HEALER, A.

& VARDOULAKIS,
I. (1984). GCotechnique 34, No. 2, 183-198

Behaviour of dry sand tested in a large triaxial apparatus

A. HETI’LER* and I. VARDOULAKIW

In this Paper the results from an extensive experimen- Cl vertical stress on the specimen
tal study of the stress-strain behaviour of dry sand in u2 lateral stress on the specimen
triaxial compression tests are presented. The experi- 4 friction angle of sand
ments were performed in a new triaxial apparatus for
&M friction angle of sand includ-
large specimens. Emphasis is given to sources of error
ing effect of end friction
such as end restraint, bifurcation and imperfection
C& friction angle of lubricant
sensitivity. The behaviour at small and large strains is
presented and the rigid granular model of sand, its 4C friction angle of sand at criti-
practical significance and limitations are discussed. cal density

INTRODUCTION
Dans cet article on presente les rtsultats d’une re-
cherche experimentale sur le comportement In selecting a yield criterion for soils, Roscoe,
rheologique du sable set en compression triaxiale. Schofield & Thurairajah (1963) presented the
L’appareil triaxial est d’un genre nouveau qui contient results of special triaxial compression tests for
de tres grands Cchantillons. Une etude detaillee des which very precise optical records of the failure
erreurs de mesures dues au frottement des plaques, a patterns had been made. This series of experi-
la bifurcation et a l’influence des imperfections est ments showed that it is difficult to interpret the
faite. Le comportement rheologique est present& pour experimental data of such tests because of the
de petites et grandes deformations; le modele du sable
appreciable bulging or necking of the samples.
avec grains rigides, sa signification pratique et ses
Kirkpatrick & Belshaw (1968) and Deman
limites seront discutts.
(1975) used an X-ray technique to investigate
the strain field inside cylindrical samples of dry
NOTATION sand in triaxial compression tests performed
diameter of the specimen
D with or without lubrication of the end platens.
diameter before loading
DO These experiments showed that rough end pla-
height of the specimen
H tens support the development of rigid cones at
HO height before loading the ends which are mainly responsible for a
K = al/u2 stress ratio global geometric softening (Drescher & Var-
KC Rowe’s critical stress ratio doulakis, 1982). Lubrication prevents the for-
KC, critical stress ratio for grain mation of these cones; the deformation is uni-
crushing form for moderate strains, although bulging oc-
mean pressure curs at larger strains (Deman, 1975). Bishop &
mean pressure before loading Green (1965) made an extensive study of the
critical mean pressure for influence of slenderness and end restraint, and
grain crushing arrived at similar conclusions. In triaxial exten-
porosity before loading sion tests, the dominant failure mode is localized
density necking, which cannot be prevented by any
friction angle at the specimen/ refinements in the boundary conditions or
plate interface changes in the sample geometry (Reeds &
vertical strain of the specimen Green, 1976).
lateral strain of the specimen The existing experimental data have given rise
strain increment to theoretical analyses of bifurcation (Var-
volumetric strain doulakis, 1979, 1983) and imperfection sensitiv-
slenderness of the specimen ity (Drescher & Vardoulakis, 1982) in the triax-
slenderness before loading ial test. The main results of the bifurcation
analysis of ideal triaxial tests on dry sand can be
summarized as follows
Discussion on this Paper closes on 1 October 1984.
For further details see inside back cover. (a) Bulging is not possible if the slenderness of
* University of Karlsruhe. the sample is smaller than a critical value. If
t University of Minnesota. bulging occurs, then it takes place close to
183
 HETTLER AND VARDOULAKIS

sented, and the rigid-granular model of sand and

its limitations are discussed. Finally, the be-
Hydrauk piston,
max. force 6,4 MN haviour of sand at large strains in relation to
bifurcation is presented and the existence of a
scale effect due to shear bands is studied.

