Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100102

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Environmental Challenges
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envc

Climatic impacts on socio-cultural behavior, health and psychology of rural

communities in South East Nigeria
Ihuoma N. Anyanwu a,∗, Chinyere A. Nwajiuba b
a
Department of Biological Sciences, Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, P.M.B 1010, Abakaliki, Ebonyi, Nigeria
b
Centre for Education Management, Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, P.M.B 1010, Abakaliki, Ebonyi, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Climatic effects on aquatic ecosystems are expected to have significant implications on communities using them
Climate change as drinking water and food sources. The challenges have increased given lack of baseline study and inability to
Culture predict accurately how people respond to changing climate, given the variability, flexibility and creativity shown
Cyanotoxin
by communities under change. Using quantitative survey technique, 1000 residents in 4 communities were asked
Gastrointestinal illness
to strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and/or strongly agree with range of statements. Climatic impacts
Health
Psychology on culture, behavior, environment, psychology, health and other health related issues were investigated. Results
showed strong relationship between the variables and people’s perception towards climate change. Participants,
3.52 and 18.40% strongly disagreed or disagreed on effects of climate change, 14.48% did not believe in the reality
of climate change, 40.20 and 23.40% agreed or strongly agreed on the impacts of changing climate in various
aspect of their lives. Mean residents which agreed and/or strongly agreed that climate change affected their
culture ranged from 23.20–49.90%, behavior 32.00–49.71%, environment 35.00–57.00%, psychology 22.67–
61.00%, health 30.40–53.60%, and health related issues 0–52%. Residents health and psychology were mostly
affected (p < 0.05); suggesting that climate change poses significant risk to humans. Thus, sustainable approach
on how to best deal with the changes/challenges are required.

1. Introduction
Currently, climate change has become one of the major threats
facing aquatic ecosystems and humans world-wide, particularly Africa
(UNCC, 2020) and human interactions with climate occur at all levels of
social structure. However, climate research has focused mainly on gov-
ernment, industries, technological, demographic and economic trends
that drive climate change (Federal Ministry of Environment, 2014;
Clayton et al., 2015). But factors that influence decision, health, social,
cultural, behavior and psychology at individual level have received little
or no attention in rural communities in Nigeria.
The dynamic nature of the relationship between people, aquatic
ecosystems and the environment may affect estimation of human con-
sequences and eco-systemic outcomes of the changing environment and
ecology. Climate change is modifying ecosystems (water bodies) and
thus, having variety of impacts on health, environment, psychology
and socio-cultural behaviors. This is often in association with other fac-
tors such as food, health, water security, agriculture and crop changes
(FAO, 2009; EEA, 2017; WHO, 2018; Shaibur et al., 2019; UNCC, 2020);
however, the impact on ecosystems and society are likely to become
more drastic in the coming years (EEA, 2017).
People are the victims of the negative impacts of climate change as
well the drivers of climate change. Rural communities are beginning
to link local events to climate change, but, changes in perceptions and
beliefs have been very slow to develop. While the awareness is gradu-
ally growing, acceptance that climate change is a natural and/or human
caused phenomenon, and the behavioral change needed, still require
significant amount of time (Marshall et al., 2019). However, impacts of
climate change will increasingly affect the daily lives of people in the
area of livelihood, health, drinking water sources, environment, culture,
and/or nutrition (UNEP, 2008a, b; WHO, 2009; FAO, 2009; IPCC, 2014;
UNCC, 2020). The impacts are expected to mostly affect those living in
rural communities due to their extensive reliance on natural and/or in-
land waters affected by climate change because they have less capacity
to protect themselves and/or adapt to the changes (WHO, 2009; 2018).
Although tropical regions (rural communities) are vulnerable to cli-
mate change, some regions will experience severe negative impacts than
others. Previous study on inland waters used by rural communities in

