2015

Brock
University

Adam Tomlin
Daniel Hughes

April 30th

An Economic Analysis of
Agricultural Soil Loss in the
Holland Marsh, Ontario
 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Executive Summary
The report outlines the completed segments for phase 1 of the Holland Marsh agricultural
soil loss project. The goal of the project was to discover how much revenue farmers in the
area would lose for each type of crop grown based on the spatial extent of soil erosion
caused by the Holland River’s flow. Primary research was conducted to detect the temporal
changes in riverbank soil between 5 sets of aerial images from 1995, 2002, 2005, 2007, and
2014. Digital copies of these riverbanks were created to find the total value of soil area lost
over the observed 19-year period. The methodology for the project assessment resulted in
an observed average 0.43 acre decline in agricultural soil per year, totaling to 8.1 acres
from 1995 – 2014. The average crop yield loss was 341 carrot bushels, 256 onion bushels,
or 991 celery cartons per year, with a total average revenue loss of $25,242.97 for carrots,
$33,690.12 for onions, or $67,143.63 for celery from 1995 - 2014 based on the yearly
differences in crop prices. If actions had been taken to stop the erosion in 1995, then an
average revenue of $34,293.70 for carrots, $39,352.51 for onions, or $81,517.51 for celery
could have been generated within the 8.1 acres of soil in 2014 alone. Several procedures
were used to attain these results.

As stated above, the first procedure involved the research and analysis of historical
agricultural crop values in the area to compare to the amount of soil lost.

The second procedure involved the utilization of Brock University’s Map Library, the
University of Toronto, and BOSYS Technologies’ resources to access aerial imagery in order
to digitize the riverbanks to detect the amount of soil lost from 1995 up until 2014.

The third procedure was to compare these average crop yield values per acre to the
average amount of soil loss per year, to discover the average revenue that was being lost
per year, and finally, to determine the total potential average revenue that could have been
gained with the amount of saved soil in 2014 if the erosion issue had been addressed and
stopped in 1995.

The report closes with conclusions and recommendations on the matter.

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 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY I

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 PROJECT GOAL OVERVIEW 1
1.2 OBJECTIVES AND DELIVERABLES 1
1.3 PROJECT PERSONNEL 1

2 STUDY AREA OVERVIEW 2

3 PROJECT METHODOLOGY 5
3.1 RESEARCH HISTORICAL CROP PRICES, CROP TYPES, AND BACKGROUND DATA 6
3.1.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
3.1.2 DATA COLLECTION 8
3.2 RESEARCH AND DIGITIZE AERIAL IMAGERY 14
3.2.1 STORING DIGITIZED DATA 16
3.3 CALCULATE SOIL/CROP REVENUE LOSS AND MAP RESULTS 16

4 RESULTS 17
4.1 RIVER BANK AREA LOSS 17
4.2 CROP REVENUE LOSS 22

5 DISCUSSION 24
5.1 PLANNING THE DISTRIBUTION OF CROPS AND PLANTING DATES 24
5.2 CLIMATE ZONES AND SOIL FROSTING PERIODS 25
5.3 CHALLENGES AND PROJECT LIMITATIONS 26
5.3.1 SPATIAL RESOLUTION OF AERIAL IMAGERY 26
5.3.2 CHANGING LANDSCAPES AND WATER LEVELS 26
5.3.3 DATA AVAILABILITY 26

6 CONCLUSION 30
6.1 RECOMMENDATIONS 30

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY 31

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 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

List of Figures
Figure 1: Study Area............................................................................................................................................. 3
Figure 2: Breakdown of Crops Planted in the Holland Marsh ............................................................. 4
Figure 3: Work Breakdown Structure........................................................................................................... 5
Figure 4: Average Market Prices per Pound for Carrots, Onions, and Celery............................. 12
Figure 5: Average Total Crop Yield Price per Acre for Carrots, Onions, and Celery ................ 12
Figure 6: Average Carrot and Onion Prices per Bushel ....................................................................... 13
Figure 7: Average Celery Prices per Carton ............................................................................................. 13
Figure 8: Digitizing Riverbanks .................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 9: River Area Progression (Acres) ................................................................................................. 17
Figure 10: River Area Progression (m2) .................................................................................................... 17
Figure 11: 1995 - 2014 Riverbank Comparison..................................................................................... 18
Figure 12: Locations of Major Riverbank Erosion ................................................................................ 19
Figure 13: Locations of Major Riverbank Erosion (Zoomed) ........................................................... 20
Figure 14: Temporal Soil Loss (acres) ....................................................................................................... 21
Figure 15: Temporal Soil Loss (m2) ............................................................................................................ 21
Figure 16: Average Crop Yield Lost per Year .......................................................................................... 22
Figure 17: Average Crop Yield Revenue Lost per Year ....................................................................... 22
Figure 18: Total Progressive Average Revenue Forgone ................................................................... 23
Figure 19: Potential Average Revenue Gained Without Erosion..................................................... 23
Figure 20: Climate Zones for Vegetables in Ontario ............................................................................. 25
Figure 21: Challenges with Changing Water Levels (A) ...................................................................... 27
Figure 22: Challenges with Changing Water Levels (B) ...................................................................... 28
Figure 23: Challenges with Changing Landscape Structure .............................................................. 29

List of Tables
Table 1: Ontario Carrot Market Prices (1995 - 2014) ............................................................................ 9
Table 2: Ontario Onion Market Prices (1995- 2014) ........................................................................... 10
Table 3: Ontario Celery Market Prices (1995 - 2014) ......................................................................... 11
Table 4: River Area Progression, Soil Loss, and Average Amount of Soil Lost per Year ........ 17
Table 5: Recommended Planting Dates/Spatial Arrangement of Crops ...................................... 24

List of Equations
Equation 1: Calculate Average Amount of Soil Lost per Year ........................................................... 16
Equation 2: Calculate Average Amount of Revenue Lost per Year ................................................. 16
Equation 3: Calculate Potential Average Gain of Revenue in 2014 without Erosion .............. 16

List of Appendices
Appendix A: 1995 Digitized Riverbank ..................................................................................................... 34
Appendix B: 2002 Digitized Riverbank ..................................................................................................... 35
Appendix C: 2005 Digitized Riverbank ..................................................................................................... 36
Appendix D: 2007 Digitized Riverbank ..................................................................................................... 37
Appendix E: 2014 Digitized Riverbank ..................................................................................................... 38
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 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

1 Introduction
1.1 Project Goal Overview

The Drainage Investment Group (DIG) requested that the Brock University Geography
Department research and determine how much agricultural revenue is being lost in the
Holland Marsh due to soil erosion along the riverbanks of the Holland River. The river
meanders throughout the agricultural farmland of the Holland Marsh, which is owned by
farmers in the area.