TESTING APPARATUS, TESTED MATERIAL

$, Cell,max. pressure AND SAMPLE PREPARATION
L~ 22 bar
The triaxial set-up described in this Paper
iI Joint consists of a large triaxial cell and a newly
developed triaxial apparatus, as shown in Fig. 1.
‘I An extensive description of the pre-existing
_~ Piston with axial large triaxial cell is given elsewhere (Leussink,
( force measurement
1960). The design concept of the large triaxial
testing apparatus was based on the following
requirements
, 1 Joint
(a) flat specimens to avoid bulging
(b) lubricated and enlarged end platens to
minimize end restraint
(c) a guided upper plate to minimize
eccentricity
force measurement (d) large overall dimensions to increase strain-
measurement accuracy
(e) high uniformity in the initial porosity and
sample height to support uniform deforma-
Large triaxial cell and triaxiai apparatus tion.
As shown in Fig. 2 the triaxial apparatus
the limiting state and in the hardening re- consists mainly of the following parts
gime of the stress-ratio strain curve of the
tested sand. (a) upper plate
lb) Shear band formation in the compression (b) lower plate
test is only possible in the softening regime (c) guiding system.
of the stress-ratio strain curve. The two enlarged end platens carry a polished
Cc) Diffuse and localized necking in the exten- glass plate 2cm thick. A single lubricated
sion test will inevitably take place close to membrane 0.3 mm thick is placed between the
the limiting state and in the hardening re- end platens and the specimen. The upper plate
gime of the stress-ratio strain curve. is guided through four vertical, high-precision
On the other hand, the imperfection sensitivity SUSTAN-guides.
analysis performed by Drescher & Vardoulakis As already mentioned above, the homogene-
(1982) provided an estimate of the apparent ous deformation of a specimen in triaxial com-
increase in the measured friction angle of the pression with lubricated ends is assured by
material caused by the end restraint. Recently, choosing a rather small slenderness
Vardoulakis & Graf (1982) initiated a study to K =HJD (1)
quantify also the sensitivity of the friction angle,
measured in biaxial tests, upon small density where H is the height and D is the diameter of
imperfections. All these experimental and the specimen. The initial dimensions of the
theoretical studies motivated the construction of specimens in the majority of the tests presented
a new triaxial testing apparatus, which was de- here were: H,=28cm; D0=78cm, i.e. K,,=
signed by Biisinger, Gudehus and Hettler (Het- 0.36.
tler, 1981) and is presently operational in the The tested material was a dry, uniform,
Institute of Soil Mechanics of the University of medium-grained sand consisting of rounded
Karlsruhe. quartz grains with a specific weight ys=
The new triaxial apparatus is described in the 26.5 kN/m3. The grain size distribution of this
next section of this Paper. Subsequently, the sand, usually termed Karlsruhe sand, is given in
sources of errors in stress and strain measure- Fig. 3. The maximum and minimum porosity are
ments and corrections for the end friction are ram._,= 0.45 and n,,,,“. = 0.36, respectively.
given. The behaviour at small strains is pre- In order to obtain a uniform initial density
186 HETI-LER AND VARDOULAKIS

axial strains .si <lo-‘), it is necessary to con- difference between axial and radial strains could
sider the bedding error caused by the penetra- be detected.
tion of the rubber membrane by sand grains and Tests with flat samples require very good lub-
by the squeezing out of lubricant. Therefore, the rication of the end platens. To investigate the
axial displacements are measured at two posi- properties of the lubricant used in the present
tions experimental programme, two different ap-
proaches were followed.
(a) between the end platens and
Figure 5 shows the results of direct shear tests
(h) between the lower plate and a measuring
on ‘sandwich’ specimens, consisting of glass
button placed at the cylindrical surface of
plate-lubricant-rubber membrane and sand
the specimen (Fig. 4).
(Zangl, 1971). The friction angle S,, of such a
Let &iii;* be the strain computed from the rela- specimen is plotted against the shear displace-
tive displacement of the end platens and let .si* ment. In the range of normal stress investigated
be the strain computed from the displacement of 100 kN/m’< cr < 2000 kN/m*, S,, GO.25” is
the measuring button with respect to the lower found in the beginning of the shear test. The
plate. The corrected axial strain Ed is given by friction angle 6, increases with the shear dis-
placement up to about 0.6” for u = 100 kN/m*
El = El* - (&I**-El*) /(2&l) (3) and less than O-3” for w = 2000 kN/m’. For the
triaxial tests described here, the lowest axial
stress was 50 kN/m’ at the beginning of the test
where h” and h** are reference heights shown
and about 250 kN/m’ at the limiting state. Fol-
in Fig. 4. Equation (3) was derived on the basis
lowing Fig. 5, therefore
of the assumption that the bedding error is the
same at the upper and at the lower plate. The 6” GO.5” (4)
resulting error in axial strain measurement was
+.5x 1om5. can be assumed. The properties of the lubricant
Changes in circumference were usually meas- deteriorate dramatically at small normal stres-
ured by a single bandage with a strain error of ses, as the results from Tatsuoka, Molenkamp,
*2x 10m4. A control of the bandage measure- Toni, Hino & Takagi (1982), shown in Fig. 6,
ment was achieved by tests with isotropic load- indicate.
ing (see next section), where no systematic In the following the influence of end friction
in the results in triaxial tests is studied. Accord-
iEnd plate ing to the findings of Tatsuoka et al. (1982) (Fig.
6) the high friction angles usually measured at
low confining pressures have been mainly attri-
buted to the increased end restraints and not to
any change in the material friction angle itself.
This assumption is compatible with the rigid-
granular theory of Dietrich (1976). The in-
fluence of end friction has been analysed by
‘End plate applying the recent paper by Drescher & Var-
doulakis (1982), and in particular, the formulae
Fig. 4. Principle of axial-strain measurement for the uniform deformation mode. Let &, be
the apparent (measured) friction angle, K the
0,75-
q: kN/m’ 5’x

