we solve the probability equations for the x vari-
able and insert uniform random values for P(x);this
gives us event distributions, which are mapped to
the chosen stochastic function.
Consider, for example, the exponential distribu-
tion, where the probability distribution function is
P(x) = 1 - e-x
If we solve it for the x variable, we obtain
_ ln(l - P(x))
c chos. These curve generators act as modulation
By inserting random values for P(x) and assuming
that the exponential distribution is used for the on-
set time distribution, this equation can provide us
36
with the onset time intervals for a granularsynthe-
sis texture.
These functions are implemented in Stochos us-
ing standardMax/MSP objects and by designing
sub-patches to produce random values according to
their probability distributions. There are also cus-
tom externals available now, like the Litter Pack-
age by Peter Castine, that distribute many
statistical functions. The parameters that enter the
stochastic generators depend on the setup of the
first matrix control.
An example is shown in Figure3, where the
event duration and the time interval between
events are defined by the Exponential distribution.
The mean cell length and the number of events
in the cell are assigned by the Poisson law as its pa-
rameters to calculate event durations and onset
time intervals. Some stochastic distributions can
produce unipolar results like the Uniform, Gaus-
sian, and Cauchy distributions. Regardingtheir des-
tinations in the control matrix, their absolute
values will be considered, as there cannot be any
negative values for event durations, for example.
One interesting feature of the stochastic genera-
tors is the ability to change their clock speed inde-
pendently of one another. The farthest column on
the right in Figure 3 allows the user to set the unit
cycle, which triggershow often a new value will
generated by the stochastic generator.
This matrix control assigns stochastic functions
to their destinations, given as a list below the ma-
trix. The same stochastic distribution can be as-
signed to several matrix destinations at the same
time.
CurveGenerators
The stochastic function generators are also respon-
sible for driving the five curve generators in Sto-
sources that can generate glissandi for pitch modu-
lation, for example. Curve generators are control
signals that link the event generators with the
sound synthesis engine by using a control matrix.
Computer Music Journal
Figure4. Distribution
range sliders.
One can define the curvature of the lines gener-
ated, and they can range from logarithmic to expo-
nential in shape (or even be straight line segments
if the curvature is set to zero).
The first two curve generators are typical glis-
sandi objects as in the Achorripsis model of Xe-
nakis. A start offset s defines where the current
glissandi should begin relative to the previous one,
and a velocity parameter v defines the speed of the
glissandi over the existence of its associated tempo-
ral event. Thus, the formula for a line segment
would be a function of time t:
G(t) = s + vt
The first and second curve generators have both a
start offset and a velocity parameter controlled by
stochastic generators. For example, the velocity
value of a glissando could be calculated using the
Gaussian distribution, and the start offset value
could be calculated using the Linear distribution.
This was the case with Xenakis's implementation
in Achorripsis.
As shown in Figure 4, sliders can be used to set
the distribution range for each parameter.Another
offset point can be user-defined to shift the entire
modulation around that value.
The start offsets of the third, fourth, and fifth
curve generatorscannot be defined by stochastic
functions. For these generators, the user may set a
fixed offset value such that the modulation signal
oscillates around that value with its related sto-
chastic generator.
The output of curve generators can be limited by
user-defined barriers.The concept of barrierswas
not implemented in the Achorripsis model but in
the Dynamic Stochastic Synthesis Model of Xe-
nakis, realized in his Gendyn program.This is a
model that synthesizes a time-varying waveform
using stochastic functions to generate line seg-
ments that write the waveform and which are
limited by x-y barriers.In addition to Xenakis's
Gendyn program,which was a non-real-time appli-
cation written in BASIC,a real-time application of
the Gendyn algorithm was realized by the musicol-
ogist Peter Hoffman in Windows (Hoffman 2000).
A few years later, the composer Paul Doombusch,
with the help of a team of young Australian engi-
neers, developed gX (2002), which also reproduced
the Gendyn algorithm, this time on the Macintosh.
As was the case with the Gendyn algorithm,
when the output of Stochos's curve generators ex-
ceeds the barriers,it will either be folded or
wrapped around the barriers.Because all the sliders
of curve generators allow user automation, the bar-
riers have important modulation capabilities that
will be discussed later. The third and fourth curve
generators have a smoothing function at their out-
put for filtering abrupt changes of output value, and
the user can define the degree of smoothing.
