Explain Kautilya’s Six-fold Policy regarding other states.

In 300 BCE the Arthasastra was written as a “science of politics”. As the key advisor to the king
Chandragupta, Kautilya offered the Arthasastra as discussions on war and diplomacy. Kautilya
suggested six methods of foreign policy. These are making peace, waging war, and staying
quiet, preparing for war, seeking support, and the dual policy of making peace with one
while waging war against another. One’s circumstances will dictate which methods should be
used.

1. To make peace, one must enter into an agreement, such as a treaty, with specific
conditions. Treaties can have specific conditions, or will not have any obligations.
Treaties without conditions are mainly used for gaining information on the enemy, so
the king may strike after learning of the antagonists’ weak points.
2. When a king is in a superior position compared to his enemy, he will attack and wage
war. There are three types of war as part of this second method of foreign policy. There
is open war which has a specified time and place; secret war that is sudden, terrorizing,
threatening from one side and attacking from another, etc.; and undeclared war which
uses secret agents, religion or superstition, and women as weapons against the
enemies.
3. By neither making peace nor waging war, one acts indifferently to a situation and stays
quiet. If a king feels that his enemy and he are equal and neither can harm the other nor
ruin the other’s undertakings, then he shall choose to do nothing.
4. When a king increases his own power and has special advantage over his enemy, he
will take part in the fourth approach of Kautilyan foreign policy by making
preparations for war. While preparing for war, the king must ensure that the enemies’
undertakings will be destroyed while his own will come to no harm
5. In contrast to preparing for war, a king may require the help of another to protect his
own undertakings. This idea of building an alliance is Kautilya’s fifth method of
foreign policy. A king seeking an alliance must ensure that he finds a king more
powerful than the neighboring enemy. Sometimes it is not possible to find a stronger
king than the enemy; in this case one should make peace with the enemy.
6. Lastly, having a dual policy of befriending one through peace and promoting one’s
own undertakings, whilst ruining another’s mission by waging war against them is the
sixth method. Under this method the conqueror may have supplies and reinforcements
provided from allies, prevent an attack from the rear where the Circle of States warns
us there is an enemy as a neighbor, and have twice as many troops as the other. After
discussing waging a war with allies and agreeing on terms a treaty is concluded.
However, if the allies do not accept the obligations they are considered and treated as
hostile.

Highlight Aristotle’s contribution to Western political thought.

Aristotle was inclined to study the nature of the politics and deeply normative in his approach to
politics. He was more empirical and scientific in his technique, writing treatises instead of
dialogues and often handling his materials with considerable detachment. The result in the
Politics is a far-reaching and often penetrating treatment of political life, from the origins and
purpose of the state to the nuances of institutional arrangements. While Aristotle's comments on
slavery, women, and labourers are often uncomfortable to modern readers, his analysis of
government types (including the causes of their preservation and destruction) remains of
perennial interest. His discussion of "polity" a fusion of oligarchy and democracy, has been of
particular significance in the history of popular government. Finally, his argument that a
constitution is more than a set of political institutions, but also exemplifies a shared way of life,
has showed a productive insight for succeeding thinkers such as Alexis de Tocqueville.
He truly earns the honor of being called the First Teacher. To delve further into the details of his
achievements, here is a list of the top contributions of Aristotle:
1. Invented the Logic of the Categorical Syllogism
Syllogism is a certain form of reasoning where a conclusion is made based on two premises.
These premises always have a common or middle term to associate them, but this binding term is
absent in the conclusion. This process of logical deduction was invented by Aristotle, and
perhaps lies at the heart of all his famous achievements. He was the first person to come up with
an authentic and logical procedure to conclude a statement based on the propositions that were at
hand.

2. Classification of Living Beings

In his book, Historia Animalium or History of Animals, Aristotle was the first person in human
history to venture into the classification of different animals. He used traits that are common
among certain animals to classify them into similar groups. For example, based on the presence
of blood, he created two different groups such as animals with blood and animals without blood.

3. Founder of Zoology
Aristotle is also known as the Father of Zoology. As evident from his classification of living
beings, all his classification procedures and several other treatises primarily involved different
species of the animal kingdom only. However, he wrote a number of treatises that revolved
around different aspects of zoology as well. 
4. Contributions in Physics
It is true that while Aristotle established new frontiers in the field of life sciences, his ventures
into physics fall short by comparison. His studies in physics seem to have been highly influenced
by pre-established ideas of contemporary and earlier Greek thinkers. For instance, in his treatises
On Generation and Corruption and On the Heavens, the world set-up he described had many
similarities with propositions made by some pre-Socratic era theorists.
5. Influences in the History of Psychology
Aristotle was the first to write a book that dealt with the specifics of psychology: De Anima or
On the Soul. In this book, he proposes the idea of abstraction that reigns over the body and mind
of a human being. The body and mind exist within the same being and are intertwined in such a
way that the mind is one of the many basic functions of the body.