x 2000 +A x Dow-grease
l 1000
4 l Shin etsun grease
\ I

3
\
a” z

01
0 2.5
Shear
5 7.5
displacement mm
I
10
I
12.5 ;I-_<
5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000

Fig. 5. Direct shear tests on ‘sandwich’ specimens

(I

consisting of glass plate-lutican-rubber membrane Fig. 6. Pressure sensitivity of the friction angle I&
and sand (zangl, 1971) after Tatsuoka et al. (1982)
 DRY SAND TESTED IN A LARGE TRIAXIAL APPARATUS 187

current slenderness of the specimen and &, the

friction angle, at the specimen/plate interface
(&,c&). According to Drescher & Vardoulakis
(1982), the corrected value 4 of the material
friction angle is found as

d’ = F(~M, K, 6,)
Parameter studies have been made for 30” s 4 6
50” and 0 < 6,<2”, and for three values of the
slenderness K. The corresponding results are
shown in Fig. 7.
It should be emphasized that these error cal-
culations provide an upper bound for A+ =
&-&, because &, is assumed to have the same
value everywhere at the specimen/plate inter-
face. In reality, however, a0 assumes its lowest
value at the centre and increases gradually in
radial direction, in proportion to the radial dis-
placement; cf. Fig. 5. Therefore, we can assume
that in the present test series S,<O-5”. For the
tests in the next section, taking a mean value
So = 0.25” with the slenderness K = 0.36 gives an
increase in the true material friction angle of
A#J ~0.5” (Fig. 7(a)). The maximum scatter in
the measured friction angle (see next section)
was about *lo. Therefore the effect of end
friction lies within the reproducibility of the tests
and will be neglected here. This is supported by
the fact that all tests in the next section with
K = 0.36 showed a practically perfect
homogeneous deformation up to vertical strains
er = 10-l.

TRIAXIAL TESTS WITH HOMOGENEOUS

DEFORMATION
In this section the results of triaxial tests with
K = 78 cm/28 cm = 0.36 are presented. For verti-
ib)
cal strains s1 s 10-l all samples showed nearly
perfect homogeneous deformation. For a final
mean diameter of about 86 cm, the deviations
from this value along the height of the sample
amounted to rtO.6 mm, which corresponds to an
imperfection of about ~t7 x 10m4. This means
that for the dimensions selected (K = 0.36) no
homogeneity loss was observed. This result is
supported by recent theoretical predictions
made by Vardoulakis (1983).

Behaviour at small strains

According to the Hertz-Mindlin theory, the
stress-strain behaviour of a granular assembly is
highly non-linear, i.e. non-linear even at very
small strains (Deresiewicz, 1958). To demon-
strate this property, the evaluation of a typical

