Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ehz 405
Ehz 405
* Corresponding authors: Stavros V. Konstantinides, Center for Thrombosis and Hemostasis, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Building 403, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55131 Mainz,
Germany. Tel: þ49 613 117 6255, Fax: þ49 613 117 3456, Email: stavros.konstantinides@unimedizin-mainz.de; and Department of Cardiology, Democritus University of Thrace,
68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece. Email: skonst@med.duth.gr. Guy Meyer, Respiratory Medicine Department, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, 20 Rue Leblanc, 75015 Paris,
France. Tel: þ33 156 093 461, Fax: þ33 156 093 255, Email: guy.meyer@aphp.fr; and Université Paris Descartes, 15 rue de l’école de médecine 75006 Paris, France.
Author/Task Force Member Affiliations: listed in the Appendix.
ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG) and National Cardiac Societies document reviewers: listed in the Appendix.
1
Representing the ERS.
ESC entities having participated in the development of this document:
Associations: Acute Cardiovascular Care Association (ACCA), Association of Cardiovascular Nursing & Allied Professions (ACNAP), European Association of Cardiovascular
Imaging (EACVI), European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions (EAPCI), Heart Failure Association (HFA).
Councils: Council on Cardiovascular Primary Care.
Working Groups: Aorta and Peripheral Vascular Diseases, Cardiovascular Surgery, Pulmonary Circulation and Right Ventricular Function, Thrombosis.
The content of these European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Guidelines has been published for personal and educational use only. No commercial use is authorized. No part of the
ESC Guidelines may be translated or reproduced in any form without written permission from the ESC. Permission can be obtained upon submission of a written request to Oxford
University Press, the publisher of the European Heart Journal and the party authorized to handle such permissions on behalf of the ESC (journals.permissions@oxfordjournals.org).
Disclaimer. The ESC Guidelines represent the views of the ESC and were produced after careful consideration of the scientific and medical knowledge, and the evidence available
at the time of their publication. The ESC is not responsible in the event of any contradiction, discrepancy, and/or ambiguity between the ESC Guidelines and any other official recom-
mendations or guidelines issued by the relevant public health authorities, in particular in relation to good use of healthcare or therapeutic strategies. Health professionals are encour-
aged to take the ESC Guidelines fully into account when exercising their clinical judgment, as well as in the determination and the implementation of preventive, diagnostic, or
therapeutic medical strategies; however, the ESC Guidelines do not override, in any way whatsoever, the individual responsibility of health professionals to make appropriate and accu-
rate decisions in consideration of each patient’s health condition and in consultation with that patient and, where appropriate and/or necessary, the patient’s caregiver. Nor do the
ESC Guidelines exempt health professionals from taking into full and careful consideration the relevant official updated recommendations or guidelines issued by the competent public
health authorities, in order to manage each patient’s case in light of the scientifically accepted data pursuant to their respective ethical and professional obligations. It is also the health
professional’s responsibility to verify the applicable rules and regulations relating to drugs and medical devices at the time of prescription.
C The European Society of Cardiology 2019. All rights reserved. For permissions please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.
V
2 ESC Guidelines
Document Reviewers: Nazzareno Galié (CPG Review Coordinator) (Italy), J. Simon R. Gibbs (CPG Review
Coordinator) (United Kingdom), Victor Aboyans (France), Walter Ageno (Italy), Stefan Agewall (Norway),
Ana G. Almeida (Portugal), Felicita Andreotti (Italy), Emanuele Barbato (Italy), Johann Bauersachs
(Germany), Andreas Baumbach (United Kingdom), Farzin Beygui (France), Jørn Carlsen (Denmark),
Marco De Carlo (Italy), Marion Delcroix1 (Belgium), Victoria Delgado (Netherlands), Pilar Escribano Subias
(Spain), Donna Fitzsimons (United Kingdom), Sean Gaine1 (Ireland), Samuel Z. Goldhaber (United States
For the Supplementary Data which include background information and detailed discussion of the data
that have provided the basis for the Guidelines see https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article-lookup/doi/
10.1093/eurheartj/ehz405#supplementary-data
...................................................................................................................................................................................................
Keywords Guidelines • pulmonary embolism • venous thrombosis • shock • dyspnoea • heart failure • right ven-
tricle • diagnosis • risk assessment • echocardiography • biomarkers • treatment • anticoagulation •
thrombolysis • pregnancy • venous thromboembolism • embolectomy
..
Table of contents ..
..
4.5 Computed tomographic pulmonary angiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.6 Lung scintigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
..
Abbreviations and acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
.. 4.7 Pulmonary angiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
.. 4.8 Magnetic resonance angiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1 Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ..
.. 4.9 Echocardiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 .. 4.10 Compression ultrasonography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1 Why do we need new Guidelines on the diagnosis and ..
.. 4.12 Computed tomography venography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
management of pulmonary embolism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 .. 5 Assessment of pulmonary embolism severity and the risk of
2.2 What is new in the 2019 Guidelines? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 ..
.. early death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 New/revised concepts in 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 .. 5.1 Clinical parameters of pulmonary embolism severity . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.2 Changes in recommendations 201419 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 ..
.. 5.2 Imaging of right ventricular size and function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.3 Main new recommendations 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 .. 5.2.1 Echocardiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ..
.. 5.2.2 Computed tomographic pulmonary angiography . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 .. 5.3 Laboratory biomarkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Predisposing factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 ..
.. 5.3.1 Markers of myocardial injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Pathophysiology and determinants of outcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 .. 5.3.2 Markers of right ventricular dysfunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4 Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 ..
.. 5.3.3 Other laboratory biomarkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1 Clinical presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 .. 5.4 Combined parameters and scores for assessment of
4.2 Assessment of clinical (pre-test) probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
..
.. pulmonary embolism severity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3 Avoiding overuse of diagnostic tests for pulmonary .. 5.5 Integration of aggravating conditions and comorbidity
embolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
..
.. into risk assessment of acute pulmonary embolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.4 D-dimer testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 ..
4.4.1 Age-adjusted D-dimer cut-offs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
.. 5.6 Prognostic assessment strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
.. 6 Treatment in the acute phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.4.2 D-dimer cut-offs adapted to clinical probability . . . . . . . . . . . 13 ..
4.4.3 Point-of-care D-dimer assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
.. 6.1 Haemodynamic and respiratory support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
.. 6.1.1 Oxygen therapy and ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
ESC Guidelines 3
..
P-gp P-glycoprotein .. The ESC carries out a number of registries which are essential to
PH Pulmonary hypertension
.. assess, diagnostic/therapeutic processes, use of resources and adher-
..
PIOPED Prospective Investigation On Pulmonary Embolism .. ence to Guidelines. These registries aim at providing a better under-
Diagnosis
.. standing of medical practice in Europe and around the world, based
..
PISAPED Prospective Investigative Study of Acute Pulmonary .. on data collected during routine clinical practice.
Embolism Diagnosis
.. The guidelines are developed together with derivative educational
..
..
Wording to use
Class II
©ESC 2019
useful/effective, and in some cases
may be harmful.
..
determination and the implementation of preventive, diagnostic or ther- .. 2 Introduction
apeutic medical strategies. However, the ESC Guidelines do not over- ..