1.2 Objectives and Deliverables

The objectives that support the above noted goal are:

 To discover temporal changes in riverbank soil quantity, and

 To calculate the amount of crop revenue relative to the amount of soil lost.

The deliverables for the project are defined as:

1. Visuals outlining the change in riverbank width over time, and

2. A report outlining the calculation of soil loss plus the cost impact on agricultural
crop revenue.

1.3 Project Personnel

1. Adam Tomlin, B.A., GIS (pg)

Adam Tomlin is a human geography graduate from Brock University. His

background involves the social, cultural, historical, economic, and
environmental aspects of geography. He is able to conduct historical
research as well as analyze the economic impacts/forecast on crop yield
revenue loss that is being caused by soil erosion.

2. Danny Hughes, B.Sc.

Danny Hughes is a physical geography graduate from Brock University.

He is able to assess the nature of the soil types in the Holland Marsh as
well as the natural causes of soil erosion and the corresponding effects of
agricultural practices.

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 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

2 Study Area Overview

The Holland Marsh is an agricultural hub in Ontario, Canada, located beneath Lake Simcoe
and north of Toronto. It is currently one of the most important agricultural areas in Canada,
contributing approximately $35 - $58 million in Gross Domestic Product; and $95 - $169
million of economic activity to the provincial economy each year (Planscape, 2009). The
land used to be wetland but a canal system was constructed to drain the marsh for
agricultural use in the 1930s (Bartram, Lloyd, & Mausberg, 2007).

The Holland Marsh resides within the Lake Simcoe watershed that surrounds the lake at
3,400 square kilometers and 20 municipal borders. Within the Lake Simcoe subwatershed
lays the West Holland River. The watershed spans approximately 354 square kilometers
southwest from the tip of Lake Simcoe’s Cook’s Bay. The river flows from the Oak Ridges
Moraine, through the Holland Marsh into Lake Simcoe (Lake Simcoe Region Conservation
Authority, 2010).

The Holland Marsh is an area that has a specific soil-type and climate properties that allow
it to produce a variety of vegetables (Lake Simcoe Region Conservation Authority, 2010).
Even though the Marsh has a large acreage of land available, carrots, onions, and celery are
the most extensively produced, taking up approximately 80% of the area (Planscape,
2009).

Jurisdictional responsibility for the subwatershed is shared by York Region and Simcoe
County. The municipalities that fall within its boundaries are King (including the
communities of Schomberg, Lloydtown, Kettleby, and Snowball), Caledon, New Tecumseth,
Bradford West Gwillimbury, Newmarket, and Aurora (Lake Simcoe Region Conservation
Authority, 2010).

The southwestern section of the Holland River is the main focus within this report outlined
as “phase 1” by the Drainage Investment Group. Agricultural practices and aggressive river
flow have led to progressive riverbank erosion, with minimal bank restoration techniques
set in place. This is an issue for the famers who own the land, since they are losing valuable
crop yield and revenue each year from the loss of soil.

Figure 1 on the following page presents a map of the Holland Marsh.

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 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Figure 1: Study Area

Figure 1 displays the Holland Marsh with its surrounding municipalities of King, East
Gwillimbury, Newmarket, and Aurora. Phase 1 is outlined as the blue line running through
the southwestern area of the Marsh.

Figure 2 on the following page presents a breakdown of the types of crops planted in the
Holland Marsh.

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500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Figure 2: Breakdown of Crops Planted in the Holland Marsh

(Planscape, 2009)

Mixed Greens,
Mixed Flowers, 7.3%
0.8% Onions, 34.5%
Celery, 7.3%
Garlic, 0.1%

Parsnips, 5.5%

Turnips, 0.7%

Beets, 3.6%

Celery Root, 0.3%

Carrots, 36.4%
Chinese
Vegetables, 2.7%

Greenhouse
(Tomatoes,
Sprouts), 0.2%

Potatoes, 0.7%

Carrots, onions, and celery have the highest economic impact on the farmers as well as
consumers in Ontario. Present and historical crop values for each of these crops were
researched in order to discover the economic losses of these commodities due to riverbank
erosion along the Holland River.

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500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

3 Project Methodology
Figure 3 presents the work breakdown structure of the project’s methodology.

Figure 3: Work Breakdown Structure

Research Historical Crop Prices, Crop Types and Project Background

1.1 Data (September 24 - October 20, 2014) (31 hours)
•Consulted DIG and the Brock University Map Library for informaton on data sources
•Reviewed relevant literature on previous soil and crop studys in the Holland Marsh
•Reviewed previous studies on crop values and economic impacts of land use from Planescape's agricultural study and through a
report from the University of Guelph
•Found average yearly crop prices for onions, carrots, and celery from the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs

1.2 Research Aerial Imagery and Spatial Data

(October 21- December 20, 2014) (30 hours)
•Requested data from Colleen Beard at Brock Univerity's Map Library to acquire 1995 imagery by researching required data tiles
from the University of Toronto aerial image database
•Used Scholars GeoPortal to extract 2002, 2005, and 2007 orthophotography and spatial data to outline study area
•Acquired 2014 orthophotography from Osama Saadeldin of BOSYS Technologies

1.3 Digitize and Store Data ( January 8 - March 15, 2015) (23 hours)
•Created file folders to store and access aerial imagery in ArcCatalog
•Created Geodatabase with feature classes to represent each digitized riverbank from each aerial image

1.4 Create Maps Depicting the Change of Soil Quantity & Calculate Crop Revenue/
Soil Loss (March 16 - 20, 2015) (10 hours)
•Created map layouts for each digitized riverbank
•Created map layout comparing 1995 and 2014 riverbank extents
•Calculated river area extents between each aerial image year, average soil loss per year, and total soil loss
•Calculated average amount of crop yield lost per year, average crop revenue lost per year (based on each year's crop market prices),
total average revenue loss over the 19-year period, and total potential revenue in 2014 if erosion was stopped in 1995

1.5 Compile Report and Presentation Discussing Project Findings, Conclusions and
Recommendations (March 20 - April 1, 2015) (29 hours)

The following page presents the next section, detailing the methods to research historical
crop prices, crop types, and project background data.