Abbreviations: pH, pondus hydrogenii; S. Disagree, strongly disagree; S. Agree, strongly agree; Environ, Environment; Others / H – Issues, other health related
issues.
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ihuomal@yahoo.com (I.N. Anyanwu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100102
Received 27 November 2020; Received in revised form 30 March 2021; Accepted 1 April 2021
2667-0100/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
I.N. Anyanwu and C.A. Nwajiuba
south east Nigeria for drinking and other household activities revealed
increasing water temperature, high dissolved solids, elevated turbidity,
varying nutrient levels, low dissolved oxygen, low pH (acidification) and
eutrophication, which may greatly disrupt patterns of plant and animal
distribution in the ecosystems (Anyanwu et al., 2021 in press). Increas-
ing water temperature is known to cause shift in suitability of aquatic
habitats for resident species and thus, alter ecosystem processes. This
may lead to extinction of species that occupy rare and vulnerable habi-
tats, while, organisms that prefer warmer water will potentially expand
their ranges; and the productivity of the aquatic ecosystems will be seri-
ously altered (Anyanwu et al., 2021 in press). Although, warmer waters
are naturally more productive, the species that thrive may be harm-
ful. The study also recorded variation in planktons (phytoplankton and
zooplankton) diversity; with toxic algae (cyanobacteria and dinoflagel-
lates) showing dominance (Anyanwu et al., 2021 in press). Cyanobacte-
ria bloom in freshwater ecosystems are known to pose significant haz-
ards to human and environmental health (Kubíčková et al., 2019). They
produce variety of unusual metabolites (cyanotoxins) and from chem-
ical and toxicological point of view, cyanotoxins are diverse group of
natural toxins which despite their aquatic origin, appear to be more haz-
ardous to terrestrial organisms than aquatic biotas (WHO, 1999). Fur-
thermore, the study revealed high microbial load (bacteria, Escherichia
coli and Staphylococcus sp) and dominance of Ascaris lumbricoides eggs,
Tricuris tricura eggs and Ancylostoma duodenale eggs in the water bod-
ies (Anyanwu et al., 2021 in press). However, uncertainties exist re-
garding the way residents in the region will respond to these changes.
This is because, dealing with risk, uncertainty and ignorance is a socio-
psychological matter that require understanding of how humans re-
spond. Thus, questionnaires were distributed to determine the impacts
of changing climate on the local communities that make use of the mod-
ulated inland waters for drinking and other domestic purposes.
This is the first study on eco-systemic climatic impact in the re-
gion. However, climate studies in Africa and other parts of the world
have shown that the main effect of climate change is linked to in-
creasing temperatures and sea levels, precipitation patterns, extreme
weather events, water logging, human activities, changes in the dis-
tribution of climate-sensitive diseases, and changes in environmental
and social conditions (Milfont et al., 2015; EEA, 2017; Marshall et al.,
2019; Shaibur et al., 2019; UNCC, 2020). But, most of the assessments
and evaluations are limited to environmental, economic and infrastruc-
ture impacts (UNEP, 2008a, b). Climate change affects a wide range of
issues including health, food / water security, employment, incomes,
peace and livelihoods, gender equality, education, housing, poverty
and mobility either directly or indirectly (WHO, 2009; FAO, 2009;
UNCC, 2020). Thus, this paper presents: (1) the first baseline data for
understanding human response to climate change within the social and
ecological systems, and the associated risk in South east Nigeria, (2)
summary of scientific evidence on effects of climate change in the re-
gion; and (3) knowledge gap on the impacts of climate change on socio-
cultural behaviors, health and psychology of rural communities. Fur-
thermore, the study provides insight in developing a green, sustainable
and climate resilient mitigation tool and adaptation planning for Nige-
rian communities, which will help in achieving the goals of the Africa
Agenda 2063.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Case study context
The study, conducted in South-eastern Nigeria, investigated 4 differ-
ent communities from 3 States in the region namely: Nike community lo-
cated in Enugu State, Agulu community located in Anambra State, Ikwo,
housing Enyim Ndiocha and Achara communities located in Ebonyi
State. Study areas was chosen because of our earlier observation on
their inland waters. The communities make use of Nike Lake, Agulu
Lake, Enyi Ndiocha Lake and Achara Dam, respectively (Figure S1). The
2
Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100102
lakes, which provides various ecosystem services to the residents such as
drinking water supply, recreational activities and other food sources are
shallow lakes surrounded by aquatic plants and submerged vegetation
(pond weeds) such as Nymphaea alba and Nuphar lutea (Anyanwu et al.,
2021 in press).
2.2. Survey design
Survey statements (designed in English) was used to assess each of
(i) cultural impact, (ii) behavioral impact, (iii) environmental impact,
(iv) psychological impact, (v) health impact and (vi) other related health
issues. Questions (25) were used to understand what values are impor-
tant to people, and were categorized (Table 1). Survey participants were
asked to strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree or strongly agree
with each survey statement. The mean (%) was determined for each
value category. Other health related issues were measured by asking
people to explain about other health problems encountered.
2.3. Survey administration
Questionnaires were administered to residents of the 4 communities.
Attempt to use a representative sample of people across demographic
categories such as age, gender and occupation was made (although not
recorded). The participants were over 18 years old, comprising of both
male, female and mixed occupation (farmers, teachers, traders, other
civil servants). A total of 1000 local residents were surveyed, obtaining
a response rate of 100%. All the questions were answered by the re-
spondents. Residents were people who live within the Lakes catchment
area (Fig. S1). The participants were informed and verbal consent was
obtained.
2.4. Data analysis
Survey data was obtained from the administered questionnaire.
Mean (%) was determined among the variables (culture, behavior, envi-
ronment, psychology and health). Analysis of data was carried out using
SPSS 23 software package. Pearson’s correlation (in SPSS) was used to
ascertain climatic impacts on residents of the four communities using
measured variables. Further analysis was carried out to determine the
correlation between variables among communities. Results were found
to be statistically significant when p < 0.001, p < 0.05. Graphs were
plotted using Sigma Plot 10.0 version.
3. Results
Impacts of climate change was investigated on the socio-cultural be-
havior, environment, health and psychology of four communities mak-
ing use of previously studied inland waters as source of drinking water
supply and other house hold activities.
3.1. Participants response to climate change
In Nike community, 37.92% residents believed that there was no
such thing as climate change, 32.96% agreed with the statements that
climate change is occurring, and 23.52% did not attribute the changes to
climate change. However, 2.72% strongly disagreed and 2.88% strongly
agreed on the impacts of climate change (Fig. 1a). Further analysis of
data among variables, suggests that environment and health were the
most affected by climate change in Nike with 47.00% and >46.00%
responses, respectively (Fig. 2a). The data also showed that residents
behavior was affected by the change (>33.00%), while, their culture
and psychology were slightly affected by >23.00% and >24.00%, re-
spectively. The residents did not record health-related issues (Fig. 2a);
however, statistical analysis of data using Person’s correlation revealed
that climatic impact on behavior of Nike community affected their cul-
ture, environment, psychology and health (p < 0.05) (Table 2).
I.N. Anyanwu and C.A. Nwajiuba Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100102