..
ride in any way whatsoever the individual responsibility of health .. 2.1 Why do we need new Guidelines on
professionals to make appropriate and accurate decisions in considera-
..
.. the diagnosis and management of
tion of each patient’s health condition and in consultation with that ..
patient or the patient’s caregiver where appropriate and/or necessary. It
.. pulmonary embolism?
.. This document follows the previous ESC Guidelines focusing on the
is also the health professional’s responsibility to verify the rules and regu- ..
lations applicable in each country to drugs and devices at the time of
.. clinical management of pulmonary embolism (PE), published in 2000,
.. 2008, and 2014. Many recommendations have been retained or their
prescription. ..
. validity has been reinforced; however, new data have extended or
ESC Guidelines 7
modified our knowledge in respect of the optimal diagnosis, assess- VTE recurrence scores are presented and discussed in parallel with
ment, and treatment of patients with PE. These new aspects have been bleeding scores for patients on anticoagulation treatment
integrated into previous knowledge to suggest optimal and—whenever (Supplementary Tables 13 and 14 respectively).
possible—objectively validated management strategies for patients A reduced dose of apixaban or rivaroxaban for extended anticoagula-
with suspected or confirmed PE. To limit the length of the printed text, tion should be considered after the first 6 months of treatment.
additional information, tables, figures, and references are available as
PE in cancer
..
Time trend analyses in European, Asian, and North American .. is a strong risk factor for all-cause mortality following an episode
populations suggest that case fatality rates of acute PE may be .. of VTE.29
..
decreasing.47,10,11 Increased use of more effective therapies and .. Oestrogen-containing oral contraceptive agents are associated
interventions, and possibly better adherence to guidelines,12,13 .. with an elevated VTE risk, and contraceptive use is the most frequent
..
has most likely exerted a significant positive effect on the progno- .. VTE risk factor in women of reproductive age.3032 More specifically,
sis of PE in recent years. However, there is also a tendency .. combined oral contraceptives (containing both an oestrogen and a
..
..
120 26
Chinaa, 17
(number of in-hospital deaths / 100 PE diagnoses; %)
24
(number of PE diagnoses / 100.000 inhabitants)
100 22
20
Annual Incidence Rate
18
Case Finality Rate
80
16 Italya, 6
14 Spaina, 5
60 USb,14 USb, 14 USb, 16
12
Italya, 6 10
USa, 14
40
08
USa, 16
Australiaa, 15 06
USa, 14
20 04
Spaina, 5 USa,11
02
0 0
©ESC 2019
1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013
Year Year
Figure 1 Trends in annual incidence rates (left panel) and case fatality rates (right panel) of pulmonary embolism around the world, based on data
retrieved from various references.5,6,11,1417 Reproduced with permission from JACC 2016;67:976-90. PE = pulmonary embolism; US = United States.
a
PE listed as principal diagnosis.
b
Any listed code for PE was considered.
10 ESC Guidelines
..
Table 3 Predisposing factors for venous thromboembo- .. 3.3 Pathophysiology and determinants of
..
lism (data modified from Rogers et al.23 and Anderson .. outcome
and Spencer24) .. Acute PE interferes with both circulation and gas exchange. Right
..
Strong risk factors (OR > 10) .. ventricular (RV) failure due to acute pressure overload is consid-
Fracture of lower limb ... ered the primary cause of death in severe PE. Pulmonary artery
Hospitalization for heart failure or atrial fibrillation/flutter
.. pressure (PAP) increases if >3050% of the total cross-sectional
..
Increased RV afterload a
RV dilatation
TV insufficiency
Intrapulmonary A-V
LV preload
shunting
©ESC 2019
RV contractility
Figure 2 Key factors contributing to haemodynamic collapse and death in acute pulmonary embolism (modified from Konstantinides et al.65 with permis-
sion). A-V = arterio-venous; BP = blood pressure; CO = cardiac output; LV - left ventricular; O2 = oxygen; RV = right ventricular; TV = tricuspid valve.
a
The exact sequence of events following the increase in RV afterload is not fully understood.
Table 4 Definition of haemodynamic instability, which delineates acute high-risk pulmonary embolism (one of the
following clinical manifestations at presentation)
(1) Cardiac arrest (2) Obstructive shock6870 (3) Persistent hypotension
Need for cardiopulmonary Systolic BP < 90 mmHg or vasopressors required Systolic BP < 90 mmHg or systolic BP drop >_40
resuscitation to achieve a BP >_90 mmHg despite adequate mmHg, lasting longer than 15 min and not caused by
filling status new-onset arrhythmia, hypovolaemia, or sepsis
And
End-organ hypoperfusion (altered mental status; cold,
clammy skin; oliguria/anuria; increased serum lactate)
BP = blood pressure.
..
commonplace tests such as chest X-rays and electrocardiograms for .. embolic risk was <1% in patients with low or intermediate clinical prob-
differential diagnosis. However, as clinical judgement lacks standard- .. ability who were left untreated on the basis of a negative test result.104
..
ization, several explicit clinical prediction rules have been developed. ..
Of these, the most frequently used prediction rules are the revised .. 4.4.1 Age-adjusted D-dimer cut-offs
..
Geneva rule (Table 5) and the Wells rule (see Supplementary Data .. The specificity of D-dimer in suspected PE decreases steadily with age
Table 1).86 Both prediction rules have been simplified in an attempt .. 105
.. to 10% in patients >80 years of age. The use of age-adjusted cut-
to increase their adoption into clinical practice;87,88 the simplified ver- .. offs may improve the performance of D-dimer testing in the elderly. A
CTPA = computed tomographic pulmonary angiography; mGy = milligray; mSv = millisieverts; PE = pulmonary embolism; SPECT = single-photon emission computed tomogra-
phy; V/Q = ventilation/perfusion (lung scintigraphy).
a
In this section, effective radiation dose is expressed in mSv [dose in mSv = absorbed dose in mGy radiation weighting factor (1.0 for X-rays) tissue weighting factor]. This
reflects the effective doses of all organs that have been exposed, that is, the overall radiation dose to the body from the imaging test. Compare with Table 12, in which the
absorbed radiation dose is expressed in mGy to reflect the radiation exposure to single organs or to the foetus.
b
For comparison, the whole-body effective dose of a chest X-ray examination is 0.1 mSv.141
..
with history of contrast medium-induced anaphylaxis, and patients .. complications occurred in 1%, and minor complications in 5%.137
with severe renal failure.116 .. The majority of deaths occurred in patients with haemodynamic
..
Planar lung scan results are frequently classified according to the .. compromise or respiratory failure. The amount of contrast agent
criteria established in the PIOPED study.117 These criteria were the .. should be reduced and non-selective injections avoided in patients
..
subject of debate and have been revised.118,119 To facilitate communi- .. with haemodynamic compromise.138
cation with clinicians, a three-tier classification is preferable: normal .. The major strengths, weaknesses/limitations, and radiation issues
..