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500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

3.1 Research Historical Crop Prices, Crop Types, and Background Data
3.1.1 Literature Review

Prior to researching Ontario historical crop value records, literature was consulted on the
nature of agricultural erosion management. Previous erosion and agricultural risk
assessment studies were also reviewed to discover previous insights on various threats to
the Holland Marsh through present agricultural practices that have taken place.

The consulted literature is listed as:

1. Bartram, J., Lloyd, S., & Mausberg, B. (2007). The Holland Marsh: Challenges
and Opportunities in the Greenbelt. Toronto, Ontario: Friends of the Greenbelt
Foundation.

This source is a report conducted by the Friends of the Greenbelt Foundation to provide an
overview of the Holland Marsh, its uniqueness, features, and challenges.

2. Driver, G., Moore, N., Schleihauf, J., Wall, G., Greuel, J., & Harkes, R. (1982).
Cropland Soil Erosion: Esimated Cost to Agriculture in Ontario. Guelph, Ontario:
Ontario Institute of Pedology.

This source is a report conducted by the Ontario Institute of Pedology, whom analyzes
general economic costs of crop yields and pesticides due to soil loss from erosion.

3. Keenan, K. (2013). An Economic Consideration of Implementing Vegetative

Buffer Strips Along the Holland River in the Holland Marsh, Ontario.

This source covers another study of crop yield loss due to the loss of soil through the
installation of vegetative buffer strips along the Holland River to block off the river from
agricultural contaminant and sediment runoff. This report undergoes a methodology and
analysis similar to this report, though under a separate context.

4. Lake Simcoe Region Conservation Authority. (2010). West Holland River

Subwatershed Management Plan. Newmarket, Ontario: Lake Simcoe Region
Conservation Authority.

This source covers background information on the Holland River/Marsh area and
introduces conservation management plans already set in place in 2010.

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500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

5. Planscape. (2009). Holland Marsh Agricultural Impact Study. Bracebridge:

Planescape.

This source covers an analysis of economic impacts that the Holland Marsh has on the
province of Ontario. The report also covers issues, challenges, and opportunities associated
with agricultural production in the Marsh.

6. Wilson, J. P. (1989). Soil Erosion From Agricultural Land in the Lake Simco-
Couchiching Basin, 1800-1981. Soil Sci, 137-151.

This source covers information on the effects of agricultural land-use changes and land
slope definitions on crop planting and soil loss.

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 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

3.1.2 Data Collection

Market price data were taken from the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural
Affairs’ statistical records of average crop market information in the province of Ontario.
The statistical records are dated consecutively from 2014 – 1974. Since the Holland Marsh
consists primarily of carrots, onions, and celery, data was gathered for these crops to
represent the greatest effect of soil erosion on income for the farmers.

Data were gathered from the Government of Michigan’s (2015) legislative council, the
University of Nebraska’s (2006) agriculture department, and the Canadian Department of
Agriculture’s (1962) records to find the respective units of measurement for selling each
type of crop. For wholesale, carrots and onions are sold in bushels and celery is sold in
cartons. These sources also provided the weighting of each crop, so the average price per
bushel/carton could be found based on the average price per pound of each crop per year,
correlated to the weight of each bushel/carton. The average number of bushels/cartons
within an acre of land could also be found based on the average yield of pounds per acre
that have been generated per year in Ontario. This information can be viewed in Table 1,
Table 2, and Table 3 on pages 9, 10, and 11, respectively.

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500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Table 1 displays the market price information for carrots.

Table 1: Ontario Carrot Market Prices (1995 - 2014)

(Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, 2015a)

Carrot Market Prices

Year Average Average Average Yield Average Average Average Average
Price in Yield in per Year Yield Price Price Bushels Bushel
Ontario Ontario Sample for ($/acre) Per (50 lbs) Revenue per
($(¢)/lb) (lbs/acre) the Holland Bushel per Acre Acre
Marsh (50lbs)
(lbs/acre)
1995 0.06 (6.41¢) 36,378 39,753.9 $2,548.22 $3.2050 795.0780 $2,548.22
1996 0.06 (5.73¢) 37,510 39,753.9 $2,277.90 $2.8650 795.0780 $2,277.90
1997 0.06 (6.02¢) 34,308 39,753.9 $2,393.18 $3.0100 795.0780 $2,393.18
1998 0.06 (6.40¢) 44,800 39,753.9 $2,544.25 $3.2000 795.0780 $2,544.25
1999 0.07 (7.00¢) 38,413 39,753.9 $2,782.77 $3.5000 795.0780 $2,782.77
2000 0.06 (6.30¢) 30,620 39,753.9 $2,504.50 $3.1500 795.0780 $2,504.50
2001 0.06 (6.46¢) 35,071 39,753.9 $2,568.10 $3.2300 795.0780 $2,568.10
2002 0.08 (8.32¢) 34,958 39,753.9 $3,307.52 $4.1600 795.0780 $3,307.52
2003 0.06 (5.94¢) 34,983 39,753.9 $2,361.38 $2.9700 795.0780 $2,361.38
2004 0.07 (6.60¢) 36,007 39,753.9 $2,623.76 $3.3000 795.0780 $2,623.76
2005 0.08 (7.58¢) 37,322 39,753.9 $3,013.35 $3.7900 795.0780 $3,013.35
2006 0.07 (7.34¢) 39,754 39,753.9 $2,917.94 $3.6700 795.0780 $2,917.94
2007 0.08 (7.81¢) 26,688 39,753.9 $3,104.78 $3.9050 795.0780 $3,104.78
2008 0.07 (7.15¢) 31,811 39,753.9 $2,842.40 $3.5750 795.0780 $2,842.40
2009 0.10 (9.91¢) 47,180 39,753.9 $3,939.61 $4.9550 795.0780 $3,939.61
2010 0.09 (8.50¢) 59,968 39,753.9 $3,379.08 $4.2500 795.0780 $3,379.08
2011 0.08 (7.53¢) 53,751 39,753.9 $2,993.47 $3.7650 795.0780 $2,993.47
2012 0.07 (6.98¢) 54,305 39,753.9 $2,774.82 $3.4900 795.0780 $2,774.82
2013 0.09 (9.04¢) 43,847 39,753.9 $3,593.75 $4.5200 795.0780 $3,593.75
2014 0.11 (10.65¢) 37,404 39,753.9 $4,233.79 $5.3250 795.0780 $4,233.79

