STYLISTIC

SEMASIOLOGY OF THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
 Semasiology is a branch of linguistics
which studies semantics or meaning of
linguistic units belonging to different
language levels (words, word combinations,
utterances, texts).

 Lexical semasiology analyses the meaning

of words and word combinations, relations
between these meanings and the changes
these meanings undergo.

 Stylistic semasiology is concerned only

with those semantic relations and changes
which form the basis of EM and SD.
 The subject-matter of stylistic semasiology
is stylistic semantics, i.e. additional
meanings of a language unit which may be
given rise to by:

1) the unusual denotative reference of

words, word-combinations, utterances and
texts (EM); or

2) the unusual distribution of the

meanings of these units (SD).
 SEMASILOGICAL
EXPRESSIVE MEANS
Figures Of Substitution
Figures of quantity Figures of quality

Hyperbole Meiosis Metonymy Metaphor Irony

Litotes Synechdoche Antonomasia
Periphrasis Personification
Euphemism
Allegory
Epithet
 Semasiological EM are figures of
substitution, i.e. different means of
secondary nomination or tropes. The latter is
based on the usage of existing words and
word-combinations to denote new notions or
to give a new name to the already known
objects (O. Morokhovsky).
 Figures of substitution are
divided into:

 Figures of quantity

 Figures of quality
 Figures of quantity consist of :

a) Overstatement (exaggeration);

b) Understatement (weakening).

They demonstrate the most primitive

type of renaming.
Figures of quality (secondary nomination) is not
completely arbitrary, it is carried out according to
certain principles or rules.
 Most commonly the transfer of a name occurs:
 1) on the basis of similiarity or likeness (real or
imaginary) of two objects belonging to different areas of
reality, which are regarded as such due to individual or
collective perception (rat-spy, rabbit- coward);
 2) on the basis of contiguity or some logical (usually
objective) relations or associations between different
objects (chicken – food, hat – man in a hat);
 3) on the basis of contrast (when the two objects or things
are diametrically opposite).
 FIGURES OF QUANTITY
 Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or
exaggeration aimed at intensifying one of the
features of the object in question.

 An overstatement may be considered hyperbole

only when the exaggeration is deliberate and
both the speaker and the listener are aware of
it.
 Hyperbole is mainly used to intensify physical
qualities of objects or people: size, colour,
quantity, age etc.,
 e.g. Her family is one aunt about a thousand
years old.
(F.Sc. Fitzgerald).
 The use of hyperbole may show the
overflow of emotions:

 e.g. I loved Ophelia; forty thousand

brothers could not, with all their quantity
of love, make up my sum.
(W.Shakespeare).
 Hyperbole in oral speech is often used
to intensify a statement

 e.g. She was a giant of a woman.

(Fl. O'Connor).

Hyperbole, as any other

semasiological EM, may become
trite through frequent repetition:

e.g. for ages, scared to death, I beg

thousand pardons etc.
 Meiosis is a figure of speech
opposite to hyperbole.
 This is a deliberate understatement, or
underestimation of some feature of an object or
phenomena with the aim of intensifying the
expressiveness of speech.
 The features stressed are usually size, volume,
distance, time etc.
 is mainly used in oral speech to emphasize the
insignificance of an object,
 e.g. She wore a pink hat, the size of a
button (J.Reed),
a pretty penny, Tom Thumb etc.
Litotes differs from meiosis by
both its contents and structure.
 Litotes presents a statement in the form of
negation.
 can be regarded as the transposition of a
syntactical construction.
 has a specific semantic and syntactic structure:
the usage of not before a word with a negative
prefix,
 e.g. Julia was not dissatisfied with herself

(W.S. Maugham).
 Litotes is used in oral speech

 to weaken positive characteristics

of a thing or person;

 to convey the speaker's doubts as

to the exact value or significance of
the object of speech,

 e.g. Her face was not unpretty (K.

Kesey).
 FIGURES OF QUALITY

 To this group we refer figures of speech

based on comparison of features and
qualities of two objects, belonging to different
areas or classes, which are perceived as
having a common feature.