Fig. 7. Measured friction angle against matedal fric-

@:degrees tion angle after Drescher & Vardodakis (1982): (a)
Cc) ~=0-36; (b) ~=0++9; (c) ~=l
188 HETI’LER
1 o”
E;- (end plate]
F,* (atsample)
i E, (corrected)
A@, kN/m2
Fig. 8. Stress-strain behaviour at small stmins
triaxial test at small strains (Em< lo-‘) is given in
Fig. 8 (n, = 0.368). In this figure, the axial strain
Ed is plotted against the stress difference
Au, = Cl - Cl0
where
(TV”= mZ= 400 kN/m’
The corrected strains g1 are computed according
to equation (3) and are approximated by a
power law
with
a!=1.6
The exponent (Y is found to be constant for a
given sand (Hettler, 1981), with o( > 1 when
proportional loading is excluded. The fact that
o( > 1 can also be explained by the Hertz-
Mindlin theory when looking at an assembly of
grains under the condition of constant lateral
stress (Deresiewicz, 19.58; Brauns, 1968).
The factor c in equation (7) is found to de-
pend on the density and on the stress path
(Hettler, 1981). It is important, however, to
note that c is not affected by the intergranular
pressure, as long as this pressure no longer
exceeds a critical value pn (see following sec-
tion). It should be emphasized that equation (7)
is not true for proportional loading.
Assuming a generalized, tensorial form of
equation (7), it can be shown by similarity con-
siderations that the same power law (same expo-
nent) also characterizes the local deformation
curve of rigid foundations (Hettler, 1983;
Winter & Hettler, 1983). This hypothesis has
AND VARDOULAKIS
been tested on a variety of boundary value
problems, such as vertically loaded foundations,
horizontally loaded piles and piles under tension
(Hettler, 1984). Equation (7) can even be
generalized for cyclic loading (Gudehus & Het-
tler, 1983).
Another important property observed at small
strains is that the incipient radial strains are null.
For loose sand (no = 0.459) Ed==Ois observed up
to F~ =3x 10m3 whereas for dense sand (no=
0.353) E2 -0 only up to F, = 2 X 10mm4. This prop-
erty was repeatedly confirmed in the present test
series and has also been observed in strain-
controlled true-triaxial tests (Goldscheider,
1982). To obtain more accurate information, the
radial displacements have also been measured in
some triaxial tests by electrical displacement
gauges. In addition, in some other tests on small
specimens, the deformation has been recorded
optically by theodolite. In all these experiments,
the radial displacement was initially zero. As-
suming that this result reflects true material
behaviour and not the action of the end re-
straint, this property could be understood as a
(5)
condition for vanishing incipient radial strain-
rate
(6) &=O (9)
Influence of intergranular pressure and the
rigid-granular model
The rigid-granular concept appears first in
(7) Rowe’s (1971) stress-dilatancy theory and was
theoretically extended by Dietrich (1976) in the
theory of ‘psammic’ material (@&.Los = sand).
A simplified form of the rigid-granular model,
(8)
introduced by Vardoulakis (1980, 1983) has
yielded satisfactory results in bifurcation anal-
yses of the biaxial and triaxial test. The basic
assumptions of the rigid-granular model are as
follows
(a) there is no material property with the di-
mension of stress and
(h) dilatancy is an internal constraint.
Consequently, a Mohr-Coulomb hardening rule
is assumed to be valid, expressed in terms of a
dimensionless stress and strain measure.
As Dietrich (1976) proposed, the assumption
that dilatancy is an internal constraint is a work-
ing hypothesis, which must be examined in
boundary value problems with free surfaces, i.e.
surfaces on which stress boundary conditions are
posed. There are stress paths, however, for
which dilatancy is completely or partially sup-
pressed, e.g. proportional straining, like iso-
tropic straining, and one-dimensional consolida-
tion.
 DRY SAND TESTED IN A LARGE TRIAXIAL APPARATUS 189

Dietrich (1976) assumed in his theory of above mentioned working hypothesis of free
psammic material that rigid-granular behaviour surfaces. Dietrich’s assumption of limiting be-
is a limiting behaviour at intergranular pressures haviour will be replaced by the assumption that
tending to zero. At high stress levels, it is ex- sand also behaves as a psammic material at
pected that the stress level influences the con- relatively high intergranular pressures. The
stitutive response of sand. Several investigators measure of this property is a critical intergranu-
(e.g. Lade, 1977; Vermeer, 1978) have pro- lar pressure pn that marks the end of rigid-
posed a deviation from the Mohr-Coulomb rule granular behaviour. For p>p_ grain crushing
by introducing a dependency on the intergranu- dominates and the grain size distribution
lar pressure. Their hardening rule contains a changes during shear. pcTmust therefore depend
factor (p/p,J”, where p is the current intergranu- on grain size, grain shape and grain mineral.
lar pressure and p,, is an arbitrary reference To investigate this hypothesis, a group of
pressure. three test series was performed. Table 1 sum-
In this section, the rigid-granular model will marizes the porosities and the range of confining
be investigated. Triaxial tests with confining pressures for each test series; the corresponding
hydrostatic pressure are compatible with the stress-strain curves are shown in Figs 9-11. In
these figures the stress ratio
Table 1
K = u,/ua (10)
No. of and the volumetric strain
yq-i--$[E tests