Table 1
Climatic Effects on the Socio-Cultural Behaviors, health and Psychology of People.

Instruction: Please circle the correct numeric response to each question/statement

Questions / Statements 1 2 3 4 5
Effect on Culture
1. My type of food has been affected by climatic effect on water quality 1 2 3 4 5
2. My spirituality is affected as a result of climatic effect on water quality 1 2 3 4 5
3. The frequency of my engagement in my usual traditional practices has reduced 1 2 3 4 5
4. Some of our customs are no more recognized and respected 1 2 3 4 5
5. Our farming system has changed 1 2 3 4 5
Effect on Human Behavior
6. I reduced the number of times I went to or spent on the stream to fetch water 1 2 3 4 5
7 I was afraid of fetching water to bath or drink from the stream 1 2 3 4 5
8 I felt concerned about the effects 1 2 3 4 5
9 I discouraged my family members from going to the stream 1 2 3 4 5
10 I started searching for other streams 1 2 3 4 5
11 My frequency of farming reduced because I was afraid to eat from the produce 1 2 3 4 5
12 I was more comfortable using the water to wash my cloths 1 2 3 4 5
Effect on the Environment
13 The land/soil was not yielding much crops 1 2 3 4 5
14 My crops and plants were not doing well 1 2 3 4 5
15 The climate affected the type and yield of fish 1 2 3 4 5
16 The climate change affected the quality of water 1 2 3 4 5
Effect on Mood/Psychology
17 My mind was filled with anxiety, anger and depression 1 2 3 4 5
18 I was afraid of losing everything 1 2 3 4 5
19 I suffered from depression and unhappiness 1 2 3 4 5
Effect on Health
20 The climatic effect on water quality affected my health 1 2 3 4 5
21 I had frequent stomach problems and rashes on my body 1 2 3 4 5
22 My health was affected by the change 1 2 3 4 5
23 So much go through my mind whenever there is a change in climate 1 2 3 4 5
24 I am afraid of changes in the climate because it has devastating effects on me and my family members 1 2 3 4 5
25 I had other health related issues (explain) 1 2 3 4 5