The average price per acre and per bushel was calculated based on the cent (¢) price per
pound for economic precision. The rounded whole dollar value is also provided in case
these values would be preferred for any alternative studies. Since the average yield per
acre is based on OMAFRA’s average statistics for all farms in Ontario, the average of these
average yields was calculated as a sample to forecast a consistent average yield forgone in
the Holland Marsh each year. There cannot be a consistent forecasted value of revenue lost
per year since these values are always subject to change based on each year’s market price
for each crop. Having a consistent average yield produced per year makes it possible to
forecast a consistent number of bushels/cartons lost per year based on the consistent
average amount of soil lost per year.

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500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Table 2 displays the market price information for onions.

Table 2: Ontario Onion Market Prices (1995- 2014)

(Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, 2015c)

Onion Market Prices

Year Average Price Average Average Yield Average Average Average Average
in Ontario Yield in per Year Yield Price per Bushels Bushel
($(¢)/lb) Ontario Sample for Price Bushel (54 lbs) Revenue
(lbs/acre) the Holland ($/acre) (54lbs) per Acre per Acre
Marsh
(lbs/acre)
1995 0.09 (8.63¢) 29,453 32,238.45 $2,782.18 $4.6602 597.0083 $2,782.18
1996 0.10 (9.57¢) 31,845 32,238.45 $3,085.22 $5.1678 597.0083 $3,085.22
1997 0.11 (11.09¢) 32,830 32,238.45 $3,575.24 $5.9886 597.0083 $3,575.24
1998 0.13 (12.88¢) 32,381 32,238.45 $4,152.31 $6.9552 597.0083 $4,152.31
1999 0.13 (12.75¢) 29,215 32,238.45 $4,110.40 $6.8850 597.0083 $4,110.40
2000 0.10 (10.28¢) 31,981 32,238.45 $3,314.11 $5.5512 597.0083 $3,314.11
2001 0.11 (10.60¢) 34,838 32,238.45 $3,417.28 $5.7240 597.0083 $3,417.28
2002 0.11 (11.47¢) 23,860 32,238.45 $3,697.75 $6.1938 597.0083 $3,697.75
2003 0.13 (12.76¢) 26,759 32,238.45 $4,113.63 $6.8904 597.0083 $4,113.63
2004 0.11 (11.01¢) 31,204 32,238.45 $3,549.45 $5.9454 597.0083 $3,549.45
2005 0.13 (13.02¢) 24,077 32,238.45 $4,197.45 $7.0308 597.0083 $4,197.45
2006 0.10 (9.77¢) 32,985 32,238.45 $3,149.70 $5.2758 597.0083 $3,149.70
2007 0.10 (10.09¢) 32,615 32,238.45 $3,252.86 $5.4486 597.0083 $3,252.86
2008 0.12 (11.51¢) 33,698 32,238.45 $3,710.65 $6.2154 597.0083 $3,710.65
2009 0.12 (11.79¢) 36,573 32,238.45 $3,800.91 $6.3666 597.0083 $3,800.91
2010 0.17 (16.83¢) 30,443 32,238.45 $5,425.73 $9.0882 597.0083 $5,425.73
2011 0.13 (13.34¢) 36,734 32,238.45 $4,300.61 $7.2036 597.0083 $4,300.61
2012 0.15 (14.90¢) 34,221 32,238.45 $4,803.53 $8.0460 597.0083 $4,803.53
2013 0.16 (15.67¢) 35,555 32,238.45 $5,051.77 $8.4618 597.0083 $5,051.77
2014 0.15 (15.07¢) 43,502 32,238.45 $4,858.33 $8.1378 597.0083 $4,858.33

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500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Table 3 displays the market price information for celery.

Table 3: Ontario Celery Market Prices (1995 - 2014)

(Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, 2015b)

Celery Market Prices

Year Average Average Average Average Average Average Average
Price in Yield in Yield per Yield Price Price per Cartons Carton
Ontario Ontario Year ($/acre) Carton (24 lbs) per Revenue
($(¢)/lb) (lbs/acre) Sample (24 lbs) Acre per Acre
for the
Holland
Marsh
(lbs/acre)
1995 0.13 (12.73¢) 75,400 55,326.5 $7,043.06 $3.0552 2,305.2708 $7,043.06
1996 0.10 (10.00¢) 45,072 55,326.5 $5,532.65 $2.4000 2,305.2708 $5,532.65
1997 0.09 (9.23¢) 60,185 55,326.5 $5,106.64 $2.2152 2,305.2708 $5,106.64
1998 0.14 (14.39¢) 55,596 55,326.5 $7,961.48 $3.4536 2,305.2708 $7,961.48
1999 0.12 (12.37¢) 61,569 55,326.5 $6,843.89 $2.9688 2,305.2708 $6,843.89
2000 0.15 (15.35¢) 42,364 55,326.5 $8,492.62 $3.6840 2,305.2708 $8,492.62
2001 0.15 (14.88¢) 52,124 55,326.5 $8,232.58 $3.5712 2,305.2708 $8,232.58
2002 0.13 (13.11¢) 56,933 55,326.5 $7,253.30 $3.1464 2,305.2708 $7,253.30
2003 0.12 (12.28¢) 63,898 55,326.5 $6,794.09 $2.9472 2,305.2708 $6,794.09
2004 0.13 (12.95¢) 60,364 55,326.5 $7,164.78 $3.1080 2,305.2708 $7,164.78
2005 0.13 (12.87¢) 58,261 55,326.5 $7,120.52 $3.0888 2,305.2708 $7,120.52
2006 0.15 (15.27¢) 56,226 55,326.5 $8,448.36 $3.6648 2,305.2708 $8,448.36
2007 0.13 (12.97¢) 52,482 55,326.5 $7,175.85 $3.1128 2,305.2708 $7,175.85
2008 0.15 (15.30¢) 61,505 55,326.5 $8,464.95 $3.6720 2,305.2708 $8,464.95
2009 0.18 (17.65¢) 58,908 55,326.5 $9,765.13 $4.2360 2,305.2708 $9,765.13
2010 0.15 (15.17¢) 55,249 55,326.5 $8,393.03 $3.6408 2,305.2708 $8,393.03
2011 0.14 (14.32¢) 49,746 55,326.5 $7,922.75 $3.4368 2,305.2708 $7,922.75
2012 0.18 (18.39¢) 49,764 55,326.5 $10,174.54 $4.4136 2,305.2708 $10,174.54
2013 0.15 (14.81¢) 50,047 55,326.5 $8,193.85 $3.5544 2,305.2708 $8,193.85
2014 0.18 (18.19¢) 40,837 55,326.5 $10,063.89 $4.3656 2,305.2708 $10,063.89