.. related to the use of pulmonary angiography in the diagnosis of PE
RV
RV RV LV IVC
Ao RA
LV LV
LA RA
RA TAPSE
<16 mm
AcT <60 ms TRPG E’ A’
<60 mmHg S’ <9.5/s
”notch”
E. 60/60 sign: coexistence of F. Right heart mobile thrombus G. Decreased tricuspid annular H. Decreased peak systolic (S’)
acceleration time of pulmonary ejection detected in right heart cavities plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) velocity of tricuspid annulus
<60 ms and midsystolic “notch” with (arrow) measured with M-Mode (<9.5 cm/s)
mildy elevated (<60 mmHg) peak systolic (<16 mm)
gradient at the tricuspic valve
©ESC 2019
Figure 3 Graphic representation of transthoracic echocardiographic parameters in the assessment of right ventricular pressure overload. A0 = peak late
diastolic (during atrial contraction) velocity of tricuspid annulus by tissue Doppler imaging; AcT = right ventricular outflow Doppler acceleration time;
Ao = aorta; E0 = peak early diastolic velocity of tricuspid annulus by tissue Doppler imaging; IVC = inferior vena cava; LA = left atrium; LV = left ventricle;
RA = right atrium; RiHTh = right heart thrombus (or thrombi); RV = right ventricle/ventricular; S0 = peak systolic velocity of tricuspid annulus by tissue
Doppler imaging; TAPSE = tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion; TRPG = tricuspid valve peak systolic gradient.
..
Echocardiographic examination is not mandatory as part of the .. cases, chronic thromboembolic (or other) pulmonary hypertension
routine diagnostic workup in haemodynamically stable patients with .. (PH) should be included in the differential diagnosis.
..
suspected PE,124 although it may be useful in the differential diagnosis ..
of acute dyspnoea. This is in contrast to suspected high-risk PE, in ..
..
which the absence of echocardiographic signs of RV overload or dys- .. 4.10 Compression ultrasonography
function practically excludes PE as the cause of haemodynamic insta- .. In the majority of cases, PE originates from DVT in a lower limb, and only
..
bility. In the latter case, echocardiography may be of further help in .. rarely from upper-limb DVT (mostly following venous catheterization).
the differential diagnosis of the cause of shock, by detecting pericar-
.. In a study using venography, DVT was found in 70% of patients with pro-
..
dial tamponade, acute valvular dysfunction, severe global or regional .. ven PE.161 Nowadays, lower-limb CUS has largely replaced venography
LV dysfunction, aortic dissection, or hypovolaemia.152 Conversely, in
.. for diagnosing DVT. CUS has a sensitivity >90% and a specificity of
..
a haemodynamically compromised patient with suspected PE, .. 95% for proximal symptomatic DVT.162,163 CUS shows a DVT in
..
unequivocal signs of RV pressure overload, especially with more spe- .. 3050% of patients with PE,162164 and finding a proximal DVT in
cific echocardiographic findings (60/60 sign, McConnell sign, or right- .. patients suspected of having PE is considered sufficient to warrant antico-
..
heart thrombi), justify emergency reperfusion treatment for PE if .. agulant treatment without further testing.165 However, patients in whom
immediate CT angiography is not feasible in a patient with high clinical .. PE is indirectly confirmed by the presence of a proximal DVT should
..
probability and no other obvious causes for RV pressure .. undergo risk assessment for PE severity and the risk of early death.
overload.152 .. In the setting of suspected PE, CUS can be limited to a simple four-
..
Mobile right-heart thrombi are detected by TTE or transoesopha- .. point examination (bilateral groin and popliteal fossa). The only vali-
geal echocardiography (TOE), or by CT angiography, in <4% of unse- .. dated diagnostic criterion for DVT is incomplete compressibility of the
..
lected patients with PE.153155 Their prevalence may reach 18% among .. vein, which indicates the presence of a clot, whereas flow measure-
PE patients in the intensive care setting.156 Mobile right-heart thrombi .. ments are unreliable. A positive proximal CUS result has a high positive
..
essentially confirm the diagnosis of PE and are associated with high early .. predictive value for PE. The high diagnostic specificity (96%) along with
mortality, especially in patients with RV dysfunction.155,157159 .. a low sensitivity (41%) of CUS in this setting was shown by a recent
..
In some patients with suspected acute PE, echocardiography may .. meta-analysis.165,166 CUS is a useful procedure in the diagnostic strat-
detect increased RV wall thickness or tricuspid insufficiency jet veloc- .. egy of patients with CT contraindications. The probability of a positive
..
ity beyond values compatible with acute RV pressure overload (>3.8 .. proximal CUS in suspected PE is higher in patients with signs and symp-
m/s or a tricuspid valve peak systolic gradient >60 mmHg).160 In these .. toms related to the leg veins than in asymptomatic patients.162,163
ESC Guidelines 17
V/Q SPECT
V/Q SPECT may be considered for PE diagnosis.121,126128 IIbd B
Lower-limb CUS
It is recommended to accept the diagnosis of VTE (and PE) if a CUS shows a proximal DVT in a patient with clinical suspi-
I A
cion of PE.164,165
If CUS shows only a distal DVT, further testing should be considered to confirm PE.177 IIa B
CT = computed tomographic; CTPA = computed tomography pulmonary angiography/angiogram; CUS = compression ultrasonography; DVT = deep vein thrombosis; i.v. =
intravenous; MRA = magnetic resonance angiography; PE = pulmonary embolism; SPECT = single-photon emission computed tomography; UFH = unfractionated heparin; V/Q
= ventilation/perfusion (lung scintigraphy); VTE = venous thromboembolism.
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
D-dimer cut-off levels adapted to clinical probability according to the YEARS model (signs of DVT, haemoptysis, and whether an alternative diagnosis is less likely than PE) may
be used. According to this model, PE is excluded in patients without clinical items and D-dimer levels <1000 mg/L, or in patients with one or more clinical items and D-dimer
levels <500 mg/L.107
d
Low level of recommendation in view of the limitations summarized in Table 5.
In patients admitted to the emergency department with haemody- ... 5.1 Clinical parameters of pulmonary
namic instability and suspicion of PE, a combination of venous ultra-
..
.. embolism severity
sound with cardiac ultrasound may further increase specificity. ..
Conversely, an echocardiogram without signs of RV dysfunction and
.. Acute RV failure, defined as a rapidly progressive syndrome with sys-
.. temic congestion resulting from impaired RV filling and/or reduced
a normal venous ultrasound excluded PE with a high (96%) negative ..
.. RV flow output,68 is a critical determinant of outcome in acute PE.
predictive value in one study.167 .. Tachycardia, low systolic BP, respiratory insufficiency (tachypnoea
For further details on the diagnosis and management of DVT, the ..
.. and/or low SaO2), and syncope, alone or in combination, have been
reader is referred to the joint consensus document of the ESC .. associated with an unfavourable short-term prognosis in acute PE.
Working Groups of Aorta and Peripheral Vascular Diseases, and ..
..
Pulmonary Circulation and Right Ventricular Function.1 ..
.. 5.2 Imaging of right ventricular size and
.. function
4.12 Computed tomography venography ..
.. 5.2.1 Echocardiography
When using CTPA, it is possible to image the deep veins of the legs .. Echocardiographic parameters used to stratify the early risk of
during the same acquisition.115 However, this approach has not been ..
.. patients with PE are graphically presented in Figure 3, and their prog-
widely validated and the added value of venous imaging is limited.164 ..