1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree

Table 2
Correlation of climatic impacts on culture, behavior, environment, psychology and health of the residents.

Community Variables Culture Behavior Environment Psychology Health Others

Nike Culture 1.000 0.895∗ 0.671 0.983∗ ∗ 0.658 0.871

Behavior 0.895∗ 1.000 0.909∗ 0.917∗ 0.917∗ 0.603
Environment 0.671 0.909∗ 1.000 0.673 0.937∗ 0.236
Psychology 0.983∗ ∗ 0.917∗ 0.673 1.000 0.718 0.871
Health 0.658 0.917∗ 0.937∗ 0.718 1.000 0.308
Others 0.871 0.603 0.236 0.871 0.308 1.000
Agulu Culture 1.000 0.895∗ 0.650 0.240 0.875 0.518
Behavior 0.895∗ 1.000 0.282 0.355 0.787 0.237
Environment 0.650 0.282 1.000 -0.381 0.589 0.909∗
Psychology 0.240 0.355 -0.381 1.000 0.117 -0.645
Health 0.875 0.787 0.589 0.117 1.000 0.605
Others 0.518 0.237 0.909∗ -0.645 0.605 1.000
Achara Culture 1.000 0.809 0.887∗ 0.955∗ 0.924∗ 0.856
Behavior 0.809 1.000 0.568 0.646 0.615 0.545
Environment 0.887∗ 0.568 1.000 0.956∗ 0.991∗ ∗ 0.994∗ ∗
Psychology 0.955∗ 0.646 0.956 1.000 0.986∗ ∗ 0.921∗
Health 0.924∗ 0.615 0.991∗ ∗ 0.986∗ ∗ 1.000 0.971∗ ∗
Others 0.856 0.545 0.994∗ ∗ 0.921∗ 0.971∗ ∗ 1.000
Enyi Culture 1.000 0.929∗ 0.977∗ ∗ 0.984∗ ∗ 0.945∗ 0.977∗ ∗
Ndiocha Behavior 0.929∗ 1.000 0.876 0.884∗ 0.811 0.861
Environment 0.977∗ ∗ 0.876 1.000 0.999∗ ∗ 0.984∗ ∗ 0.993∗ ∗
Psychology 0.984∗ ∗ 0.884∗ 0.999∗ ∗ 1.000 0.978∗ ∗ 0.993∗ ∗
Health 0.945∗ 0.811 0.984∗ ∗ 0.978∗ ∗ 1.000 0.993∗ ∗
Others 0.977∗ ∗ 0.861 0.993∗ ∗ 0.993∗ ∗ 0.993∗ ∗ 1.000
∗∗
= p < 0.001, ∗ = p < 0.05, Others = other health related issues

In Agulu community, 8.16% strongly disagreed and 22.08% dis-
agreed on the impacts of climate change. Only, 16.48% did not attribute
the impacts to climate change. Over 50% agreed that climate change
is impacting their socio-cultural, health and environmental psychology
with 33.92% agree and 19.36% strongly agree (Fig. 1b). Analysis of data
among variables showed climate change effects in the community. Re-
sults revealed that culture was affected by >51.00%, behavior >58.00%,
environment >60.00%, health >49.00% and other health related issues
>60.00% (Fig. 2b). Health-related issues mentioned by the residents
include; abdominal ache, general body pain and ear problems among
others. Correlation analysis however, showed high level of variability
and negative values (-), with environment, psychology and health is-
sues perceived to mostly affect the residents (p < 0.05) (Table 2). The
effect–pattern changed when we investigated Ikwo Local Government,