The graphical displays in Stochos represent the
temporal evolution of the curve segments. For now,
the only graphical representation available is on
the level of the curve generators. We have no
graphical score representation yet; however, we can
control our sliders deterministically using a Max/
MSP timeline object. That is, we can draw curve
segments instead of having them be stochastically
or chaotically generated.
For each event, independent line segments are as-
signed as modulation sources. The user can define
the modulation destinations on the second control
matrix, as shown in Figure 5. On the rows of this
second control matrix, one can see various modula-
tion destinations like pitch, waveamp, panning,
etc. Stochos also includes two slider controls that
Bokesoy and Pape 37
 I
Figure 5. Matrix for assign-
ing curve generators to
modulation sources.
can assign constant values to the destinations lo-
cated within this matrix.
The sound synthesis engine assigns a "voice" to
each event as it reads a waveform from a wave-
table. There are four available wavetables in mem-
ory, each of which can hold a different AIFFfile
that is read from the hard disk to a memory buffer
(see Figure 6). The start and stop points of a wave-
table are adjustable, and a switch loops the wave-
form between those start and stop points during
playback. The user must also define a tuning fre-
quency for the waveform. Besides samples, one can
also use white noise, sine waves, or pulse wave-
form sources. By modulating the pulse width with
any curve generator, one can create rich pulse-
width modulation (PWM)sounds. We have not yet
implemented the functionality to manually draw
the waveform.
Different switches activate various synthesis
techniques, including frequency modulation (FM),
waveshaping (WS),and ring modulation (RM).
Their parameters are modulated by curve genera-
tors that can be driven stochastically. Stochos im-
plements simple frequency modulation, two
parameters of which are driven by curve generators
assigned in the control matrix: the FM ratio fm:fc
38
Figure 6. Module for
wavetables and synthesis
techniques.
and the modulation index Am:fm.(Here, fm is the
modulator frequency, fc is the carrierfrequency,
and Amis the modulator amplitude.) A sine wave is
used as the modulator.
The WS technique "waveshapes" the waveform
in the first buffer with the waveform in the fourth
buffer. One can change the amplitude of the input
waveform in the Waveshaperwith any curve gener-
ator in the modulation matrix. This means that the
range of the lookup table that contains the wave-
form can be modulated stochastically.
Finally, RM ring modulates the waveform in the
first buffer with a sine wave. The frequency of the
sine wave can be modulated with a curve generator
assigned in the modulation matrix.
A filter switch activates two cascading filters in
Stochos. Each of these two cascading filters can be
chosen from among four different types: lowpass,
highpass, bandpass, and notch. The resonant char-
acteristic (Q) and the cutoff frequency of these fil-
ters can be modulated with the curve generators.
Independent stochastic panning movements for up
to eight individual voices can also be created using
curve generators. Parametersfor the comb filter,
the last stage if the synthesis engine, are found in
the lower right side of the screen. Its delay time pa-
rameter can also be modulated by curve generators.
As one can see on the second control matrix (see
Figure 5), the curve generators can also modulate
the wavetable start point, which is labeled as
"Pos." in the first row of the matrix. One of four
pre-chosen waveforms can be stochastically as-
signed to one of the four buffers to create an unpre-
dictable mix of waveforms.
Stochos also includes a window for defining a
tuning scale for pitch modulation, as shown in Fig-
ure 7. To use this, one must select the fifth curve
Computer Music Journal
Figure 7. The Tuning table
module.
generatorto modulate the pitch, which is assigned
in the second control matrix. At the far right side
of the "tuning" box, a slider defines the octave ra-
tio. When it is set to 2 (i.e., we define a 2:1 octave),
we obtain the twelve-tone equal tempered scale;
when it is set to 4 (i.e., we define a 4:1 "octave"),
we obtain the whole-tone scale. For settings lower
than 2, we obtain microtonal scales. The "octave"
is always divided into twelve steps so that the ratio
between steps raised to the twelfth power yields
the specified "octave" ratio. The tuning of each
step can be set with its dedicated slider. The num-
bers in the boxes represent the frequency of each
step in Hz. This tuning table creates a pitched
"quantization"of the output of the fifth curve gen-
eratorwhile using this tuning scale.
Another interesting implementation results from
filling the buffers with live audio input. Here, a
physical input connected to an available audio in-
terface is recordedinto a looping buffer with the
length of an event "cell." The buffer is then pro-
cessed in real time with the Stochos sound engine.