F,=&,+2E2 (11)
4
3 are plotted against the axial strain E,.
3 Within the range 50 kN/m’ < oZ < 300 kN/m*
(n, = 0.361) and 50 kN/m* s c2 G 400 kN/m*
(n,, = 0.362), the first two series in Figs 9 and 10
6
do not show any dependency of the stress-strain
I
curves on the confining pressure, whereas for
(r,>400 kN/m’ (Fig. 11) the influence of the

~~2:kN/m*

x 50
S 80
. 200 ~~2:kN/m'
. 300
D + 50
a 400
I
11
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 l 4oo
E,'% 1Y
0 2 4 6 6 10 12
(a)
E,:%

(a)

6
5 +
a

4- .
+
“$ 3- D+
/
5
w 2-

1~
O +./, ,

-3 1 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 11
-l_ ',:%

(b) (W

Fig. 9. tiuence of confining pressure, no = O-361 Fig. 10. hfluence of confinfng pressure, n,=0*368
190 HElTLER AND VARDOULAKIS

confining pressure is apparent. Fig. 12 shows the
Mohr’s circles for the peak state of the stress
ratio, corresponding to the stress-strain curves
of Fig. 11(a). From Figs 9 and 10, an estimate of
the critical intergranular pressure can be derived
p_ = 900 kN/m’
where
P = ((T1+ 2~)/3
The dependency of the peak stress ratio on the
pressure level can be expressed by means of a
power law
for P > pCT
with
y = -0.5
As can be seen from Fig. 11, not only the
friction but also the dilatancy is pressure sensi-
tive for p > p_. This means that, with an increas-
ing rate of grain crushing, friction and dilatancy
are decreasing.
The existence of a critical intergranular pres-
sure, per= 1 MN/m’, has great practical signifi-
cance in model testing. For example, the dimen-
sionless displacements measured in a model test
with the same sand as in the prototype are also
valid for the prototype, if in the latter p <pCr.
The rigid-granular model and the resulting
model laws have been successfully applied in the
interpretation of experimental results from vari-
ous types of model test, such as service and
(12)
limiting states of shallow foundations under ver-
tical and horizontal loads, earth pressure on
retaining walls and the skin friction of piles
(Hettler, 1981, 1983, 1984; Winter & Het-
tler, 1983; Gudehus & Hettler, 1983). Tests
(13) with model-test families corroborated the results
from the triaxial tests presented here and vice
versa. However, as equation (13) indicates,
there are boundary value problems which are
(14) not covered by the rigid-granular model, for
example, problems involving the toe pressure of
piles and deformations under high dams where
grain crushing dominates.
Isotropic loading
All the tests started from the same isotropic
state of stress

ar=az=(Tg=pO (15)
with pO= 50 kN/m*. In Fig. 13 the measured
radial and axial strains are plotted against the
isotropic stress p. Fig. 13(a) shows the result of a
test where the axial strain was measured be-
tween the end plates and between end plate and
measuring button (Fig. 4). The differences in the
radial strains in Fig. 13(a) measured by the
bandage lie within the measuring accuracy. Fig.
T 600 13(b) shows the result of four tests with the
: 1000 same initial density y= 17.2 kN/m3. As Fig.
13(b) indicates, the scatter in isotropic loading
1 1 I
0 2 4 6 0 10 12 2000
e,: %
(a)
*r

6-

- 2ooow 3000
Q kN/d

ib) Fig. 12. Mohr’s circks for the peak state of stress
ratio corresponding to the stmss-W& curves of Fig.
Fig. 11. Iduence of conking pressure, n, = O-353 11(a)
 DRY SAND TESTED IN A LARGE TRIAXIAL APPARATUS 191