3
I.N. Anyanwu and C.A. Nwajiuba
Fig. 1. Climatic impacts (%) on socio-cultural behaviors, health and psychology of the rural communities. Graph shows: A = Nike community, B = Agulu community,
C = Achara community, D = Enyi Ndiocha community. S. Disagree = strongly disagree, S. Agree = strongly agree.
Ebonyi State that house Achara and Enyi Ndiocha communities. In the
two communities, over 80% residents expressed strong belief that cli-
mate change is real.
In Achara community, residents believed the existence of climate
change (46.40% agreed and 35.36% strongly agreed). Only 9.44% said
that they are not sure, while, 0.80% strongly disagreed and 8.00% dis-
agreed (Fig. 1c). Further analysis of data showed that all the measured
variables were highly affected by the changing climate. Their culture
was affected by >70.00%, behavior >63.00%, environment 99.00%,
psychology >99.00%, health >97.00%, and other health related issues
>99.00% (Fig. 2c). Other health–related issues explained by the res-
idents of Achara community are: severe diarrhoea, cholera outbreak
among children leading to high infant mortality, cough and sensation
in the throat, severe abdominal ache, generalized body weakness, high
fever, headache, and Guinea-worm infections, among others. Statistical
analysis with Pearson’s correlation revealed that climate change highly
affected the community residents; however, health and environment
were the mostly hit in the area (p < 0.001, p < 0.05) (Table 2).
Similarly, Enyim Ndiocha community was severely affected by
changes in climate. Participants 47.52% agreed, 38.00% strongly agreed
on the impacts of climate change on their socio-cultural, health, environ-
4
Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100102
ment and psychology. Only 8.48% was neutral, while, 2.4% disagreed
and 5.6% strongly disagreed on climatic effects (Fig. 1d). Analysis of
data revealed that their culture had >84.00% effect, behavior >57.00%,
environment 98.00%, psychology >97.00%, health >96.00%, and other
health–related issues >99.00% (Fig. 2d). Health related issued high-
lighted by the community residents include: severe diarrhoea, cholera
outbreak among children leading to high infant mortality, cough and
sensation in the throat, severe abdominal ache, generalized body weak-
ness, high fever and boils. Pearson’s correlation showed high positive
correlation among variables, and results showed greater impacts of cli-
mate change on culture, environment, psychology and health of the peo-
ple (p < 0.001, p < 0.05) (Table 2).
3.2. Climatic impacts among the case communities
Further statistical analysis of data obtained from participants using
the outlined variables (culture, behavior, environment, psychology and
health) was carried out to assess climatic effects among the commu-
nities (Table 3). Pearson’s correlation showed that culture was highly
affected by climate change in Nike, Achara and Enyi Ndiocha commu-
nities. However, Achara and Enyi Ndiocha communities were the mostly
I.N. Anyanwu and C.A. Nwajiuba
Fig. 2. Participants response (%) to the impacts on culture, environment, behavior, psychology and health. Graph shows: A = Nike community, B = Agulu community,
C = Achara community, D = Enyi Ndiocha community. S. Disagree = strongly disagree, S. Agree = strongly agree, Environ = Environment, H – Issues = Other health
related issues.
hit in behavior, environment and health. Furthermore, analysis revealed
that climate change had greater impact on psychology and health of the
case communities, making psychology and health a key factor that re-
quire further investigation in the region (Table 3).
4. Discussion
The study suggests strong relationship between the measured vari-
ables and how people perceived climate change. This is the first study on
eco-systemic climatic impact in the region and as such, our results will
only be compared with other studies on climate change in literature.
In this present study, residents agreed and/or strongly agreed that
climate change is real and affecting their socio-cultural behavior, health
and environmental psychology. This shows that people had some knowl-
edge and general belief of climate change and its implications. This phe-
nomenon has been reported by several authors on climate change and
effects on people (Rogers et al., 2010; Devine-Wright, 2013; Marshall
et al., 2013, 2019; Milfont et al., 2015; Heimann and Mallick, 2016;
Nicolosi and Corbett, 2018). The authors reported that people are ex-
5
Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100102
periencing first hand climate change impacts in the communities and
places within which they live and work. This indicates the knowl-
edge and belief that climate change is continuing globally. Generally,
residents believe that the impacts are relatively severe and negative,
but they have no choice. However, there are considerable uncertain-
ties around the ability to use / adapt to contaminated and/or cli-
mate modulated water sources for drinking and other domestic uses
(Anyanwu et al., 2021 in press).
In this study, the risk from climate change had direct and/or indi-
rect impact on culture, behavior, environment, psychology and health
of the residents in addition to health–related issues, revealing a holis-
tic impact of climate change in the region. Recent studies have shown
various changes in the environment and society, such as forestry, biodi-
versity, fishery, agriculture and human health (IPCC, 2014; EEA, 2017;
Shaibur et al., 2018; UNCC, 2020), and this is contributing to food
insecurity, population displacement and stress on water resources
(UNCC, 2020).
In this study, the recorded impact on health–related issues: severe di-
arrhoea, cholera outbreak among children leading to high infant mortal-
I.N. Anyanwu and C.A. Nwajiuba Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100102