.. nostic values are summarized in Supplementary Data Table 3. Of
Moreover, using CT venography is associated with increased radia- .. these, an RV/LV diameter ratio >_1.0 and a TAPSE <16 mm are the
tion doses.168 ..
.. findings for which an association with unfavourable prognosis has
.. most frequently been reported.148
..
5 Assessment of pulmonary .. Overall, evidence for RV dysfunction on echocardiography is
.. found in >_25% of unselected patients with acute PE.145
embolism severity and the risk of ..
.. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have suggested that RV
..
early death .. dysfunction on echocardiography is associated with an elevated
.. risk of short-term mortality in patients who appear haemody-
Risk stratification of patients with acute PE is mandatory for deter- .. namically stable at presentation,180,181 but its overall positive
..
mining the appropriate therapeutic management approach. As .. predictive value for PE-related death was low (<10%) in a meta-
described in section 3.3, initial risk stratification is based on clinical .. analysis.180 This weakness is partly related to the fact that echo-
..
symptoms and signs of haemodynamic instability (Table 4), which indi- .. cardiographic parameters have proved difficult to standard-
cate a high risk of early death. In the large remaining group of patients .. ize.148,180 Nevertheless, echocardiographic assessment of the
..
with PE who present without haemodynamic instability, further .. morphology and function of the RV is widely recognized as a val-
(advanced) risk stratification requires the assessment of two sets of .. uable tool for the prognostic assessment of normotensive
..
prognostic criteria: (i) clinical, imaging, and laboratory indicators of .. patients with acute PE in clinical practice.
PE severity, mostly related to the presence of RV dysfunction; and (ii)
.. In addition to RV dysfunction, echocardiography can identify right-
..
presence of comorbidity and any other aggravating conditions that .. to-left shunt through a patent foramen ovale and the presence of
may adversely affect early prognosis.
.. right heart thrombi, both of which are associated with increased
ESC Guidelines 19
..
mortality in patients with acute PE.67,158 A patent foramen ovale also .. prospective multicentre cohort of 526 normotensive patients,
increases the risk of ischaemic stroke due to paradoxical embolism in .. high-sensitivity troponin T concentrations <14 pg/mL had a nega-
..
patients with acute PE and RV dysfunction.182,183 .. tive predictive value of 98% for excluding an adverse in-hospital
.. clinical outcome.63 Age-adjusted high-sensitivity troponin T cut-
..
5.2.2 Computed tomographic pulmonary angiography
.. off values (>_14 pg/mL for patients aged <75 years and >_45 pg/mL
.. for those >_75 years) may further improve the negative predictive
CTPA parameters used to stratify the early risk of patients with ..
.. value of this biomarker.196
In patients who present without haemodynamic instability, individual Cancer þ30 points 1 point
baseline findings may not suffice to determine and further classify PE Chronic heart þ10 points
severity and PE-related early risk when used as stand-alone parame- failure
1 point
ters. As a result, various combinations of the clinical, imaging, and lab- Chronic pulmonary þ10 points
oratory parameters described above have been used to build disease
prognostic scores, which permit a (semi)quantitative assessment of Pulse rate >_110 þ20 points 1 point
early PE-related risk of death. Of these, the Bova218221 and the H- b.p.m.
FABP (or high-sensitivity troponin T), Syncope, Tachycardia (FAST) Systolic BP <100 þ30 points 1 point
scores219,222,223 have been validated in cohort studies (see mmHg
Supplementary Data Table 4). However, their implications for patient Respiratory rate þ20 points
management remain unclear. To date, only a combination of RV dys- >30 breaths per
function on an echocardiogram (or CTPA) with a positive cardiac min
troponin test has directly been tested as a guide for early therapeutic Temperature þ20 points
decisions (anticoagulation plus reperfusion treatment vs. anticoagula- <36 C
tion alone) in a large randomized controlled trial (RCT) of PE patients
Altered mental þ60 points
presenting without haemodynamic instability.224
status
Arterial oxyhaemo- þ20 points 1 point
globin saturation
5.5 Integration of aggravating conditions <90%
and comorbidity into risk assessment of Risk strataa
Table 8 Classification of pulmonary embolism severity and the risk of early (in-hospital or 30 day) death
©ESC 2019
Assesment optional;
Low - - - if assessed, negative
BP = blood pressure; CTPA = computed tomography pulmonary angiography; H-FABP = heart-type fatty acid-binding protein; NT-proBNP = N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic
peptide; PE = pulmonary embolism; PESI = Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index; RV = right ventricular; sPESI = simplified Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index; TTE = trans-
thoracic echocardiogram.
a
One of the following clinical presentations (Table 4): cardiac arrest, obstructive shock (systolic BP <90 mmHg or vasopressors required to achieve a BP >_90 mmHg despite an
adequate filling status, in combination with end-organ hypoperfusion), or persistent hypotension (systolic BP <90 mmHg or a systolic BP drop >_40 mmHg for >15 min, not
caused by new-onset arrhythmia, hypovolaemia, or sepsis).
b
Prognostically relevant imaging (TTE or CTPA) findings in patients with acute PE, and the corresponding cut-off levels, are graphically presented in Figure 3, and their prognostic
value is summarized in Supplementary Data Table 3.
c
Elevation of further laboratory biomarkers, such as NT-proBNP >_600 ng/L, H-FABP >_6 ng/mL, or copeptin >_24 pmol/L, may provide additional prognostic information. These
markers have been validated in cohort studies but they have not yet been used to guide treatment decisions in randomized controlled trials.
d
Haemodynamic instability, combined with PE confirmation on CTPA and/or evidence of RV dysfunction on TTE, is sufficient to classify a patient into the high-risk PE category.
In these cases, neither calculation of the PESI nor measurement of troponins or other cardiac biomarkers is necessary.
e
Signs of RV dysfunction on TTE (or CTPA) or elevated cardiac biomarker levels may be present, despite a calculated PESI of III or an sPESI of 0.234 Until the implications of
such discrepancies for the management of PE are fully understood, these patients should be classified into the intermediate-risk category.
Initial risk stratification of suspected or confirmed PE, based on the presence of haemodynamic instability, is recom-
I B
mended to identify patients at high risk of early mortality.218,219,235
PE = pulmonary embolism; PESI = Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index; RV = right ventricle; sPESI = simplified Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index.
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
Transthoracic echocardiography or computed tomography pulmonary angiography.
d
Cardiac troponins or natriuretic peptides.
..
6 Treatment in the acute phase .. 6.1.2 Pharmacological treatment of acute right
.. ventricular failure
..
6.1 Haemodynamic and respiratory .. Acute RV failure with resulting low systemic output is the leading
support .. cause of death in patients with high-risk PE. The principles of acute
..
6.1.1 Oxygen therapy and ventilation .. right heart failure management have been reviewed in a statement
.. from the Heart Failure Association and the Working Group on
Hypoxaemia is one of the features of severe PE, and is mostly due to ..
the mismatch between ventilation and perfusion. Administration of .. Pulmonary Circulation and Right Ventricular Function of the ESC.68
.. An overview of the current treatment options for acute RV failure is
supplemental oxygen is indicated in patients with PE and SaO2 <90%. ..
Severe hypoxaemia/respiratory failure that is refractory to conven- .. provided in Table 9.