The buffers can be scanned forward,backward, or
randomly. Random scanning may also occur in ei-
ther direction. One can, of course, change the cell
length in real time during this process.
A module "CrossMod"for Cross Synthesis has
also been developed (see Figure 8). With CrossMod,
one can extract pitch and amplitude envelopes
from a wave sample or a live input and apply it to
the parametersof the first and second curve genera-
tors to control the distribution range for duration/
onset times of events and/or mean density value of
"cells." The playback speed and input level of the
original signal is adjustable while using wave sam-
ples. The modulation depth of each destination is
further adjustable with simple linear algebrain
"CrossMod."
FutureDevelopnent
Earlierversions of Stochos could send the sound
parameters of events in MIDI format. The output
could be played with a VST instrument launched
inside Stochos or recorded to a MIDI file that could
be exported to another software program.However,
glissandi were not realizable with MIDI, as the
pitch resolution presented a problem. Further,fine
timing resolution is not really possible with MIDI,
and we therefore decided to discard the MIDI op-
tion from Stochos.
As mentioned, Stochos was designed and devel-
oped within Max/MSP. The ease of programmingof
Max/MSP and its real-time nature are the primary
reasons that this project could be realized in less
than one year. The synthesis features of Stochos
are quite open to further development for custom
applications owing to the modular structure of the
second control matrix (shown in Figure 5). Further-
more, we could facilitate user interaction in future
versions by employing Jitter, a three-dimensional
graphical output environment for Max/MSP, for
the curve and event generators. One of our future
goals is also to rewrite the application in C + + for
greater computational efficiency.
Bokesoy and Pape 39
Figure8. The CrossMod
module.
We have found that with a Macintosh G4
400Mhz Titanium portable computer equipped
with a standardconfiguration, one can play up to
ten different "voices" simultaneously. To obtain a
greater density of "voices," an option called "non-
realtime mode" enables the rendering of the Sto-
chos's sound output directly to disk as an AIFFfile.
During the recordingprocess, the user can still
change parametervalues. However, in non-real
time mode, one cannot hear the result until after it
is rendered. One can also record real-time sound
output directly to disk while listening to each Sto-
chos parameter change as it happens.
In the near future, the Open Sound Control pro-
tocol (Wrightand Freed 1997) will be implemented
in Stochos; as a result, multiple computers con-
nected to each other in a network could share
events generated by Stochos, sharing their com-
bined CPUs in real time. This will, of course,
greatly enhance the live performance possibilities
of Stochos. We are especially excited about that
possibility in light of being able to generate a real-
time animated graphic score with the help of Jitter.
Summaryand CompositionalImplications
of Stochos
Stochos allows the user to compose three possible
types of events: deterministic (by drawing curves
on the timeline), stochastic (by using the various
probability distributions), and chaotic. (Regarding
chaotic events, we have currently only imple-
40
mented the simple logistic map, with several other
"strange attractors"to come.) Onset times of
events, their durations, their densities (that is, the
number of events per cell), as well as other parame-
ters for sound synthesis, transformation, and spa-
tial diffusion, can all be composed via
deterministic, stochastic, or chaotic functions.
Stochos is a programthat gives the composer ac-
cess to the vast "continuum-discontinuum" of
sound described by Julio Estrada(2002), a multi-
dimensional spatial-temporal gamut progressing
from granulated micro-sound to continuous macro-
sound.
Regardingthe durations and onset times of
sounds, one can access continuous transformations
from extremely short micro-sounds that last sev-
eral milliseconds to macro-sounds that can last up
to several minutes. Sounds with very short onset
time differences are not necessarily micro-sounds
in our program.Owing to our ability to scale the
durations of events, we can make these sounds
with very small differences between their onset
times overlap; that is, they can last as long or as
short as we wish. Thus, we distinguish the realm of
micro-sound onset time (effects such as "micro-
phasing" or "micro-chorusing")from that of micro-
sound duration time (the realm of "grains"and
"pulsars,"etc.), the two micro-time domains being
independent of each other in Stochos.
In terms of frequency range, one can transform
sounds continuously over time between the lowest
values (below 1 Hz) up to the highest frequencies
that we are able to hear, that is, around 22,000 Hz.