6. Aristotelianism
Aristotelianism is the biggest example of the influence Aristotelian philosophy has had on the
entire subsequent philosophical paradigm. Aristotelianism represents the philosophical tradition
that takes its roots from the various works of Aristotle in philosophy. The route of conventional
philosophy is highly influenced by different aspects of Aristotelian ideologies including his view
on philosophical methodology, epistemology, metaphysics, aesthetics, ethics, and many more.

7. Politics

The word “politics” is derived from the Greek word polis which in ancient Greece simply
represented any city state. Aristotle believed that the polis reflected the topmost strata of political
association. Being a citizen of a polis was essential for a person to lead a good-quality life.
Attaining this status meant that a citizen needed to make necessary political connections to
secure permanent residence. In Aristotle’s view, this very pursuit pointed to the fact that “man is
a political animal.”

Discuss Karl Marx’s Theory of Class Struggle.

In Marxist theory, the capitalist stage of production consists of two main classes: the bourgeoisie,

the capitalists who own the means of production, and the much larger proletariat (or 'working
class') who must sell their own labour power (See also: wage labour). This is the fundamental
economic structure of work and property (See also: wage labour), a state of inequality that is
normalised and reproduced through cultural ideology. Thus the proletariat, in itself, is forced into
a subservient position by the power of capital, which has stripped the means of production from
them. As the proletariat becomes conscious of its situation and power, organizes itself, and takes
collective political action it becomes a class for itself which has the revolutionary potential to
become the ruling class.[2]
Max Weber critiqued historical materialism, positing that stratification is not based purely on
economic inequalities but on other status and power differentials. Social class pertaining broadly
to material wealth may be distinguished from status class based on honour, prestige, religious
affiliation, and so on. The conditions of capitalism and its class system came together due to a
variety of "elective affinities".
Marxists explain the history of "civilized" societies in terms of a war of classes between those
who control production and those who produce the goods or services in society. In the Marxist
view of capitalism, this is a conflict between capitalists (bourgeoisie) and wage-
workers (the proletariat). For Marxists, class antagonism is rooted in the situation that control
over social production necessarily entails control over the class which produces goods—in
capitalism this is the exploitation of workers by the bourgeoisie.
Marx himself argued that it was the goal of the proletariat itself to displace the capitalist system
with socialism, changing the social relationships underpinning the class system and then
developing into a future communist society in which: "the free development of each is the
condition for the free development of all." (Communist Manifesto) This would mark the
beginning of a classless society in which human needs rather than profit would be motive for
production. In a society with democratic control and production for use, there would be no class,
no state and no need for money.
Describe the composition and powers of Supreme Court of America.
Supreme Court of the United States, final court of appeal and final expositor of
the Constitution of the United States. Within the framework of litigation, the Supreme
Court marks the boundaries of authority between state and nation, state and state, and
government and citizen. Scope and jurisdiction

The Supreme Court was created by the Constitutional Convention of 1787 as the head of a
federal court system, though it was not formally established until Congress passed the Judiciary
Act in 1789. Although the Constitution outlined the powers, structure, and functions of the
legislative and executive branches of government in some detail, it did not do the same for the
judicial branch, leaving much of that responsibility to Congress and stipulating only that judicial
power be “vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from
time to time ordain and establish.” As the country’s court of last resort, the Supreme Court is an
appellate body, vested with the authority to act in cases arising under the Constitution, laws, or
treaties of the United States; in controversies to which the United States is a party; in disputes
between states or between citizens of different states; and in cases of admiralty and maritime
jurisdiction. In suits affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls and in cases in
which states are a party, the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction—i.e., it serves as a trial
court. Relatively few cases reach the court through its original jurisdiction, however; instead, the
vast majority of the court’s business and nearly all of its most influential decisions derive from
its appellate jurisdiction.

Write an essay on Swiss Judicial System.