 The basic tropes in this group are metaphor,

metonymy, and irony.
 Metaphor and metonymy are
universal means of reinterpretation
and transfer of a name from one
denotate to another.
 The difference between them is that
while in metaphor this transfer is
realized on the basis of likeness
(real or imaginary) of the two objects
(e.g. He is a brick, a log, a bear), in
case of metonymy it is realized on
the basis of contiguity between the
two objects (e.g. I like Beethoven).
To the Metonymical Group we
refer metonymy, synechdoche,
periphrasis, and euphemism.
 Metonymy as a secondary nomination unit is
based on the real association of the object of
nomination with the object whose name is
transferred.
 The simplest kind of metonymy is lexical
metonymy, when the name of an object
(most often, a proper name) is transferred to
another object (Lewis, Makintosh, volt,
amper). Such metonymies have no stylistic
value as they become common nouns.
 Stylistic metonymy suggests a new, unexpected
association between the two objects.
 In metonymy, the associations between the object
named and the object implied vary.
 They may bring together
 some features of a person and the person
him/herself;
 an article of clothing and the person wearing it;

 an instrument and the action it performs;

 the two objects whose functions coincide

 e.g. She was a sunny, happy sort of creature. Too

fond of the bottle (A. Christie); He made his way
through the perfume and conversation (I. Shaw).
 Synecdoche is a variety of metonymy in
which the transfer is based on the association
between a part and the whole, the singular and
the plural.
 The first variant is naming the whole object by
mentioning part of it:

 e.g. Caroline lives with Jack under the same

roof (under the same roof - in the same
house).

 The second variant of synecdoche is using the

name of the whole object to denote a
constituent part of this object:

 e.g. The hall applauded (the hall = the people

inside).
 Periphrasis (Greek: peri – around; phraseo –
speak) is a stylistic figure which substitutes a
word designating an object for a word-
combination which describes its most essential
and characteristic features.
 Periphrasis both names and describes;
 indicates a feature which the speaker or writer
wants to stress and often conveys an
individual perception of the object or
phenomenon named.

 e.g. The hospital was crowded with the

surgically interesting products {the
wounded} of the fighting in Africa (I. Shaw).
 As a result of frequent repetition,
periphrasis can become well-established
as a synonymous expression for the
word generally used to designate the
object. It is called traditional, dictionary
or language periphrasis,

 e.g. gentlemen of the long

robe (lawyers),
 the better (fair, gentle) sex,
 my better half (my spouse),
 the minions of the law (police).
 Logical periphrasis is based upon one
of the inherent properties of the object:
 weapons = instruments of destruction;
 love = the most pardonable of human
weaknesses;

 Figurative periphrasis is based upon

metaphor or metonymy:
 to marry = to tie the knot (metaphor);
enthusiast = young blood (metonymy);
money = mote of evil (metaphor).
Euphemism (Greek: eupheme – speaking well) is a
variety of periphrasis which is used to replace an
unpleasant word or expression by a
conventionally more acceptable one.
 Euphemisms may be divided into several groups
according to the spheres of usage:
1) religious euphemisms: God may be replaced
by Goodness, Lord, Jove, Heaven etc.; Devil - by the
dence, the dickens, old Nick, old Harry;

2) euphemisms connected with death: to join the majority,

to pass away, to go the way of all flesh, to go west, to
breathe one's last, to expire, to depart etc;

3) political euphemisms, widely used in mass

media: undernourishment for starvation, less fortunate
elements for the poor, economic tunnelfor the crisis etc.
 The euphemistic transfer of a name is
often based on metaphor or metonymy.
 In fiction, euphemisms are used to give
more positive characteristics to the
denotate

 e.g. Jean nodded without turning and

slid between two vermilion-coloured
buses so that two drivers
simultaneously used the same
qualitative word (J. Galsworthy).
 Metaphor is a secondary nomination unit
based on likeness, similarity (real or
imaginary) of some features of two
different objects;
 is usually used in the predicate group,
because it aims at individualization and
characterization of the object.
4 types of metaphor, the stylistic value of
each type being different:
 1) nominative metaphor, i.e. one name which is
substituted for by another. The nominative metaphor
gives a new name to a class of objects. Such metaphors
are a mere technical device for extracting a new name,
from the old word-stock
 e.g. the apple of the eye, a leg of the table, an arm of
the clock, the foot of the hill.

 2) cognitive metaphor is created as a result of the shift in

the combinability of qualifying lexical units, when their
meaning becomes more abstract. Objects named are
ascribed the features of quite different objects,
sometimes even alien qualities
 e.g. black night (water, heat, despair etc). It may be
based on implied simile, e.g. Time flies (as a bird).
 3) generalizing metaphor leads to polysemy as it
destroys the borderline between different notions. In
this case, predicative lexical units undergo
metaphorization and transform into identifying lexical
units. This metaphor is somewhat artificial and it
indicates the feelings some artefacts can evoke in the
customers rather than the qualities of some goods. Its
stylistic effect is weak
 e.g. восторгаться → шоколад "Bocmopг".