Table 3 ing to disappearance of cultural knowledge and traditions. This study

Correlation of climatic impacts on culture, behavior, environment, psychology noted that lifestyle, diet, and behavior of residents are changing; thus,
and health among the communities. posing threat to both their physical and mental health (Jaakkola et al.,
Variables Community Nike Agulu Achara Enyi Ndiocha 2018).
Climate change will affect psychological health and well–being in
Culture Nike 1.000 0.290 -0.034 -0.193
Agulu 0.290 1.000 0.869 0.804
ways that are often neglected (Clayton et al., 2015). The changes could
Achara -0.034 0.869 1.000 0.986∗ ∗ have direct impact on psychology and quality of life and/or indirectly
Enyi Ndiocha -0.193 0.804 0.986∗ ∗ 1.000 result to gradual or cumulative environmental stress on livelihoods,
Behavior Nike 1.000 0.751 0.683 0.457 economic opportunity and sociocultural conditions (Doherty and Clay-
Agulu 0.751 1.000 0.795 0.829
ton, 2011; Weissbecker, 2011; Van Susteren and Al-Delaimy, 2020;
Achara 0.683 0.795 1.000 0.922∗
Enyi Ndiocha 0.457 0.829 0.922∗ 1.000 UNCC, 2020). In this study, we noticed that the traumatic experi-
Environment Nike 1.000 0.157 0.233 0.415 ences, death of children and loved ones, agricultural / economic dis-
Agulu 0.157 1.000 0.846 0.760 ruption and abrupt disaster events, could lead to anxiety, depression,
Achara 0.233 0.846 1.000 0.975∗ ∗
post–traumatic stress disorder and other negative psychological out-
Enyi Ndiocha 0.415 0.760 0.975∗ ∗ 1.000
Psychology Nike 1.00 0.464 -0.241 -0.268
comes (Galea et al., 2005; Clayton et al., 2015; Van Susteren and Al-
Agulu 0.464 1.000 -0.075 -0.139 Delaimy, 2020; UNCC, 2020). Such events could disrupt the social
Achara -0.241 -0.075 1.000 0.998∗ ∗ and institutional systems that promote health and well–being, and in-
Enyi Ndiocha -0.268 -0.139 0.998∗ ∗ 1.000 crease the likelihood of individual and societal conflict (Agnew, 2013;
Health Nike 1.000 0.855 0.166 0.285
Hsiang et al., 2013).
Agulu 0.855 1.000 0.401 0.443
Achara 0.166 0.401 1.000 0.986∗ ∗ Furthermore, the gradually evolving changes in environmental con-
Enyi Ndiocha 0.285 0.443 0.986∗ ∗ 1.000 ditions could have notable impacts resulting in migration and forced
Others Nike 1.000 -0.072 -0.618 -0.618 displacement (Warner, 2010). Thus, research on monitoring system is
Agulu -0.072 1.000 0.749 0.679
needed to understand the health and cultural well–being of rural com-
Achara -0.618 0.749 1.000 0.976∗ ∗
Enyi Ndiocha -0.618 0.679 0.976∗ ∗ 1.000
munities in changing climate, taking into account their values, tradi-
tions and major drivers for change. In this, psychology is essential in
∗∗
= p < 0.001, ∗ = p < 0.05, Others = other health related issues understanding the human causes and consequences of climate change
(APA, 2011). Also, psychological research can provide adequate in-
formation concerning individual and household–level factors in socio–
ity, cough and sensation in the throat, severe abdominal ache, general- cultural and/or ecological systems. In addition, residents knowledge
ized body weakness, high fever, headache and Guinea-worm infections, with the local scale climatic impacts provides key factor in reviewing
may account for the high death rates in the communities. According to and updating their global climate change beliefs and risk perception
WHO (2009) and UNCC (2020), while climate change affects human (Myers et al., 2012; Hansen and Cramer, 2015; Lee et al., 2015).
health as a result of climate–related issues such as temperature, floods,
droughts, storms, infections, habitat suitability for biting insects, trans- 5. Conclusions
mission of vector-borne diseases, as well as chronic stresses like wa-
ter scarcity, contamination, malnutrition, psychosocial stress, displace- Socio–cultural assets, norms and practices are very important aspect