The Swiss Civil Code of 1912 has furnished a model for the administration of justice in many
countries; indeed, parts of the code have been adopted verbatim in other legal systems. The
difficult task of creating and preserving a uniform judicial system within so diverse a national
structure has produced a number of great jurists and experts of international law. Each canton
elects and maintains its own magistracy for ordinary civil and criminal trials. Supreme judicial
power is vested in the Federal Supreme Court (Bundesgericht), the seat of which is in Lausanne.
Members of the court are elected by the Federal Assembly to six-year terms. Capital
punishment was abolished—except under circumstances of martial law, general mobilization, or
war—by the unified federal penal code of 1937.
Political process

All citizens at least age 18 are permitted to vote; however, Switzerland has among the lowest
levels of voter participation among long-established democracies. From the 1950s into the early
21st century, Switzerland’s government was formed by a grand coalition of four parties—
the Radical Democratic Party, the Social Democratic Party, the Christian Democratic People’s
Party, and the Swiss People’s Party (Centre Democratic Union). These parties have combined to
retain comfortable majorities in the National Council (often winning more than four-fifths of the
seats) and generally have contributed all the members of the Council of States. Members of
the Federal Council, with its rotating presidency, are selected with the intent of providing
equitable political, religious, and linguistic representation. Despite its long tenure, the coalition
was beset by increasing internal conflicts at the end of the 20th century. The Swiss People’s
Party, which had held one seat on the Federal Council since the 1950s, adopted positions that
were considered by some to be antiforeigner and anti-European; it became the largest party in the
Federal Assembly in 2003 and was awarded an additional seat on the Federal Council. In 2007
the Swiss People’s Party withdrew from the grand coalition. This end to nearly a half century
of consensus government was only temporary, however: a year later, a member of the far-right
party regained a seat on the Federal Council.

Explain and make a comparison between British and American Political

Parties.
British and American Politics
Prior to independence, America was a British colony and one of the ideas for breaking free from
old European ties was to create a political system that distanced itself from models in “the Old
World”.

There are both similarities and differences between the American (USA) and British political
systems. A major difference is that the American system was designed for "the New World" and
the thirteen independent states that appeared after the American Revolution in 1776 while the
British system had evolved over centuries, earning the nickname – “The Mother of Parliaments”.

Monarchy vs. Federalism

As Britain was, and still is, a constitutional monarchy, America made a system that based itself
on federalism, equally distributing power between the original 13 states. A written constitution
formed the glue between the three branches of power – the legislative, the judicial and the
executive (see below). In Britain, there is in fact no written constitution, even though there is a
constitution, consisting of several sources and not only one like in the USA. The American
Constitution is flexible as it has Amendments added to it, making it possible to change as time
goes by. The first ten Amendments constitute what is called the Bill of Rights, and the American
Constitution is one of the oldest written constitutions still in use. In Britain, one of the strongest
components in the constitution is convention, defining British law now as they have done before.
(Convention is what we in Norway refer to as "sedvane")

Two Dominant Political Parties

Two political parties dominate in government on both sides of the Atlantic, but especially in
America. The American president comes from the Democratic or the Republican Party, while in
Britain, which has a multi-party system, the Labour Party and the Conservative Party are the
only parties which have formed the government for the last 90 years. However, the 2010
Election produced what is called a hung Parliament where no single party was in majority, and
the largest party, the Conservatives, had to form a coalition alliance with the third largest party,
the Liberal Democrats..
Separation of Powers
Due to their past experience from "the Old World" with greedy and abusive kings and nobility,
the Founding Fathers made sure that the American Constitution provided for a separation of
powers between the three branches of government. Checks and Balances is a system that
prevents one branch from becoming too powerful, and in principle, it protects the minority from
the majority. Moreover, the system regulates the branches and one branch can limit the power of
another.

Two Chambers
Separation of powers is also to be found in Britain, but in a weaker form. This is often referred to
as Fusion of Powers. Here the three branches are more intermingled and integrated into each
other. The Prime Minister (PM) sits in the House of Commons i.e. the Chief Executive is a
member of the legislative branch. Until 2009, the highest court of appeal in Britain was the
House of Lords, meaning that the final arbiters of judicial disputes were Law Lords (peers) in the
unelected Upper House. In 2009, the Law Lords were removed from the Lords and put into a
new Supreme Court, somewhat separating the judicial and legislative branches. While the
Supreme Court in America can declare a new law as unconstitutional (going against the
intentions of the Constitution) the British Supreme Court’s role is confined to judicial reviews.

Government
Due to the ways the two systems of government are designed, the American President has more
limitations to his power than is the case of the British PM. A Democratic president might have a
Republican majority in Congress making it difficult for the President to get his policies through.
In such a situation, Congress can vote down every suggestion from the President. In Britain there
is no systematic limitation on the PM’s power, but the political room for manoeuvre depends on
his party’s majority in the House of Commons. The larger the majority, the more policies the PM
and the government can get through, without any branch or other institution interfering. PMs
with a strong majority can therefore make huge changes to British society in the course of the
years his/her party is in power. In Britain, there is no limit as to how many times a PM can be re-
elected while in America a president can serve for the maximum of two periods (8 years).