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500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Figure 4 displays the temporal progression of market prices per pound for carrots, onions,
and celery.

Figure 4: Average Market Prices per Pound for Carrots, Onions, and Celery

Average Market Prices per Pound for

Carrots, Onions, and Celery (1995 - 2014)
$0.20

$0.15
Price (¢/lb)

$0.10 Carrots

$0.05 Onions
Celery
$0.00
1999

2010
1995
1996
1997
1998

2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009

2011
2012
2013
2014
Year

Figure 5 displays the temporal progression of the average total crop yield price per acre for
carrots, onions, and celery.

Figure 5: Average Total Crop Yield Price per Acre for Carrots, Onions, and Celery

Average Price per Acre for

Carrots, Onions, and Celery (1995 - 2014)
$12,000.00
$10,000.00
Price ($/acre)

$8,000.00
$6,000.00 Carrots
$4,000.00
Onions
$2,000.00
Celery
$0.00
2003
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002

2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014

Year

Figure 6 and Figure 7 on the following page display these average market prices per
bushel/carton.

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Figure 6 displays the temporal progression of carrot and onion prices per bushel.

Figure 6: Average Carrot and Onion Prices per Bushel

Average Carrot and Onion Prices

per Bushel
$10.00
$8.00
$6.00
Price

$4.00 Carrots
$2.00 Onions
$0.00
1997
1995
1996

1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Year

Figure 7 displays the temporal progression of average celery prices per carton.

Figure 7: Average Celery Prices per Carton

Average Celery Prices per Carton

$5.00
$4.50
$4.00
$3.50
$3.00
Price

$2.50
$2.00
$1.50
$1.00
$0.50
$0.00
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014

Year

Judging from the long-term progression of crop market prices, potential revenue loss will
increase as more soil erodes over time, progressively leaving less space to sell the same
quantity of stock at higher prices each year.

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3.2 Research and Digitize Aerial Imagery

Aerial images were collected from different sources for this project. There was imagery
from 2002, 2005 and 2007 over the region available on the Scholars Geoportal which was
created by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Older imagery over the Marsh from
1995, created by Triathlon Inc., was collected from the University of Toronto Map Library.
Finally 2014 aerial imagery was received from Mr. Osama Saadeldin, president of BOSYS
Technologies, located in Toronto, Ontario (SWOOP, 2002) (SWOOP, 2005) (SWOOP, 2007)
(Triathlon Inc., 1995) (Osama Saadeldin, 2014).

This imagery was then digitized along the bank of the river for each year to determine if the
bank had been losing soil and at what rate this was occurring. Mapping software known as
ArcGIS, created from the geospatial technology company known as ESRI (Environmental
Systems Research Institute), was used to digitize the riverbank extents on top of digital
versions of the collected aerial imagery. The digitizing was carried out through aerial image
interpretation. This involves the observation of the image’s pixel tones, textures, and
patterns to distinguish real-world features (Natural Resources Canada, 2013). An
important aspect of this concept is the image’s "spatial resolution", which is the size and
number of pixels within the aerial image (ESRI, 2008). Each pixel captures colours and/or
black and white tones given off by features on the ground. A higher spatial resolution
equals smaller pixel sizes and more pixels covering a geographic area, thus distinguishing
features clearer because there are more pixels capturing the small variations of colours and
tones given off by geographic features. As technology improves over time, the cameras
used to take these aerial photographs take on a better spatial resolution. The riverbanks
were digitized based on the interpreted approximation of where the bank was located and
from experience with having visited the study area. With more recent imagery it was easier
to locate the bank location due to the much higher spatial resolution. Only as you go further
back in the imagery, digitizing became more difficult due to the decreasing spatial
resolution of the images. Figure 8 on the following page displays the difference between the
1995 image’s spatial resolution and the 2014 image’s spatial resolution.

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Figure 8 displays the digitizing method overtop 1995 imagery (left) and 2014 imagery
(right).

Figure 8: Digitizing Riverbanks

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3.2.1 Storing Digitized Data

After digitizing the riverbanks outlined in the aerial imagery, the resulting data needed to
be digitally stored for later reference and analysis. Within the ArcGIS software, a section
named “ArcCatalog” allows the user to access the desktop computer’s file folders to access
mapping data, referred to as spatial data. Spatial data contains information about the
locations and shapes of geographic features (ESRI, 2015). Within ArcCatalog, a
“geodatabase” was created to store the digitized riverbank spatial data. Feature classes
(files specifically contained within geodatabases, which consist of a single set or collection
of spatial data with the same geometry type (line, point, or polygon) (ESRI, 2015)) were
created to store the digitized riverbank files. In this case, the riverbank extents were
digitized as polygon feature classes that cover the entire river area including the width
extent from one riverbank side to the other. Polygon coverage was used in order to
examine the progression of polygon area measurements (m2/acres) as the river/riverbank
width extents change over time from environmental influences.