from one test to another is relatively high, al-
though in the following triaxial compression
tests (Fig. 11) practically no scatter was ob-
served.
In all tests with isotropic loading the differ-
ences between axial and radial strains were
within the measuring accuracy. Sometimes the
axial strains were slightly larger, sometimes the
opposite was observed. This means that no over-
all systematic differences in axial and radial
strains can be detected, and that consequently,
no influence of the end restraint on the radial
strain measurement can be detected. The speci-
men deforms isotropically during isotropic load-
ing. The initial anisotropy, caused by the sample
preparation procedure, must be swept out by the
application of the initial isotropic stress pO.
These results are in agreement with
Goldscheider’s (1984) observations from true-
triaxial tests.
Isotropic preloading
Isotropic preloading of a triaxial specimen of
dry or fully drained sand is sometimes referred
to as the isotropic consolidation of sand. The
induced changes in the void ratio are usually
very small, as can be seen, for example, in Fig.
13. The question to which we address ourselves
here is to what extent the influence of isotropic
preloading on friction and dilatancy can be de-
tected in preloaded specimens. This influence is
shown in Fig. 14, where the results from two
0.3
I
triaxial tests under crZ=200 kN/m’ are pre-
sented. One specimen was isotropically pre-
loaded with p = 930 kN/m*. The initial stiffness
of the preloaded specimen was higher and its
initial contractancy was smaller than in the non-
preloaded specimen. This could be interpreted
as due to the volumetric strain hardening in-
duced by the preloading. It is important, how-
ever, to realize that there is no visible effect on
the limiting state that could be interpreted as
overconsolidation. The initial volumetric strain
hardening is swept out and the angles of friction
and dilatancy are the same for both experiments
(cf. Gudehus, Goldscheider & Winter, 1977).
These experiments also show that purely iso-
tropic preloading cannot damage the grains so
easily as when a deviator is also applied under
the same intergranular pressure; cf. Fig. 11.
These findings are in complete accordance with
similar observations made in cuboidal tests
(Goldscheider, 1984).
Density dependence of friction and dilatancy
Within the frame of the rigid-granular model,
the soil is described only by dimensionless prop-
erties. Employing the usual soil mechanics ter-
minology, these properties are mobilized fric-
tion, mobilized dilatancy and current porosity.
Emphasis will be given here to the so-called
peak values (maximum values) of the friction
0 3-

02-

I
0.2

,9 Y

w I

0.1
o ‘1 endplate Tl?Sl

’ E1 meas”r,nnbutton
e2 = e3 bandage
x

-/

0 Ll I
0 L/ I 4

On 500 1000
O0 500 1000

p: kN/m’
p’ kNim2

(4 (b)

Fig. 13. Response to isotropic loading, p,,= 50 kN/m’, y = 17.2 kN/m% (a) comparison of strain measurement by
bandage, between end plates and measuring button; (b) scatter from four tests witb tbe same density
192 HETITER AND VARDOULAKIS

0 lsotroplcally
preloaded
J
’ Not preloaded
2

11 I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
1 I 1 E,’ %
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
E,. % k=d

(a) iOr

8r 8

%4
u’

._._._._.-*
-2
E,: %

fb)

Fig. 14. Influence of isotropic preloading Fig. 15. Test series with constant conlining pressure
(pu = 50 kN/m’) and varying density
angle and the dilatancy angle, respectively, and
their dependency on density will be presented.
The influence of initial density was investi- 45

gated within a test series with constant confining 1

pressure (TV= 50 kN/m’. The test with almost
critical density (no = 0.459) was performed at a
slightly higher confining pressure, ff?_=
80 kN/m’. Fig. 15 shows the stress-strain curves
corresponding to this test series. In Fig. 16 the
directly measured peak-friction angles 4 are
plotted against the initial (dry) unit weight of the
specimen for all tests. Although the sand was
carefully pluviated there is still a scatter with a
maximum of about +l”. This may be due to
inevitable density inhomogeneities within indi- 30/
14 15 16 17 18
vidual specimens. y: kN/m3
For obtaining a simple expression for the dila-
tancy at peak, Rowe’s (1971) stress-dilatancy Fig. 16. Density dependence of the friction angle
principle is applied. Let A denote the strain-
increment ratio By applying the work-in-work-out principle
2Asz K, = K/h (18)
A=--= l+tan p (16)
A&i where
and let KC denote Rowe’s critical state stress K = tan (45” + 412) (19)
ratio
must be independent of the density. Using the
KC = tan’ (45”+ &/2) (17) above definitions, the experimental results from
 DRY SAND TESTED IN A LARGE TRIAXIAL APPARATUS 193