In the case of amplitude or intensity, one can also
pass continuously from the lowest possible intensi-
ties to the highest. With these continuous fre-
quency and intensity transformations, the speed of
these transformations can also be continuously var-
ied, as well as their direction (i.e., accelerations or
decelerations that can be sequentially higher or
lower, faster or slower) owing to our concept of a
sonic event as a "vector of sonic entity in sound
space."
To these continuously varying frequency and
amplitude transformations, one can add variations
of micro-timbre that result from using such sound
transformation/synthesis methods as filtering, fre-
Computer Music Journal
quency modulation, waveshaping, and cross syn-
thesis, the parameters of which can vary
continuously over time deterministically, stochas-
tically, and/or chaotically. Finally, one can also
generate spatial movements for the sounds through
the use of continuously varying panning and rota-
tion curves.
All these dimensions of the sound, with the ex-
ception of those in the event generation domain,
are controllable using the curve generators of Sto-
chos. We have integrated Xenakis's early work
with his last. In effect, Xenakis first worked with
stochastic distributions in such works as Pitho-
prakta (1956), Achorripsis (1957), and the "ST"
pieces to create "masses" or "clouds" of sounds
that vary as to their onset times, durations, and
densities. This aspect of Xenakis's early work cor-
responds to the event generation part of Stochos
with its variations of density in both the horizontal
(events/cell) and vertical (number of simultaneous
"voices") temporal dimensions.
Later, Xenakis used probabilistic functions to re-
write the waveform using stochastic line generators
with his Gendyn program(1991-1994). These Gen-
dyn stochastic line generators can be seen as the
descendants of Xenakis's early glissandi. The glis-
sandi were, in effect, lines generated stochastically
to control the speed and direction of continuous
transformations of pitch. We have retained this
glissandi feature for our pitch transformations. Our
glissandi generators, however, can also be applied
to all the other sound dimensions such as inten-
sity, micro-timbral transformation, or spatial diffu-
sion.
Although we have not implemented the Gendyn
model at the level of time-domain waveform draw-
ing, we find that being able to apply the continuous
line generation model to all dimensions of the
sound coupled with continuous transformations in
the onset time/duration/density of sonic events al-
lows us to continuously rewrite the waveform in a
very thorough way nonetheless.
The coupling of continuous onset time/duration/
density transformations with frequency, amplitude,
micro-timbre, and spatial transformations permits
the composer to continuously vary a single sound's
"chrono-acoustics," a term coined by Julio Estrada.
The combination of these multi-dimensional tem-
poral transformations results in interesting changes
in the overall resultant sound-what Mr. Estrada
calls the "macro-timbre."Stochos should be seen
not just as a sound synthesis and transformation
tool, but, more importantly, as a programfor com-
posing in the continuum-discontinuum. As such, it
is in the same family as Xenakis's UPIC system,
even if drawing the musical score is not its primary
goal.
In effect, Stochos treats sound as a multi-
dimensional topological object for which two types
of time transformations are possible. One type
could be described as the continuous transforma-
tion in time of all the dimensions of a single
sound-its sonic evolution, or "becoming-over-
time." The other transformation type affordsthe
continuous variation of the temporal identity of
the sound itself-its "being-as-time."By varying
the onset time/duration/density of sounds per unit
time, we are fundamentally changing the sound's
chrono-acoustical qualities, its sonic identity as
temporal entity.
The temporality of a sound is truly a most funda-
mental aspect of its identity as sound. Without
even varying the other dimensions of the sound di-
rectly, there is already a significant field of chrono-
acoustical transformation to explore as one listens
to the profound changes in macro-timbre that re-
sult from the continuous accelerations or decelera-
tions of a given sound's onset time, duration, and/
or density as it passes from micro- to macro-sound.
By combining continuous transformationsin the
sound's "being-as-time" (the temporality, as such,
of the sound) with continuous frequency, ampli-
tude, micro-timbral, and spatial variations (the
modulation of the sound's "becoming-over-time"),
we give access to a vast field for compositional ex-
ploration in the continuum-discontinuum.