3.3 Calculate Soil/Crop Revenue Loss and Map Results

The major locations of soil erosion between 1995 and 2014 can be found using ArcGIS’
"Symmetrical Difference" tool, which extracts the areas of the 1995 and 2014 feature
classes that aren't overlapping to show where the riverbank areas in 1995 cease to exist in
2014 (ESRI, 2012). Maps displaying this calculation can be viewed in the Results section on
pages 18 and 19. Equation 1 below explains how the average amount of soil lost each year
was calculated. From this value, the average amount of crop yield/revenue lost per year
was calculated based on the amount of acreage lost each year. Equation 2 calculates the
average amount of revenue lost per year based on the average amount of soil lost per year.
Equation 3 calculates the potential revenue gained in 2014 if no erosion occurred over the
19-year period.

Equation 1: Calculate Average Amount of Soil Lost per Year

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1995 𝑡𝑜 2014 ÷ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦

Equation 2: Calculate Average Amount of Yield/Revenue Lost per Year

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟 × 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑡

Equation 3: Calculate Potential Average Gain of Revenue in 2014 without Erosion

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 2014 × 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1995 𝑡𝑜 2014

The following section presents the results of the project and outlines the continuous soil
loss extents from 1995-2014. Individual maps displaying riverbank extent in 1995, 2002,
2005, 2007, and 2014 can be viewed in Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C, Appendix D,
and Appendix E at the end of the document.

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4 Results
4.1 River Bank Area Loss

Table 4 displays the river area for each individual year, the soil lost between years, the
average amount of soil lost each year, and the total acreage of soil lost over the study
period.

Table 4: River Area Progression, Soil Loss, and Average Amount of Soil Lost per Year

Average Average
River Soil Amount of Amount of
River Soil Lost
Year Digitized Area Lost Soil Lost Soil
Area (m2) (m2)
(acres) (acres) per Year Lost per
(acres) Year (m2)
1995 26.2 -- 105,934.2 --
2002 28.9 2.7 116,878.9 10,945.7
2005 29.9 1 120,974.6 4,095.7
2007 31.1 1.2 0.43 125,816.9 4,842.3 1,732.42
2014 34.3 3.2 138,850.2 13,033.3
Total Soil Lost
8.1 32,916
(1995-2014)

Figure 9 and Figure 10 below display the digitized riverbank extents in acres and metres
squared.

Figure 9: River Area Progression (Acres) Figure 10: River Area Progression (m2)

River Area (Acres) River Area (m2)

40 150,000.00

30
100,000.00
Area
Area

20
50,000.00
10

0 0.00
1995 2002 2005 2007 2014 1995 2002 2005 2007 2014
Year Year

Figure 11 on the following page displays a comparison between the 1995 riverbanks and
the 2014 riverbanks.

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Figure 11: 1995 - 2014 Riverbank Comparison

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Figure 12 displays the specific major locations of riverbank loss, determined through the
symmetrical difference function in ESRI’s ArcGIS.

Figure 12: Locations of Major Riverbank Erosion

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Figure 13 displays the same image as Figure 12, except the image has been split into three
separate areas zoomed in for easier interpretation.

Figure 13: Locations of Major Riverbank Erosion (Zoomed)

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Figure 14 and Figure 15 display the amount of soil lost within each riverbank year that was
digitized.
Figure 14: Temporal Soil Loss (acres)

Soil Lost (Acres)

3.5
3
2.5
Area (acres)

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2002 2005 2007 2014
Year Digitized

Figure 15: Temporal Soil Loss (m2)

Soil Lost (m2)

14000
12000
10000
Area (m2)

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
2002 2005 2007 2014
Year Digitized

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4.2 Crop Revenue Loss

Based on the yearly rate of soil erosion, the total revenue forgone over the 19-year period,
as well as the total revenue that would have been generated if the erosion issue had been
addressed and stopped in 1995 was determined. From the soil loss results, 0.43 acres are
being lost annually. Figure 16 displays the average crop yield lost per year.

Figure 16: Average Crop Yield Lost per Year

Average Crop Yield Lost per Year

1200.0
991.3
Number of Stock Items

1000.0
800.0
600.0
341.9
400.0 256.7
200.0
0.0
Carrot Bushels Onion Bushels Celery Cartons
Crop

Figure 17 displays the values and progression of annual crop revenue lost per year based
on each year’s average crop prices per acre in Ontario.

Figure 17: Average Crop Yield Revenue Lost per Year

Average Crop Yield Revenue Loss

per Year
$5,000.00
$4,000.00
Lost Revenue

$3,000.00
$2,000.00 Carrots
Onions
$1,000.00
Celery
$0.00

Year

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Figure 18 shows the total average revenue forgone from 1995-2014 based on each year’s
average crop price/revenue per acre in relation to the average amount of soil acreage lost
per year.

Figure 18: Total Progressive Average Revenue Forgone

Total Average Revenue Forgone

(1995-2014)
$80,000.00 $67,143.63
$60,000.00
Revenue

$40,000.00 $33,690.12
$25,242.97
$20,000.00
$0.00
Carrots Onions Celery
Crop

Figure 19 displays the total revenue that would have been generated for each crop in 2014
if erosion had been addressed and hindered in 1995 with no land lost over the 19-year
period.

Figure 19: Potential Average Revenue Gained Without Erosion

8.1 Acres of Potential Average

Revenue Gained in 2014 Without
Erosion
$100,000.00 $81,517.51
Revenue

$50,000.00 $34,293.70 $39,352.51

$0.00
Carrots Onions Celery
Crop

The following page discusses these results further in terms of the erosion effects on spatial
crop planting arrangements and the temporal periods of peak soil loss within the Holland
Marsh’s specific climate region.

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5 Discussion
5.1 Planning the Distribution of Crops and Planting Dates

Revenue losses are hypothetical in terms of where the specific crops are planted. The
eroded areas of soil are not all distributed in the same area. The crop revenue affected by
the annual 0.43 acres of soil loss is divided upon the locations of erosion along the river.
The values in the Results section assume that 0.43 acres of lost soil was applied to each
crop individually since it is not known how much soil was lost specifically in the locations
where each crop was planted. These numbers are also calculated based on the assumption
that the crop yield each year remained consistent, since the location that each crop is
planted may form different results from year to year. This is why a consistent average crop
yield per acre throughout each year was used to calculate each year’s average yield loss per
acre. The only changing variable would be the price of each crop per pound each year, and
not the number of bushels/cartons per acre.