.. If the central venous pressure is low, modest (<_500 mL) fluid chal-
tional oxygen supplementation could be explained by right-to-left ..
shunt through a patent foramen ovale or atrial septal defect.67 .. lenge can be used as it may increase the cardiac index in patients with
.. acute PE.238 However, volume loading has the potential to over-
Further oxygenation techniques should also be considered, including ..
high-flow oxygen (i.e. a high-flow nasal cannula)236,237 and mechanical .. distend the RV and ultimately cause a reduction in systemic CO.239
.. Experimental studies suggest that aggressive volume expansion is of
ventilation (non-invasive or invasive) in cases of extreme instability ..
(i.e. cardiac arrest), taking into consideration that correction of hypo- .. no benefit and may even worsen RV function.240 Cautious volume
.. loading may be appropriate if low arterial pressure is combined with
xaemia will not be possible without simultaneous pulmonary ..
reperfusion. .. an absence of elevated filling pressures. Assessment of central venous
.. pressure by ultrasound imaging of the IVC (a small and/or collapsible
Patients with RV failure are frequently hypotensive or are highly ..
susceptible to the development of severe hypotension during induc- .. IVC in the setting of acute high-risk PE indicates low volume status)
.. or, alternatively, by central venous pressure monitoring may help
tion of anaesthesia, intubation, and positive-pressure ventilation. ..
Consequently, intubation should be performed only if the patient is
.. guide volume loading. If signs of elevated central venous pressure are
.. observed, further volume loading should be withheld.
unable to tolerate or cope with non-invasive ventilation. When feasi- ..
ble, non-invasive ventilation or oxygenation through a high-flow nasal
.. Use of vasopressors is often necessary, in parallel with (or while
.. waiting for) pharmacological, surgical, or interventional reperfusion
cannula should be preferred; if mechanical ventilation is used, care ..
should be taken to limit its adverse haemodynamic effects. In particu-
.. treatment. Norepinephrine can improve systemic haemodynamics
..
lar, positive intrathoracic pressure induced by mechanical ventilation .. by bringing about an improvement in ventricular systolic interaction
.. and coronary perfusion, without causing a change in PVR.240 Its use
may reduce venous return and worsen low CO due to RV failure in ..
patients with high-risk PE; therefore, positive end-expiratory pres- .. should be limited to patients in cardiogenic shock. Based on the
.. results of a small series, the use of dobutamine may be considered
sure should be applied with caution. Tidal volumes of approximately ..
6 mL/kg lean body weight should be used in an attempt to keep the .. for patients with PE, a low cardiac index, and normal BP; however,
.. raising the cardiac index may aggravate the ventilation/perfusion mis-
end-inspiratory plateau pressure <30 cm H2O. If intubation is ..
needed, anaesthetic drugs more prone to cause hypotension should .. match by further redistributing flow from (partly) obstructed to
.. unobstructed vessels.241 Although experimental data suggest that
be avoided for induction. .
ESC Guidelines 23
..
dosing of UFH is adjusted based on the activated partial thrombo- .. anticoagulation control and may be associated with a reduced risk of
plastin time (Supplementary Data Table 7).266 .. bleeding, but does not reduce the risk of thromboembolic events or
..
.. mortality.272
.. The implementation of a structured anticoagulant service (most
6.2.2 Non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants ..
NOACs are small molecules that directly inhibit one activated coagu-
.. commonly, anticoagulant clinics) appears to be associated with
.. increased time in the therapeutic range and improved clinical out-
lation factor, which is thrombin for dabigatran and factor Xa for apix- ..
.. come, compared with control of anticoagulation by the general prac-
..
limitation, or CTEPH at long-term follow-up. A small randomized .. treatment and a catheter-based therapy combining ultrasound-
trial of 83 patients suggested that thrombolysis might improve func- .. based clot fragmentation with low-dose in situ thrombolysis in 59
..
tional capacity at 3 months compared with anticoagulation alone.278 .. patients with intermediate-risk PE. In that study, ultrasound-
In the PEITHO trial,179 mild persisting symptoms, mainly dyspnoea, .. assisted thrombolysis was associated with a larger decrease in the
..
were present in 33% of the patients at long-term (at 41.6 ± 15.7 .. RV/LV diameter ratio at 24 h, without an increased risk of bleed-
months) clinical follow-up.288 However, the majority of patients .. ing.293 Data from two prospective cohort studies294,295 and a
..
(85% in the tenecteplase arm and 96% in the placebo arm) had a low .. registry,296 with a total of 352 patients, support the improvement
or intermediate probability—based on the ESC Guidelines defini- .. in RV function, lung perfusion, and PAP in patients with intermedi-
..
tion289—of persisting or new-onset PH at echocardiographic follow- .. ate- or high-risk PE using this technique. Intracranial haemorrhage
up.288 Consequently, the findings of this study do not support a role
.. was rare, although the rate of Global Utilization of Streptokinase
..
for thrombolysis with the aim of preventing long-term sequelae (sec- .. and Tissue Plasminogen Activator for Occluded Coronary
tion 10) after intermediate-risk PE, although they are limited by the
.. Arteries (GUSTO) severe and moderate bleeding complications
..
fact that clinical follow-up was available for only 62% of the study .. was 10% in one of these cohorts.294 These results should be inter-
population.
.. preted with caution, considering the relatively small numbers of
..
.. patients treated, the lack of studies directly comparing catheter-
.. directed with systemic thrombolytic therapy, and the lack of data
..
6.3.2 Percutaneous catheter-directed treatment .. from RCTs on clinical efficacy outcomes.
Mechanical reperfusion is based on the insertion of a catheter into ..
..
the pulmonary arteries via the femoral route. Different types of cath- ..
eters (summarized in Supplementary Data Table 11) are used for .. 6.3.3 Surgical embolectomy
..
mechanical fragmentation, thrombus aspiration, or more commonly .. Surgical embolectomy in acute PE is usually carried out with car-
a pharmacomechanical approach combining mechanical or ultra- .. diopulmonary bypass, without aortic cross-clamping and cardio-
..
sound fragmentation of the thrombus with in situ reduced-dose .. plegic cardiac arrest, followed by incision of the two main
thrombolysis. .. pulmonary arteries with the removal or suction of fresh clots.
..
Most knowledge about catheter-based embolectomy is derived .. Recent reports have indicated favourable surgical results in high-
from registries and pooled results from case series.290,291 The .. risk PE, with or without cardiac arrest, and in selected cases of
..
overall procedural success rates (defined as haemodynamic stabi- .. intermediate-risk PE.297300 Among 174 322 patients hospital-
lization, correction of hypoxia, and survival to hospital discharge) .. ized between 1999 and 2013 with a diagnosis of PE in New York
..
of percutaneous catheter-based therapies reported in these stud- .. state, survival and recurrence rates were compared between
ies have reached 87%;292 however, these results may be subject to
.. patients who underwent thrombolysis (n = 1854) or surgical
..
publication bias. One RCT compared conventional heparin-based . embolectomy (n = 257) as first-line therapy.297 Overall, there
26 ESC Guidelines
..
was no difference between the two types of reperfusion treat- .. filter was associated with a significant reduction in the risk of
ment regarding 30 day mortality (15 and 13%, respectively), but .. recurrent PE and a significant increase in the risk of DVT, without
..
thrombolysis was associated with a higher risk of stroke and re- .. a significant difference in the risk of recurrent VTE or death.303,304
intervention at 30 days. No difference was found in terms of 5 .. The PREPIC-2 trial randomized 399 patients with PE and venous
..
year actuarial survival, but thrombolytic therapy was associated .. thrombosis to receive anticoagulant treatment, with or without a
with a higher rate of recurrent PE requiring readmission compared .. retrievable vena cava filter. In this study, the rate of recurrent VTE
..