We propose to call the totality of all these macro-
timbral transformations that Stochos permits
"Chronoacoustic Synthesis" in honor of Julio
Estrada,who pointed out that, to analyze a sonic
entity fully, we must consider the dual dimensions
of sound and rhythm. Here, Estrada'suse of the
term "rhythm" is to be understood not as the
pulsed or metrical rhythm that one typically hears
Bokesoy and Pape 41
between sounds, but rather as the rhythm within
sounds. What I have called the dual temporality of
the sound-its "being-as-time" and its "becoming-
over-time"-gives rise together to a wealth of
micro-rhythms or micro-pulsations within a single
sound. These micro-rhythms are clear evidence of
the complex, quasi-biological activity that can be
found inside a "living" sound. We find that Stochos
is an ideal tool for composing the rich, unpredict-
able inner life of a sound.
Finally, to conclude, several questions remain.
How is Stochos the same or different than other
methods of algorithmic composition? What are the
advantages or disadvantages of stochastic versus
other algorithmic approaches?How does Stochos
compare with other granularsynthesis programsin
terms of the access that it gives to the continuum-
discontinuum of rhythm and sound?
Stochos proposes a type of algorithmic composi-
tion/synthesis that is goal-oriented. In fact, the
Greek word stochos means "goal." Xenakis ex-
plored stochastics to create a music that was goal-
oriented as opposed to chance-oriented, such as
that of Cage, or only superficially aleatoric, as
Xenakis criticized the approachesof Boulez and
Stockhausen to be. As per the definition of Trevor
Wishart, stochastic music uses "weighted probabil-
ities." By choosing one distribution as opposed to
another, we weight the results to fit that distribu-
tion's tendencies. Typically, algorithmic music
that has a "randomize"feature will use the uni-
form distribution, for it weights all possibilities
equally. Stochos is a special kind of algorithmic
programthat, as previously mentioned, favors three
kinds of goal-oriented music: stochastic, where the
chosen distribution weights which goals are to be
favored;deterministic, where the user weights the
goals by drawing curves on the timeline; and cha-
otic, where the chaotic function itself weights the
goal in tandem with the user's choice of numbers
that control the degree of chaoticity.
Not all algorithmic methods are necessarily goal-
oriented. In fact, the "goal" of the composer might
be to use an algorithmic method that favors totally
unpredictable results. The advantage of a stochastic
or chaotic approachto event generation is that it
preserves a kind of determinism while limiting pre-
42
dictability. With the use of a specific function, ten-
dencies are given to goal orientation without
knowing in advance what exact result will occur.
The disadvantage of such a method is that it is
difficult to control, and, if one is not careful, it
could create a type of cliche that could become, af-
ter a while, too predictable in its unpredictability.
Of course, all algorithmic methods attempt to find
an efficient method to generate events. It also de-
pends on whether one wants to apply an algorith-
mic method to the macro (event generation) or
micro (sound generation) level.
Perhaps Stochos is a bit unusual in that it inte-
grates a similar method for generation of events as
sound. If one compares it to classic algorithmic
programs,for example, these are typically programs
that use mathematical functions to generate pitch-
time events and that permit one to vary tempo to
perform the music in a flexible way. Like those
programs,Stochos is also performance-orientedand
can work in real time. In addition to the generation
of pitch, time, and tempo controls, it also permits
control on the level of sound synthesis and sound
transformation.This is, of course, where it tends to
resemble classical granularsynthesis engines. Both
Stochos and these granularprogramsallow one to
compress and stretch events in time and to work
on a micro-sound level of time. Stochos, by using
continuously redrawn curves, combines the level of
algorithmic event generation with granularsound
synthesis micro-control.
Thus, the level of access to the continuum-dis-
continuum of rhythm and sound is similar to gran-
ular engines in terms of the type of available
sounds owing to micro-time scale access. Stochos
supersedes typical granularprogramsin that all the
sound synthesis parametersare continuously and
automatically varied by the stochastic functions.
Consequently, owing to the weighting of the func-
tion that is chosen, the granularsynthesis may
tend toward certain desired results without tedious
programmingand manual input. Of course, by ex-
ploring different probability distributions in real
time, one can determine which of the various goals
one prefers. Stochos lets us pass easily between dif-
ferent time scales, so we can easily hear the trans-
formations of granularinto macro-time events,
Computer Music Journal
which can also be a desirable goal if the composer
wants to explore the realm between discontinuous
granularmicro-sound and continuous macro-sound.
Stochos is by no means the first or only program
to propose algorithmic, stochastic, and micro-sonic
means and methods. Perhaps its originality lies in
its ability to generate events algorithmically while
granulating sounds stochastically and varying other
parameters of sound, such as pitch or intensity, in
deterministic and aleatoric ways.
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