There are numerous issues associated with these results of soil erosion, specifically dealing
with soil receding horizontally, as opposed to eroding vertically off the surface from wind,
and land-use practices. Wind and water are the two major contributors of agricultural soil
quality and quantity loss, with the addition of changing land-use across various locations of
farmland deciding where crops are planted (Wilson, 1989). Erosion is also a major cause of
land sloping, which poses a major cost to farmers by inhibiting the planting of crops in
certain areas, and therefore losing more crop yield/revenue (Driver, et al., 1982). Table 5
shows the planting dates, and spatial arrangement of crops recommended by the Ontario
Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs.

Table 5: Recommended Planting Dates/Spatial Arrangement of Crops

(Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, 2010)

Planting and Transplanting Dates/Spatial Arrangement of Crops

Crop Distance Distance Recommended Recommended
Between Between Dates Dates
Rows (cm) Plants (cm) for Outdoor for Outdoor
Seeding Transplanting
Carrots 45 - 60 3-5 April 15 - June 1 --
Onions 45 - 60 5-8 April 5 - 25 April 10 - 20
Celery 60 - 90 15 April 10 - 20 May 5 - 15

These values are important because soil erosion affects the choice and sequence of crop
distribution (Wilson, 1989). Erosion is typically at its worst during the summer months,
since this is when there is the least risk of frost, making the soil softer and more likely to be
carried by water and wind (Wilson, 1989). The following page presents information on the
locations of typical soil frosting times during the year.

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5.2 Climate Zones and Soil Frosting Periods

Figure 20 displays the climate zones for vegetables in Ontario. The Holland Marsh is
located within zone D and has an average frost-free period of 130 – 165 days. The average
date of the last spring frost is May 11th, while the average date of the first fall frost is
October 1st.

Figure 20: Climate Zones for Vegetables in Ontario

(Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, 2013)

Soil loss would be most associated with frost-free periods. Frosted periods would make for
ideal conditions to assess the nature of the soil loss and plan methods for stopping the
erosion, since the soil will be more stable to walk on near the river and the fields will not be
in use.

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5.3 Challenges and Project Limitations

There were two major challenges of this project. The first was dealing with the issue of
inconsistent spatial resolution of aerial imagery when digitizing riverbanks. The second
challenge was interpreting how far the riverbank extends due to the changing landscapes
and water levels throughout each year.

5.3.1 Spatial Resolution of Aerial Imagery

Previously discussed in section 3.2 on page 14, the spatial resolution of each aerial image
was an issue which made it difficult to interpret similar real-world features. This would
have had a minor effect on the accuracy of each river area, and these values should be
treated as approximate. Figure 8 on page 15 displays how the 2014 image has much
greater clarity than the 1995 image in terms of the size and number of pixels, as well as the
range/detail of colours in the image to interpret real-world features.

5.3.2 Changing Landscapes and Water Levels

While visiting the Holland Marsh with the Drainage Investment Group in November of
2014, Mr. Frank Jonkman (the drainage superintendent for the Town of Bradford West
Gwillimbury) provided some background information on the use of dredging as an erosion
prevention method. Dredging involves the extraction of soil from the river floor and
redistributing it on the surface of the soil. This lowers the water levels away from the
riverbanks and decreases the rate of erosion.

Dredging is carried out twice a year and as a result, the riverbank areas can fluctuate and
change the structure of the landscape. Dredging, in turn with the movement of soil from the
farmers and the changing water levels, can alter the definition of the riverbanks from year
to year. This causes image interpretation to become difficult depending on the spatial
resolution of each image. Although the extent of the erosion in certain areas of the river
may be difficult to interpret, the fact that dredging is needed twice per year indicates that
consistent erosion is occurring regularly and is a serious problem that needs to be
addressed at once to preserve the value of the land.

Figure 21, Figure 22, and Figure 23 on pages 27, 28, and 29 indicate the digitizing
challenges associated with changing water levels and riverbank definitions due to dredging
and land restructuring in certain areas of the river from year to year.

5.3.3 Data Availability

During project discussions with DIG, it was originally suggested that Digital Elevation
Models (DEMs) and bathymetric data should be utilized to detect temporal changes in river
floor elevations due to extractions and additions of soil from dredging and riverbank
erosion. It was later concluded that these data were not currently available in the present
or from past years with high enough spatial resolutions to effectively detect these minute
changes in elevation within the small area of the river. Each pixel in the DEM would
represent a single general elevation value that covers an area of the river too broad to get a
precise understanding of the small spatial changes in river floor volume over time.

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Figure 21 displays the difference in water levels in 2002 and 2007 imagery. Dredging has
made it difficult to determine how the land has adjusted over time and where the
foundation of the riverbank cuts off. The riverbank in 2007 appears to have been
restructured and extended further towards the river than the riverbank in 2002.

Figure 21: Challenges with Changing Water Levels (A)

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Figure 22 displays another area of the river that has changed water levels. Dredging over
time would have caused changes in riverbank structures such as this. As soil gets piled back
onto certain areas of the riverbanks while raising the elevation and the area of the land, the
riverbanks would get digitized within the surface area of an earlier year, and would not be
considered a loss of soil since this would contribute to the prosperity of crop yield in the
future.

Figure 22: Challenges with Changing Water Levels (B)

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Figure 23 displays the riverbank extents compared in 2002 and 2014. It is clear that soil
has been regained and restructured in certain areas of the river.