The President and the Prime Minister

Being elected president is a long and costly affair. Presidential candidates are nominated at the
two parties’ national conventions and the different nominees fight it out in the presidential
primaries to see who is going to represent the two parties in the actual presidential election. As
opposed to America, the British PM is normally the leader of the political party he/she
represents. The PM is called "first among equals", indicating that the PM needs to be elected to
the House of Commons in general elections just like his/her fellow Members of Parliament
(MPs). In other words, a PM needs to be an MP too.

"The Special Relationship"

The relationship between Britain and America is often referred to as “The Special Relationship”,
indicating long historical relations dating back to pre-US independence times. Many people from
the British Isles emigrated to America, and the cultural, social, religious and political exchanges
have been many over the centuries. After World War II, the nature of the relationship changed as
a result of the new world order emerging after the war.

LANGUAGE

Write a letter to your younger brother advising him to avoid bad company in school.
26 August 2021

11 Mirpur, Dhaka

Dear XYZ

Yesterday, I received our father’s letter. I heard with a great concern that you have recently been
keeping companies with bad boys. There is nothing more distressing to me than it. You know all
of your brothers and sisters are good students. They have been doing well in their studies. We
expected much from you. But you are disappointing all of us.

You know, youth is the golden period of life. It is time to shape one’s life as one intends. Bad
always attracts us much. We should always be careful pf it. Because it will be very, difficult for
you to stop your relation from them if once you associate them. I hope you will not spoil your
future.

I wish your good health and best luck

Your elder brother

ABC
Draft a CV for the post of a Software Engineer in an MNC (Multi National Company).
February 1, 2021

Acme InfoTech
123 Business Rd.
Business City, NY 54321

Dear HR Manager:

With a Bachelor’s Degree and Master’s Degree in computer science, numerous years of hands-
on experience creating and implementing software applications, and the ability to troubleshoot
and solve problems in a timely and accurate manner, I confidently express my interest in your
posting on LinkedIn for an experienced software engineer.

I have been involved in numerous large-scale software releases and understand the importance of
time management and open communication. While it may be easy to focus on the technical side
of work, I’ve found that being able to express concerns, roadblocks, and alternative solutions to
colleagues of varying technical backgrounds has been invaluable in my professional
development.
Over the course of my career as a software engineer I have:
 Become a certified Software Development Associate and Professional.
 Led two successful software releases as the Java, team leader.
 Increased team efficiency by implementing Agile methodologies.

I truly believe in continued education and research and continue to seek new software and
methods to assist with product development. I hope to bring my knowledge, and future
knowledge, to your organization.

Attached is a copy of my resume that further explains my background and technical skills. I can
be reached anytime via my cell phone, 555-555-5555 or via email at name@email.com. Thank
you for your time and consideration. I look forward to speaking with you more about this
opportunity.

Best regards,
Applicant (signature hard copy letter)

Applicant

Write the structure and functions of the Ecosystem

Ecosystem : Structure and function
 
Organisms interact with each other and also with the physical conditions that are present in
their habitats. 'The organisms and the physical features of the habitat form an ecosystem'
- Clarke (1954). The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G.Tansley(1935).
Ecosystem is the major ecological unit. It has both structure and function. The structure is related
to species diversity.
 
According to E.P.Odum, the ecosystem is the basic functional unit of organism and their
environment interacting with each other. The function of ecosystem is related to the energy flow,
decomposition, nutrient cycling and major biomes.
 

Structure
 
Generally ecosystems consist of two basic components.
 
1.   Abiotic component.
 
2.   Biotic component.
 
1. Abiotic components
 
It includes basic in-organic (soil, water, oxygen, calcium carbonates, phosphates etc.) and
organic compounds. It also includes physical factors such as moisture, wind currents and solar
radiation. Radiant energy of sun is the only significant energy source for any ecosystem.
 
2. Biotic components
 
Include producers, consumers and decomposers.
 
Producer : These are the autotrophic, chlorophyll-bearing organisms, which produce their
own food. 
Consumers : A consumer which gets nutrition by eating plants is called Primary
consumers (herbivore) (eg) Rabbit, deer and cow.
The Secondary Consumer: (carnivores) is an animal that eats the flesh of herbivores (eg)
cats and dogs. 
Tertiary Consumers: are the type of carnivores, which prey upon other carnivores. (eg)
Lion, tiger and vulture.