.. was low in both groups and did not differ between groups.302 A
6.7 Recommendations for acute-phase treatment of 6.8 Recommendations for multidisciplinary pulmonary
intermediate- or low-risk pulmonary embolism embolism teams
NOACs are not recommended in patients with IVC filters should be considered in cases of PE
d recurrence despite therapeutic IIa C
severe renal impairment, during pregnancy and
III C anticoagulation.
lactation, and in patients with antiphospholipid
antibody syndrome. 260,261,312314 Routine use of IVC filters is not
III A
Reperfusion treatment recommended.302304
Rescue thrombolytic therapy is recommended IVC = inferior vena cava; PE = pulmonary embolism.
a
for patients with haemodynamic deterioration I B Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
on anticoagulation treatment.282
As an alternative to rescue thrombolytic ther-
apy, surgical embolectomye or percutaneous
catheter-directed treatmente should be con- IIa C
6.10 Recommendations for early discharge and home
sidered for patients with haemodynamic dete- treatment
rioration on anticoagulation treatment.
Routine use of primary systemic thrombolysis Recommendation Classa Levelb
is not recommended in patients with inter- III B
Carefully selected patients with low-risk PE
mediate- or low-risk PE.c,f 179
should be considered for early discharge and
CrCl = creatinine clearance; INR = international normalized ratio; LMWH = continuation of treatment at home, if proper IIa A
low-molecular weight heparin; NOAC(s) = non-vitamin K antagonist oral antico- outpatient care and anticoagulant treatment
agulant(s); PE = pulmonary embolism; UFH = unfractionated heparin; VKA = vita-
min K antagonist.
can be provided.c 178,206,317319
a
Class of recommendation.
b PE = pulmonary embolism.
Level of evidence. a
c Class of recommendation.
See Table 8 for definition of the PE severity and PE-related risk. b
d Level of evidence.
Dabigatran is not recommended in patients with CrCl <30 mL/min. Edoxaban c
See section 7 and Figure 6 for further guidance on defining low-risk PE and deci-
should be given at a dose of 30 mg once daily in patients with CrCl of 15 - 50 mL/
sion-making.
min and is not recommended in patients with CrCl <15 mL/min. Rivaroxaban
and apixaban are to be used with caution in patients with CrCl 15 - 29 mL/min,
and their use is not recommended in patients with CrCl <15 mL/min.
e
If appropriate expertise and resources are available on-site.
f
The risk-to-benefit ratios of surgical embolectomy or catheter-directed proce-
dures have not yet been established in intermediate- or low-risk PE.
28 ESC Guidelines
..
lar retrieval of the permanent filter, or percutaneous nephrostomy .. diagnosis. These strategies have been tested in patients presenting
or ureteral stent placement.306 Further reported complications .. with suspected PE in the emergency department or during their hos-
..
include filter fracture and/or embolization, and DVT occasionally .. pital stay,101,164,171,320 and more recently in the primary care set-
extending up to the vena cava.303,307,308 .. ting.111 Withholding of anticoagulation without adherence to
..
.. evidence-based diagnostic strategies was associated with a significant
.. increase in the number of VTE episodes and sudden cardiac death at
..
.. 3 month follow-up.12 The most straightforward diagnostic algorithms
Bedside TTE b
RV dysfunction?c
No Yes
Nod Yes
CTPA
Positive Negative
Figure 4 Diagnostic algorithm for patients with suspected high-risk pulmonary embolism presenting with haemodynamic instability.
CTPA = computed tomography pulmonary angiography; CUS = compression ultrasonography; DVT = deep vein thrombosis; LV = left ventricle;
PE = pulmonary embolism; RV = right ventricle; TOE = transoesophageal echocardiography; TTE = transthoracic echocardiogram.
a
See Table 4 for definition of haemodynamic instability and high-risk PE.
b
Ancillary bedside imaging tests may include TOE, which may detect emboli in the pulmonary artery and its main branches; and bilateral venous CUS,
which may confirm DVT and thus VTE.
c
In the emergency situation of suspected high-risk PE, this refers mainly to a RV/LV diameter ratio >1.0; the echocardiographic findings of RV dysfunction,
and the corresponding cut-off levels, are graphically presented in Figure 3, and their prognostic value summarized in Supplementary Data Table 3.
d
Includes the cases in which the patient’s condition is so critical that it only allows bedside diagnostic tests. In such cases, echocardiographic findings of RV
dysfunction confirm high-risk PE and emergency reperfusion therapy is recommended
ESC Guidelines 29
D-dimer test
Negative Positive
CTPA CTPA
No PE PE confirmedd No PE PE confirmedd
©ESC 2019
furthere
Figure 5 Diagnostic algorithm for patients with suspected pulmonary embolism without haemodynamic instability.
CTPA = computed tomography pulmonary angiography/angiogram; PE = pulmonary embolism.
a
The proposed diagnostic strategy for pregnant women with suspected acute PE is discussed in section 9.
b
Two alternative classification schemes may be used for clinical probability assessment, i.e. a three-level scheme (clinical probability defined as low, inter-
mediate, or high) or a two-level scheme (PE unlikely or PE likely). When using a moderately sensitive assay, D-dimer measurement should be restricted to
patients with low clinical probability or a PE-unlikely classification, while highly sensitive assays may also be used in patients with intermediate clinical proba-
bility of PE due to a higher sensitivity and negative predictive value. Note that plasma D-dimer measurement is of limited use in suspected PE occurring in
hospitalized patients.
c
Treatment refers to anticoagulation treatment for PE.
d
CTPA is considered diagnostic of PE if it shows PE at the segmental or more proximal level.
e
In case of a negative CTPA in patients with high clinical probability, investigation by further imaging tests may be considered before withholding PE-specific
treatment.
..
The diagnostic strategy for suspected acute PE in pregnancy is dis- .. the (rare) visualization of right heart thrombi.155,157,321,322 Ancillary
cussed in section 9. .. bedside imaging tests include TOE, which may allow direct visualiza-
..
.. tion of thrombi in the pulmonary artery and its main branches, espe-
7.1.1 Suspected pulmonary embolism with
.. cially in patients with RV dysfunction. TOE should be cautiously
..
haemodynamic instability .. performed in hypoxaemic patients. Moreover, bedside CUS can
The proposed strategy is shown in Figure 4. The clinical probability is
.. detect proximal DVT. As soon as the patient is stabilized using sup-
..
usually high and the differential diagnosis includes cardiac tampo- .. portive treatment, final confirmation of the diagnosis by CT angiog-
nade, acute coronary syndrome, aortic dissection, acute valvular
.. raphy should be sought.