Figure 23: Challenges with Changing Landscape Structure

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6 Conclusion
From the data displayed in the report, it can easily be seen that there are substantial
erosion issues in the Holland Marsh river-drain. These matters should be taken into
consideration as soon as possible to reduce erosion and consequently reduce the amount of
crop revenue loss per year. A total of 8.1 acres of soil has been lost over the 19-year period,
with an average soil loss of 0.43 acres per year. This results in an average yield loss of 341
carrot bushels, 256 onions bushels, or 991 celery cartons per year, with a total average
revenue loss of $25,242.97 for carrots, $33,690.12 for onions, or $67,143.63 for celery
based on the yearly differences in crop prices. Previously stated in section 5.1, results
would increase or decrease based on the production weight of each crop yield per acre, as
well as based on the crop price per pound for each year. If actions had been taken to stop
the erosion in 1995, then average revenue of $34,293.70 for carrots, $39,352.51 for onions,
or $81,517.51 for celery could have been generated if one of these crops had been planted
in 2014 within the 8.1 acres of what is now lost soil. It would be extremely beneficial to
initiate a project to reform the Holland River by reinforcing the banks in order to stop this
continual erosion during the summer months. Reformation would be in the best interest of
the property owners/farmers residing in the marsh.

6.1 Recommendations

Based on the findings outlined, there are three recommendations that would help to
preserve this land. The first involves further study on this topic. For example, more crop
value information should be made readily available to enable ongoing and continued
analysis of the impact of this erosion on other crops planted in the Holland Marsh such as
parsnips, turnips, potatoes and beets (as seen in Figure 2 on page 4). The farmers should
also distribute information on the location of the varieties of crops planted to help
government and other contributors for bank stabilization projects understand which crops
are most affected by areas of major erosion. Planting the most expensive crop around the
areas of least erosion would be in the best interest of the farmers. The farmers should also
consider the parameters for spatially arranging each crop, as well as the time it takes for
each crop to grow during each summer period (as seen in Table 5 on page 24) in order to
avoid complications with land structure along the edges of the riverbanks. It is possible for
the rates of erosion to increase and decrease each year; therefore farmers need to plan for
this possibility.

Next, landowners of the agricultural parcels in the Holland Marsh should collaborate with
partners who have invested funds for the implementation of erosion prevention measures.
Decisions should be made based on both economic and environmental factors that would
be in the best interests of the landowners.

Finally, multiple Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) and bathymetric data covering the
Holland River should be captured over time and/or made available, each with consistent
spatial resolutions high enough to detect and analyze spatial/temporal changes in river
floor volume caused from erosion and dredging.

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7 Bibliography
Bartram, J., Lloyd, S., & Mausberg, B. (2007). The Holland Marsh: Challenges and
Opportunities in the Greenbelt. Toronto, Ontario: Friends of the Greenbelt
Foundation.

Canada Department of Agriculture. (1962, September). Weights and Conversion Factors for
Canadian Agricultural Products. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Driver, G., Moore, N., Schleihauf, J., Wall, G., Greuel, J., & Harkes, R. (1982). Cropland Soil
Erosion: Esimated Cost to Agriculture in Ontario. Guelph, Ontario: Ontario Institute of
Pedology.

ESRI. (2008, September 22). Displaying the raster’s spatial resolution. Retrieved from
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ESRI. (2012, April 4). Symmetrical Difference (Analysis). Retrieved from ArcGIS Resource
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ESRI. (2015). GIS Dictionary. Retrieved from ESRI.com:

http://support.esri.com/en/knowledgebase/GISDictionary/term/spatial%20data

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Greater Toronto and Golden Horseshoe Colour Digital Orthophotos [computer file].
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Holland River [computer file]. Land Information Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Agriculture,
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Jonkman, F. (2014, November 28). Drainage Superintendent, Town of Bradford West

Gwillimbury.

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Keenan, K. (2013). An Economic Consideration of Implementing Vegetative Buffer Strips

Along the Holland River in the Holland Marsh, Ontario. Guelph, Ontario: University of
Guelph

Lake Simcoe Region Conservation Authority. (2010). West Holland River Subwatershed
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Authority.

Natural Resources Canada. (2013, July 26). Introduction to Air Photo Interpretation.
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photography/9689

Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs. (2013, February 11). Climate Zones
and Planting Dates for Vegetables in Ontario. Retrieved from Ontario.ca:
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Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs. (2015a, May 12). Carrots: Area,
Production, Farm Value, Price and Yield, Ontario, 1979 - 2014. Retrieved from
Ontario.ca: http://omaf.gov.on.ca/english/stats/hort/dryonion.htm

Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs. (2015b, April 16). Celery: Area,
Production, Farm Value, Price and Yield, Ontario, 1979 - 2014. Retrieved from
Ontario.ca: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/stats/hort/celery.htm

Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs. (2015c, April 16). Dry Onion: Area,
Production, Farm Value, Price and Yield, Ontario, 1979 - 2014. Retrieved from
Ontario.ca: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/stats/hort/dryonion.htm

Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs. (2010, June 25). The Online
Gardener's Handbook 2010, Chapter 4: Vegetables, Planting Recommendations for
Vegetables. Retrieved from Ontario.ca:
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/gardbk/gh-ch4-3plant.htm

Orthoimagery 2014 [computer file]. (2014). Osama Saadeldin, BOSYS Technologies.

Planscape. (2009). Holland Marsh Agricultural Impact Study. Bracebridge, Ontario:

Planscape.

SWOOP: Orthoimagery 2002 [computer file]. (2002). Land Information Ontario, Ministry of
Natural Resources.

SWOOP: Orthoimagery 2005 [computer file]. (2005). Land Information Ontario, Ministry of
Natural Resources.

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 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

SWOOP: Orthoimagery 2007 [computer file]. (2007). Land Information Ontario, Ministry of
Natural Resources.

University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources.

(2006, September). Weights and Measures for Horticultural Crops. Lincoln,
Nebraska, United States.

Wilson, J. P. (1989). Soil Erosion From Agricultural Land in the Lake Simcoe-Couchiching
Basin, 1800-1981. Soil Sci, 137-151.

York Region Municipal Boundaries [computer file]. York Region, ON, 2015. Available:
http://findit.york.ca/opendata/portal/#/search?fq=fss_Categories:Spatial%5C%20
Data

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 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Appendix A: 1995 Digitized Riverbank

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 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Appendix B: 2002 Digitized Riverbank

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 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Appendix C: 2005 Digitized Riverbank

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 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Appendix D: 2007 Digitized Riverbank

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 Geography Department
500 Glenridge Ave, Saint Catharines, ON L2S 3A1

Appendix E: 2014 Digitized Riverbank

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