ment, migration, and conflicts; WHO estimated that the greatest health of community life and their loss / damage as a result of climate change
impacts may be from gradual increase in pressure on the natural, eco- could be detrimental. This current study showed that eco-systemic cli-
nomic and social systems that sustain health. These are already under matic impacts are already visible and may have caused increased death
stress in the region. in rural communities. Although there are variations in impact given the
Furthermore, eco-systemic climatic impacts on rural communities different communities, health and mental health implications however
are already visible and have caused / still causing increased death. This remain elusive. In addition, epidemiological studies are yet to link expo-
study shows knowledge gap in understanding the underlying causes of sure to drinking water sources modulated as a result of climate change
gastro-intestinal illness / cholera outbreak in the communities. For ex- to increased incidence of cholera, abdominal pain, stomach ache and/or
ample, Microcystis and cylindrospermopsis that produce Microcystins and mortality in the region. However, there should be growing interest in
cylindrospermopsin toxins found in the inland waters used by the com- identifying adaptation and mitigation options that is green, sustainable,
munities (Anyanwu et al., 2021 in presss), have been linked to gastroin- climate resistance, as well as enhanced social and ecological resilience.
testinal symptoms and immune system effects (WHO, 1999; Kubíčková
et al., 2019). Gastrointestinal irritation and diseases are regularly linked Authors Contributions
to the occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms especially the consump-
tion of cyanobacteria–contaminated water (Levesque et al., 2014; 2016; INA: supervision, methodology, writing original draft, review and
Svirčev et al., 2017). In addition, a prospective epidemiological study editing. CAN: drafting of questionnaires.
found an increased incidence of gastrointestinal illnesses in human pop-
ulation living in the proximity of cyanobacteria–contaminated water Funding
bodies, even when their recreational contact with the contaminated wa-
ter was very limited (Levesque et al., 2014; 2016). Furthermore, studies No funding received
have shown that the widespread human acute health effect upon inges-
tion and intoxication of cyanobacterial bloom water is gastrointestinal Declaration of Competing Interest
illness, often with severe inflammatory diarrhoea (Levesque et al., 2014;
Wood, 2016; Svirčev et al., 2017; Miller et al., 2017). This is also emi- The authors declare no conflict of interest.
nent in the case communities.
Climatic impacts may also be dependent on where people are living. Acknowledgment
Climate change has been identified as a threat for the cultural way of life
of people (Jaakkola et al., 2018) and the capacity and willingness to en- The authors would like to extend their sincere thanks to Mr Emeka
gage with change is strongly tied to cultural beliefs and roles. Changes in Ogbonna Oko and Mr Monday C. Nwanchor for their help in survey
climate may have influenced culture and way of life of the residents lead- explanation, distributions and collections.

6
I.N. Anyanwu and C.A. Nwajiuba Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100102

Supplementary materials Marshall, N.A., Park, S., Howden, S.M., Dowd, A.B., Jakku, E.S., 2013. Climate change
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Marshall, N.A., Thiault, L., Beeden, A., Beeden, R., Benham, C., Curnock, M.I., Diedrich, A.,
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in Gurney, G.G., Jones, L., Marshall, P.A., Nakamura, N., Pert, P., 2019. Our environmen-
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.envc.2021.100102. tal value orientations influence how we respond to climate change. Front. Psychol.
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