Figs 9, 10 and 15 yielded a mean critical friction Diffuse modes

angle All the tests presented in the previous sections
with K = 28178 = 0.36 and for e1 < IO-’ showed
&= 29”*0.6” (20)
nearly perfect homogeneous deformation.
TESTS WITH INHOMOGENEOUS More slender specimens, with K=
DEFORMATION 46 cm/78 cm = 0.59, showed an appreciable de-
Experiments with ‘perfect’ boundary condi- viation from the homogeneous deformation. Fig.
tions and ‘perfectly’ homogeneous material do 18 shows the change in diameter AD, measured
at different heights and for different values of
not generally secure homogeneous deforma-
the axial strain c1 (y=17 kN/m3; 02=
tions, as various bifurcation modes of the defor-
200 kN/m*). According to this figure, bulging
mation are possible and do actually develop
(Vardoulakis, 1983). The bifurcation of the de- occurs in the very early stages of the straining
process. Since bifurcation should occur theoreti-
formation process means that at some charac-
cally only close to the limiting state (Var-
teristic state the deformation process does not
doulakis, 1983), this result is probably due to
follow its straight-ahead continuation, but turns
high imperfection sensitivity.
to an entirely different mode. Typical examples
of such a spontaneous loss of homogeneity are Figure 19 shows the influence of bulging on
the stress-strain curves for two tests with differ-
barrelling, bulging, necking and shear bands oc-
ent slendernesses, or = 28 cm/78 cm and K* =
curring in specimens with lubricated as well as
46 cm/78 cm (y = 16,95 kN/m’; (Tz=
non-lubricated ends.
200 kN/m2). At the beginning of the test, the
In this section two kinds of deviation from the
two stress-strain curves are identical up to K =
homogeneous deformation (Fig. 17(a)) are in-
3(~~ = 4X 10A3; E, = -3 X 10m3). Diffuse bulging
vestigated: diffuse barrelling and bulging (Fig.
17(b) and (c)) and shear band formation (Fig. 6
17(d)). 1
q----t;
(a)
:
L u1:
(b)
J

h: cm
: 146

i
L-p.,, - 28

(d) 2
(Cl

Fig. 17. Homogeneous and inhomogeneous deforma- v

1J
tion modes: (a) homogeneous mode; (b) d&se bar- 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
relling mode: (c) dihse bulging mode; (d) localized E,: 96
mode, shear band formation
(a)
6

I
4-
8
u'

2-

0
-2 4 6 8 10 12
E,:%

~2. 0

Fig. 18. D&se bulging in a relatively slender, Fig. 19. Infloence of slenderness on stress-strain be-
dense sand specimen (E&=46 cm, Do=78 cm, bavioor: (a) H,,=46cm; @) H,=28cm
y = 17 kN/m3, p0= 200 kN/m*) (y = 17 kN/m3; D, = 78 cm, p,,= 200 kN/m*)
 DRY SAND TESTED
All these tests indicate the importance of
using flat samples. In this case, guided end
platens also become very important. Fig. 23
shows the results from two tests with flat
samples: K~= 28 cm/78 cm: ICY= 2.5 cm/l0 cm
(y = 16.9 kN/m3; a2 = 400 kN/m3). Bulging was
not observed in either of these two tests. How-
ever, in the test with the relatively smaller speci-
men (H = 2.5 cm), the measured friction angle
at peak was 36”; whereas for the relatively large
and guided specimen (H= 28cm) the friction
angle at peak was 42”. This apparent softening
of the smaller specimen is possibly due to the
tilting of the upper plate.
Localized modes
For studying shear band formation in triaxial
tests with lubricated and enlarged end platens,
one large specimen (K = 28 cm/78 cm) with
dense sand (y = 16.9 kN/m3) was strained up to
&I = 1.4 x 10-l. At this strain level shear bands
are observed to intersect the cylindrical surface
of the specimen. These localizations are accom-
panied by pronounced softening, as shown in
Fig. 24, where the stress obliquity
is plotted against the logarithmic shearing strain
intensity
g =ln (g)-ln ($)
250
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
E,: %
Fig.23. Influence of tilting in tit specimens: (a) large
specimen, ~~=28cm/78cm; (b) small specimen,
K2=2*5an/10cm
IN A LARGE TRIAXIAL APPARATUS 195
After the peak the softening rate
d sin $,,
h,=p (23)
dg
assumes values between -0.12 and -0.57. Ac-
cording to Vardoulakis (1983), shear bands for
the given density are possible for h,< -0.14,
which is in very good agreement with the test. In
tests with loose material (y = 16.0 kN/m3 and
-y= 14.3 kN/m3 in Fig. 15) no shear bands were
observed to emerge on the cylindrical surface of
the specimen, although the specimens were
sheared up to e1 = 1.6~ 10-l. This is also in
agreement with the theoretical predictions, be-
cause in these tests no softening occurred (cf.
Fig. 21(a)).
An important consequence of the above men-
tioned experimental and theoretical findings is
that for an overcritically dense sand the critical
state cannot be reached following an overall
homogeneous deformation. The cntical state can
only be reached inside the shear bands (Var-
doulakis, 1977).
If we consider two sets of experimental data
obtained from tests on specimens of the same
sand, but with different dimensions, we should
(21) also keep in mind that in general a geometric
model law is always violated. This model law is
the ratio between a characteristic grain diameter
and a characteristic dimension of the specimen,
say
(22)
Vardoulakis & Graf (1982), using X-rays on
biaxial tests, reconfirmed the well-known Ros-
toe finding that the shear band thickness
d,= 15-20 d500,0_ The internal length d, is of
importance in several boundary value problems
like piles in tension. The well-known influence
of the pile diameter on the failure load
(LCbegue, 1964) can be described by consider-
ing the shear band thickness d, (Hettler, 1982,
1984). In the triaxial test, however, shear bands
occur only after the peak. This means that be-
fore localization no influence of the internal
14
0 5 10 15 20 25
9%
Fig. 24. Softening at large strains (K = 28 cm/78 cm,
y = 16-9 kN/m3)
196 HETILER AND VARDOULAKIS