Decomposers
 
Decomposers attack the dead remains of producers and consumers and degrade the complex
organic substances into simpler compounds to derive their nutrients. The decomposers play very
important role in maintaining the dynamic nature of ecosystem.
 

Functions of Ecosystem
 
An ecosystem is a functional and life sustaining environmental system. The environmental
system consists of biotic and abiotic components. Biotic components include living organisms
and abiotic components includes in organic matter and energy.
 
In an ecosystem there are three functional components.
1.   Inorganic constituents
2.   Organism
3.   Energy input
 
These three components interact with each other to form an environmental system. The
primary producers convert inorganic constituents into organic components by photosynthesis
using the energy from the solar radiations. The herbivores make use of the energy from the
producers and they themselves serve as a food for the carnivores. Animals of different types
accumulate organic matter in their body which is taken as food. They are known as secondary
producers. The dead organic matters of plants and animals are decomposed by bacteria and fungi
which break the complex molecules and liberate inorganic components. These are known as
decomposers. During this process some amount of energy is released in the form of heat. The
ecosystem of different habitats are interrelated with one another.

Write an essay on Human Health and Environment.

The environment is all that surrounds us. It can be a living or a non-living thing. It includes many
forces that are physical, chemical and other natural forces. These living things live in their
environment. They consistently react with it and adapt themselves according to the conditions in
their environment. In the environment, there are various interactions between the animals, plants,
water, soil and other living and many non-living things present in nature. Since everything is a part
of this environment of something else, we use the term environment talking about various things.
People in different fields use this term differently.

Importance of Environment
The environment is very important for every living being. No one can survive without the
environment. It matters a lot because planet earth is the only home for human beings. It provides
food, air, water and millions of other things. Humanity’s entire life-supporting system totally
depends on the well-being of all the species living the earth.

We call it the biosphere. Biosphere means one global ecological system under which all living
things are depending upon each other relatively. In the ecosystem or overall biosphere, there are
some smaller ecosystems like the rainforests, deserts, oceans and the tundra.

An ecosystem has both living and non-living parts. It can be terrestrial or aquatic. It explains the
valuing ecosystem services: towards better environmental decision making that is available through
the National Academy Press. The non-living things are like soil, water, air, nutrients, and living
elements are the plants, micro-organisms, animals and human beings.

A healthy ecosystem consists of all the chemical elements and nutrients that circulate in a cycle
while supporting billions of species. The species helps in the process of cycling the elements when
they produce any food. It also happens during their eating, going about their lives and even though
their deaths. In this process creation of a variety of goods and services takes place that is very useful
for human beings.
Human Health Issues
It is very rare for children to get seriously ill without any warning. According to the symptoms of
your child, you should contact your children’s pediatrician for advice on a regular basis. Time to
time treatment of symptoms or usual illness can prevent your child from getting seriously affected
with any disease or making that worse or turning it into an emergency.

A true emergency occurs when you believe a severe injury or any sort of illness is threatening your
child or his/her life is in danger, or it might cause any permanent harm. In this scenario, one needs
emergency medical treatment immediately as soon as possible. Discuss it with the doctor about
what should you do in case of a true emergency.

The use of vaccines is improving the health of the children at a huge level over a very short period.
Much infectious illness one is having as a child. For example, chickenpox or polio no longer affects
many children in today’s time.

What are Forest Resources ? Describe the advantages of forest.

Forests provide clean water and air, timber for wood products, wildlife habitats, stable soil,
and recreational opportunities, and they beautify the environment. Furthermore, they are also
an important economic resource producing marketable timber. Thus, poor forest management
can lead to long-term economic losses.

Advantages of forest
Forest provides us with numerous amount of things and protects us from many disasters.  Listed
below are the advantages of forest

 They help maintain oxygen levels in the atmosphere, facilitating the breathing of humans
and other animals.
 Forests help regulate the climate.
 They help the ground absorb during floods, reducing soil loss and property damage by
slowing the flow.
 Forests are of vital economic importance to humans. For example, the plantation of
forests provides humans with wood and timber, which can be exported and used in a wide
range of applications.
 Forests serve as a habitat for millions of animals.
 Forests help in the regulation of ecosystems.
 Forests help reduce certain types of pollution such as noise pollution.
 Forests provide many important natural medicines.
 Forests help to control the Earth’s temperature and combat global warming.
 The natural beauty associated with forests is valuable.
 Forests are responsible for several jobs.