..
dysfunction, and hypovolaemia. The most useful initial test in this sit- .. For unstable patients admitted directly to the catheterization labo-
uation is bedside TTE, which will yield evidence of acute RV dysfunc-
.. ratory with suspected acute coronary syndrome, pulmonary angiog-
..
tion if acute PE is the cause of the patient’s haemodynamic .. raphy may be considered as a diagnostic procedure after the acute
.. coronary syndrome has been excluded, provided that PE is a prob-
decompensation. In a highly unstable patient, echocardiographic evi- ..
dence of RV dysfunction is sufficient to prompt immediate reperfu- .. able diagnostic alternative and particularly if percutaneous catheter-
.. directed treatment is a therapeutic option.
sion without further testing. This decision may be strengthened by ..
30 ESC Guidelines
..
7.1.2 Suspected pulmonary embolism without .. parenteral to oral anticoagulation. As patients belonging to this risk
haemodynamic instability .. category were excluded from the phase III NOAC trials, the optimal
..
7.1.2.1 Strategy based on computed tomographic pulmonary .. time point for this transition has not been determined by existing evi-
angiography .. dence but should instead be based on clinical judgement. The specifi-
..
The proposed strategy based on CTPA is shown in Figure 5. In patients .. cations concerning the higher initial dose of apixaban or rivaroxaban
admitted to the emergency department, measurement of plasma D- .. (for 1 and 3 weeks after PE diagnosis, respectively), or the minimum
..
..
Figure 6 Central Illustration. Risk-adjusted management strategy for acute pulmonary embolism.
CTPA = computed tomography pulmonary angiography/angiogram; PE = pulmonary embolism; PESI = Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index; RV = right
ventricular; sPESI = simplified Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index; TTE = transthoracic echocardiogram.
a
See also emergency management algorithm shown in the online Supplementary Data.
b
Refer to Table 8 for definition of high, intermediate-high-, intermediate-low-, and low-risk PE.
c
Cancer, heart failure and chronic lung disease are included in the PESI and sPESI (Table 7).
d
See Supplementary Data Table 12 for the Hestia criteria.
e
Prognostically relevant imaging (TTE or CTPA) findings in patients with acute PE, are graphically presented in Figure 3.
f
A cardiac troponin test may already have been performed during initial diagnostic work-up.
g
Included in the Hestia criteria.
32 ESC Guidelines
..
slightly different criteria or combinations thereof were used to .. Overall, 20% of the screened unselected patients with PE were
ensure the above three requirements. .. included. At the predefined interim analysis of 525 patients (50%
..
The Hestia exclusion criteria (Supplementary Data Table 12) .. of the planned population), the 3 month rate of symptomatic or
represent a checklist of clinical parameters or questions that can .. fatal recurrent VTE was 0.6% (one-sided upper 99.6% CI 2.1%),
..
be obtained/answered at the bedside. They integrate aspects of .. permitting the early rejection of the null hypothesis and termina-
PE severity, comorbidity, and the feasibility of home treatment. If .. tion of the trial. Major bleeding occurred in six (1.2%) of the
..
..
Table 11 Categorization of risk factors for venous thromboembolism based on the risk of recurrence over the long-
term
bowel disease
Non-malignant persistent risk factors
• Active autoimmune disease
No risk factor
• Active cancer
©ESC 2019
• One or more previous episodes of VTE in the absence
High (>8% per year)
of a major transient or reversible factor
• Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome
8.1 Assessment of venous .. absence of any identifiable risk factor (the present Guidelines avoid
..
thromboembolism recurrence risk .. terms such as ‘unprovoked’ or ‘idiopathic’ VTE); (iv) patients with one
..
The risk for recurrent VTE after discontinuation of treatment is .. or more previous episodes of VTE, and those with a major persistent
related to the features of the index PE (or, in the broader sense, .. pro-thrombotic condition such as antiphospholipid antibody syn-
..
VTE) event. A study, which followed patients after a first episode of .. drome; and (v) patients with active cancer.338
acute PE, found that the recurrence rate after discontinuation of .. Table 11 shows examples of transient/reversible and persistent
..
treatment was 2.5% per year after PE associated with transient risk .. risk factors for VTE, classified by the risk of long-term recurrence.
factors, compared with 4.5% per year after PE occurring in the .. As active cancer is a major risk factor for recurrence of VTE, but
..
absence of known cancer, known thrombophilia, or any transient risk .. also for bleeding while on anticoagulant treatment,339 section 8.4 is
factor.331 Similar observations were made in other prospective stud- .. specifically dedicated to the management of PE in patients with
..
ies in patients with DVT.337 Advancing the concept further, random- .. cancer.
ized anticoagulation trials over the past 15 years, which have focused .. Overall, assessment of the VTE recurrence risk after acute PE, in
..
on secondary VTE prevention, have classified patients into distinct .. the absence of a major transient or reversible risk factor, is a complex
groups based on their risk of VTE recurrence after discontinuation of
.. issue. Beyond the examples listed in Table 11, patients who are car-
..
anticoagulant treatment. In general, these groups are: (i) patients in .. riers of some forms of hereditary thrombophilia, notably those with
whom a strong (major) transient or reversible risk factor, most com-
.. confirmed deficiency of antithrombin, protein C, or protein S, and
..
monly major surgery or trauma, can be identified as being responsible .. patients with homozygous factor V Leiden or homozygous pro-
for the acute (index) episode; (ii) patients in whom the index episode
.. thrombin G20210A mutation, are often candidates for indefinite anti-
..
might be partly explained by the presence of a weak (minor) transient .. coagulant treatment after a first episode of PE occurring in the
or reversible risk factor, or if a non-malignant risk factor for thrombo-
.. absence of a major reversible risk factor. In view of these possible
..
sis persists; (iii) patients in whom the index episode occurred in the .. implications, testing for thrombophilia (including antiphospholipid
.
34 ESC Guidelines
..
antibodies and lupus anticoagulant)342 may be considered in patients .. with NOACs is not without risk. Phase III clinical trials on the
in whom VTE occurs at a young age (e.g. aged <50 years) and in the .. extended treatment of VTE have shown that the rate of major
..
absence of an otherwise identifiable risk factor, especially when this .. bleeding may be 1%, and that of clinically relevant non-major
occurs against the background of a strong family history of VTE. In .. (CRNM) bleeding as high as 6%. Bleeding rates may be higher in
..
such cases, testing may help to tailor the regimen and dose of the .. everyday clinical practice.348,349
anticoagulant agent over the long-term. On the other hand, no evi- .. The NOAC trials that focused on extended VTE treatment are
..
..
..
associated with a 3035% reduction in the risk of recurrence com- .. in 615 patients with a first VTE event without an identifiable risk fac-
pared with placebo (Supplementary Data Table 15).355,356 However, .. tor, who had completed 312 months of oral anticoagulant treat-
..
more recently, another trial demonstrated the superiority of anticoa- .. ment (Supplementary Data Table 15).357 Sulodexide reduced the risk
gulation with rivaroxaban, either 20 or 10 mg o.d., over aspirin for
.. of recurrence by 50% with no apparent increase in bleeding events.
..
secondary prophylaxis of VTE recurrence.352 .. However, only 8% of patients in this study had PE as the index VTE
A randomized, placebo controlled study evaluated sulodexide (2
.. event.357
..