 4) figurative or image-bearing metaphor presupposes

that identifying lexical units are transferred into the
predicate-slot and, as a predicate, refer to other
objects or a class of objects. Here, metaphor is a
means of individualization, evaluation, and
discrimination of the shades of meaning. Such
metaphor appeals to the reader's intuition, giving
him/her a chance to interpret the text creatively.
 e.g. They walked along, two continents of
experience and feeling, unable to
communicate (W.S. Gilbert).
According to its structure, metaphor may be:

 a) simple or elementary, which is based on the

actualization of one or several features common for
two objects;

 b) prolonged or sustained, which is not confined to

one feature that forms the main, central image but
also comprises other features linked with and
developing this image in context,

 e.g. He was surprised that the fire which flashed

from his eyes did not melt the glasses of the
spectacles (A. Huxley).

 In this example, images flashed and melted are

connected with the main image expressed by the
word fire.
 According to the peculiarities of its
semantics, metaphor may be trite
(traditional, language) and genuine
(speech).
 Stylistic functions of metaphor are
twofold. By evoking images and
suggesting analogies, it:

1) makes the author's thought more

concrete, definite, and clear, and

2) reveals the author's emotional attitude

towards what he/she describes.
Antonomasia (Greek: antonomasia –
renaming) is a peculiar variety of metaphor
 based upon the principle of identification of human
beings with things which surround them.

 There are two types of antonomasia:

1) the usage of a proper name for a common noun
(Othello, Romeo, Hamlet);

2) the usage of common nouns or their parts as proper

names (Mr.Snake, Mr.Backbite etc.),
 e.g. "Don't ask me,” said Mr. Owl Eyes washing
his hands off the whole matter (F.Sc. Fitzgerald).

The main stylistic function of antonomasia - to

characterize a person simultaneously with naming
him/her.
 Personification (Latin: persona –
person, facere – do) is also a variety of
metaphor. It is based on ascribing some
features and characteristics of a person to a
thing.

 e.g.
Autumn comes
And trees are shedding their leaves
And Mother Nature blushes
Before disrobing
(N. West)
 Allegory is another variety of
metaphor.

 It differs from metaphor as it is mainly

used in fiction and it differs from
personification as it appears only in a
text, no matter how short it may be
(e.g. proverbs, fables or fairy tales).
 Irony (Greek: eironeia – concealed mockery) is
realized when the speaker intentionally
breaks the principle of sincerity of speech.

 In a narrow sense, irony is the use of a word

having a positive meaning to express a negative
one.
 In a wider sense, irony is an utterance which
formally shows a positive or neutral attitude of
the speaker to the object of conversation but in
fact expresses a negative evaluation of it.

 e.g. She was a gentle woman, and this, of course, is a

very fine thing to be; she was proud of it (in quite a
gentlewomanly way), and was in the habit of saying
that gentlefolk were gentlefolk, which, if you come to
think of it, is a profound remark (W.S.Maugham).
 FIGURES OF COMBINATION
(SD)
 Figures of combination are SD of
semasiology.
 They are stylistically relevant semantic
means of combining lexical, syntactical and
other units (including EM) belonging to the
same or different language levels. So, the
realization of the figures of combination is
possible only in context.
There are 3 basic types of semantic
relations between words, phrases, and
utterances:
1) those involving similar (synonymous) meanings of
such units. The speaker combines within an utterance
or text the units whose meaning he/she considers
similar, thus figures of identity are formed;
2) those based on opposite (antonymous) meanings of
the units. The speaker combines within an utterance
or text two semantically contrasting units. As a result,
figures of opposition are formed;
3) those comprising somewhat different meanings of the
units. The speaker combines within an utterance or
text lexical units denoting different but close notions.
As a result, the figures of unequality are formed.
 FIGURES OF COMBINATION

FIGURES OF FIGURES OF FIGURES OF

IDENTITY OPPOSITION INEQUALITY

Simile Antithesis Climax

Synonyms- Oxymoron Anticlimax
substitutes Pun
Synonyms- Zeugma
specifiers
 FIGURES OF IDENTITY
 Simile (Latin: simile - similar) is a partial
identification of two objects belonging to
different spheres or bringing together some of
their qualities.