length d, is expected. In other words, small and Dietrich, Th. (1976). Der psammische Stofl nls
large specimens should provide the same stress- mechanisches Model1 des Sandes. Dissertation,
strain curves up to the peak. University of Karlsruhe.
Drescher, A. & Vardoulakis, I. (1982). Geometric
softening in triaxial tests on granular material.
SUMMARY OF MAIN RESULTS Geotechniaue 32, No. 4. 291-303.
The main results of the present investigation Goldscheider,‘M. (1$84). True triaxial tests on dense
are summarized as follows sand. Proc. Int. Workshop on Consritutive Behavior
of Soils, Grenoble, Sept. 6-8 1982, Rotterdam:
(a) At small strains the stress-strain behaviour Balkema.
can be approximated by a power law. Gudehus, G., Goldscheider, M. & Winter, H. (1977).
(6) Starting from an isotropic stress state the Mechanical properties of sand and clay and numer-
incipient radial strain rate, &=O, was ical integration methods: some sources of errors
and bounds of accuracy. In: Finite Elements in
found.
Geomechanics Gudehus, G. (ed.). London: John
(c) The rigid-granular model for sand is valid as Wiley.
long as the combination of intergranular Gudehus, G. & Hettler, A. (1983). Model studies of
pressure and shear strain does not produce foundations in granular soil. In Developments in
excessive grain crushing. For the sand tested soil, mechanics and foundation engineering. But-
per = 1 MN/m*, which means that for a wide terfield, R. & Banjerjee, P. K. (eds). London:
variety of real problems small-scaled model Applied Science.
tests can be used to obtain valuable infor- Gudehus, G. & Hettler, A. (1983). Model studies of
mation. Friction and dilatancy are sensi- foundations in granular soil, Butterfield, R. & Ban-
jerjee, P. K. (eds). London: Applied Science (in
tively dependent on density.
press).
(d) Bifurcation in lubricated triaxial tests occurs
Hettler, A. (1981). Verschiebungen starer und elas-
in the form of diffuse bulging and takes tischer Griindungsktirper in Sand bei monotoner und
place prior to the limiting state, which zyklischer Belastung. VerGffentlichungen IBF, No.
means in the hardening regime of the stress- 90. Dissertation, University of Karlsruhe.
strain curve. Diffuse bulging results in smal- Hettler, A. (1982). Approximation formulae for piles
ler overall friction angles. under tension. IUTAM Conf. on Deformation of
(e) Diffuse bulging is avoided if relatively flat Failure of Granular Media, Delft, pp. 603-608.
specimens are used. Hettler, A. (1983). Modelluntersuchungen fiir
Griindungen in Sand. Bauingenieur 58, 41-48.
cf) Shear bands do inevitably occur in the sof-
Hettler, A. (1984). Theoretische und experimentelle
tening regime of the stress-strain curve.
Untersuchungen vertikaler Zugpfahle in Sand.
(8) In post-localization deformations a scale Bauingenieur 59, 87-95.
effect due to the shear band thickness is Kirkpatrick, W. & Belshaw, D. J. (1968). On the
apparent. interpretation of the triaxial test. G&technique 18,
No. 3, 336-350.
Lade, P. V. (1977). Elasto-plastic stress-train theory
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT for cohesionless soil with curved yield surfaces. Int.
The Authors thank the Deutsche J. Solids Structures 13, 1019-1035.
Forschungsgemeinschaft for supporting the pres- tibegue, M. Y. (1964). Etude expCrimenta1 des
ent research (DFG, Grant No. Gu 103/34-2). efforts d’arrachage et de frottement negatif sur les
pieux en milieu pulvtrulant. Ann. Inst. Bdtiment
Travaux 17, 806-822.
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