 The objects compared are not identical,

though they have some resemblance, some
common features. Emphasizing their partial
identity gives new characteristics to the
referent.
 Simile is a structure consisting of two
components:
 the subject of comparison, and
 the object of comparison which are united by
formal markers: as, as … as, like, as though,
as if, such as etc.,

 e.g. Unhappiness was like a hungry animal

waiting beside the track for any victim
/G.Greene/.
 If formal markers are missing but the
relations between the two objects are those
of similarity and identity, we have implied
simile. In such similes notional or
seminotional words (verbs, nouns etc.)
substitute formal markers (Cf: to resemble, to
remind, to seem, resemblance etc.):

 e.g. H.G.Wells reminded her of the nice paddies

in her native California (A.Huxley).
 Synonyms-substitutes (substituting
synonyms) are words used to denote
objects or action, supplementing new
additional details, which helps to avoid
monotonous repetitions.

 e.g. But he had no words to express his

feelings and to relieve them would utter an
obscene jest; it was as though his emotion was
so violent that he needed vulgarity to break the
tension. Mackintosh observed this sentiment
with an icy disdain /W.S.Maugham/.
 Synonyms-specifiers (specifying synonyms)
are used as a chain of words which express
similar meanings;
 are used for a better and more detailed
description of an object or person.
 There are two ways of using specifying
synonyms:
1) as paired synonyms, and
2) as synonymic variations,

e.g. …the intent of which perjury being to rob a

poor native widow and her helpless family of a
plantation-patch, their only stay and support in
their bereavement and desolation /M.Twain/.
 FIGURES OF OPPOSITION
 Antithesis (Greek - opposition) is a stylistic device
which presents two contrasting ideas in close
proximity in order to stress the contrast.

 There are several variants of antithesis based on

different relations of the ideas expressed:
1) opposition of features possessed by the same
referent,

 e.g. Some people have much to live on, and

little to live for (O.Wilde);
2) opposition of two or more different
referents having contrasting features,
e.g. Their pre-money wives did not go
together with their post-money daughters
/E.Hemingway/;

3) opposition of referents having not only

contrasting feature but embracing a wider
range of features,
e.g. New England had a native literature,
while Virginia had none; numerous
industries, while Virginia was all agricultural
/Th.Dreiser/.
Antithesis is widely used in all kinds of
speech: fiction, publicistic, scientific, and
colloquial English.

It performs various stylistic functions:

stressing the contrast and rhythmically
organizing the utterance.
Due to the last quality antithesis is widely
used in poetry in combination with
anaphora, epiphora, and alliteration.
 Oxymoron (Greek: oxymoron – witty –
foolish) is also a combination of opposite
meanings which exclude each other.
But in this case, the two semantically
contrasting ideas are expressed by
syntactically interdependent words (in
predicative, attributive or adverbial
phrases).

e.g.He was certain the whites could

easily detect his adoring hatred to them
/R.Wright/.
 Original oxymorons are created by
the authors to make the utterance
emotionally charged, vivid, and fresh,

 e.g. Oh brawling love! Oh loving

hate! Oh heavy lightness! Serious
vanity! Feather of lead, bright
smoke, cold fire, sick health!
/W. Shakespeare/.
 Figures (Relations) of
Unequality
 Gradation (climax) is a stylistic device
consisting in such distribution of elements of
the utterance when each next element is
characterized by increasing degree of
intensity.
 e.g. Of course, it's important. Incredibly,
urgently, desperately important.
 Anticlimax (Bathos) is a stylistic device
consisting in such distribution of elements of
the utterance when each next element is
characterized by decreasing degree of
intensity.
 e.g. He was unconsolable - for an afternoon.
 Pun (play upon words) is a stylistic device
based on the interaction of two well-known
meanings of a word or phrase.

 e.g. There comes a period in every man's

life, but she is just a semicolon in his.
 1. Play on the words may be based on
polysemy and homonymy:

e.g. Visitor, to a little boy:

-Is your mother engaged?
-Engaged? She is already married.

 2. Play on words may be based upon

similarity of pronunciation:

e.g. John said to Pete at dinner: "Carry on". But

Pete never ate carrion [9; 12].
 Zeugma is a stylistic device based on the
use of a word in the same grammatical
but different semantic relations to two
adjacent words in the context, the
semantic relations being, on the one
hand, literal, and, on the other,
transferred.

e.g. He took his hat and his leave.

She went home, in a flood of tears and
a sedan chair.