250 lipasemic unit capsules b.i.d.) for the prevention of recurrence ..
Therapeutic anticoagulation for >_ 3 months is recommended for all patients with PE.347 I A
Patients in whom discontinuation of anticoagulation after 3 months is recommended
For patients with first PE/VTE secondary to a major transient/reversible risk factor, discontinuation of therapeutic oral
I B
anticoagulation is recommended after 3 months.331,340,341
Patients in whom extension of anticoagulation beyond 3 months is recommended
Oral anticoagulant treatment of indefinite duration is recommended for patients presenting with recurrent VTE (that is,
I B
with at least one previous episode of PE or DVT) not related to a major transient or reversible risk factor.358
Oral anticoagulant treatment with a VKA for an indefinite period is recommended for patients with antiphospholipid anti-
I B
body syndrome.359
Patients in whom extension of anticoagulation beyond 3 months should be consideredc,d
Extended oral anticoagulation of indefinite duration should be considered for patients with a first episode of PE and no
IIa A
identifiable risk factor.330,331,347,351353
Extended oral anticoagulation of indefinite duration should be considered for patients with a first episode of PE associated
IIa C
with a persistent risk factor other than antiphospholipid antibody syndrome.330,352,353
Extended oral anticoagulation of indefinite duration should be considered for patients with a first episode of PE associated
IIa C
with a minor transient or reversible risk factor.330,331,352
NOAC dose in extended anticoagulatione
If extended oral anticoagulation is decided after PE in a patient without cancer, a reduced dose of the NOACs apixaban
IIa A
(2.5 mg b.i.d.) or rivaroxaban (10 mg o.d.) should be considered after 6 months of therapeutic anticoagulation.352,353
Extended treatment with alternative antithrombotic agents
In patients who refuse to take or are unable to tolerate any form of oral anticoagulants, aspirin or sulodexide may be con-
IIb B
sidered for extended VTE prophylaxis.355357
Follow-up of the patient under anticoagulation
In patients who receive extended anticoagulation, it is recommended that their drug tolerance and adherence, hepatic and
I C
renalf function, and bleeding risk be reassessed at regular intervals.259
b.i.d. = bis in die (twice a day); DVT = deep vein thrombosis; NOAC(s) = non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulant(s); o.d. = omni die (once a day); PE = pulmonary embo-
lism; VKA = vitamin K antagonist; VTE = venous thromboembolism.
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
The patient’s bleeding risk should be assessed (see Supplementary Data Table 14 for prediction models) to identify and treat modifiable bleeding risk factors, and it may influ-
ence decision-making on the duration and regimen/dose of anticoagulant treatment.
d
Refer to Supplementary Data Table 9 for therapeutic decisions in specific clinical situations.
e
If dabigatran or edoxaban is chosen for extended anticoagulation after PE, the dose should remain unchanged, as reduced-dose regimens were not investigated in dedicated
extension trials.313,350
f
Especially for patients receiving NOACs.
36 ESC Guidelines
8.6 Recommendations for the regimen and the duration of anticoagulation after pulmonary embolism in patients with
active cancer
For patients with PE and cancer, weight-adjusted subcutaneous LMWH should be considered for the first 6 months over
IIa A
VKAs.360363
DVT = deep vein thrombosis; LMWH = low-molecular weight heparin; PE = pulmonary embolism; VKAs = vitamin K antagonists.
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
Refer to Supplementary Data Table 9 for further guidance on therapeutic decisions after the first 6 months.
..
9 Pulmonary embolism and .. prevalence of confirmed PE is low among women investigated for
.. the disease, between 2 and 7%.385388 D-dimer levels continu-
pregnancy ..
.. ously increase during pregnancy,389,390 and levels are above the
.. threshold for VTE ‘rule-out’ in almost one-quarter of pregnant
9.1 Epidemiology and risk factors for .. women in the third trimester.390 The results of a multinational
..
pulmonary embolism in pregnancy .. prospective management study of 441 pregnant women present-
Acute PE remains one of the leading causes of maternal death in ..
.. ing to emergency departments with clinically suspected PE sug-
high-income countries.379,380 For example, in the UK and Ireland, .. gest that a diagnostic strategybased on the assessment of
thrombosis and thromboembolism were the most common ..
.. clinical probability, D-dimer measurement, CUS, and
causes of direct maternal death (death resulting from the preg- .. CTPAmay safely exclude PE in pregnancy.388 In that study, PE
nancy rather than pre-existing conditions) in the triennium ..
.. exclusion on the basis of a negative D-dimer result (without
201315, resulting in 1.13 mortalities per 100 000 maternities .. imaging) was possible in 11.7% of the 392 women with a non-high
(https://www.npeu.ox.ac.uk/mbrrace-uk). VTE risk is higher in ..
.. pre-test probability (Geneva) score, a rate that was reduced to
pregnant women compared with non-pregnant women of similar .. 4.2% in the third trimester.388 A further prospective management
age; it increases during pregnancy and reaches a peak during the ..
.. study evaluated a combination of a pregnancy-adapted YEARS
post-partum period.381 The baseline pregnancy-related .. algorithm with D-dimer levels in 498 women with suspected PE
risk increases further in the presence of additional VTE risk fac-
..
.. during pregnancy. PE was ruled out without CTPA in women
tors, including in vitro fertilization: in a cross-sectional study .. deemed to be at low PE risk according to the combination of the
derived from a Swedish registry, the HR for VTE following in vitro
..
.. algorithm and D-dimer results. At 3 months, only one woman
fertilization was 1.77 (95% CI 1.412.23) overall and 4.22 (95% .. with PE excluded on the basis of the algorithm developed a popli-
CI 2.467.20) during the first trimester.382 Other important and
..
.. teal DVT (0.21%, 95% CI 0.041.2) and no women developed
common risk factors include prior VTE, obesity, medical comor- .. PE.391
bidities, stillbirth, pre-eclampsia, post-partum haemorrhage, and ...
..
caesarean section; documented risk assessment is therefore .. 9.2.2 Imaging tests
essential.383 ..
.. A proposed algorithm for the investigation of suspected PE in
The recommendations provided in these Guidelines are in line .. women who are pregnant, or <_6 weeks post-partum, is shown in
with those included in the 2018 ESC Guidelines on the management ..
.. Figure 7. Both maternal and foetal radiation exposure are low
of cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy.384 ..
.. using modern imaging techniques (Table 12).385,392398 For V/Q
.. scans and CTPA, foetal radiation doses are well below the
9.2 Diagnosis of pulmonary embolism in .. threshold associated with foetal radiation complications (which
..
pregnancy .. is 50100 mSv).399,400 In the past, CTPA has been reported to
9.2.1 Clinical prediction rules and D-dimers
.. cause high radiation exposure to the breast;395,401 however, CT
..
Diagnosis of PE during pregnancy can be challenging as symptoms .. technology has evolved, and several techniques can now reduce
frequently overlap with those of normal pregnancy. The overall
.. radiation exposure without compromising image quality. These
38 ESC Guidelines
• Chest X-raya
• Compression proximal duplex ultrasound,
if symptoms or signs suggestive of DVTb
Proximal DVT not present
Positive
©ESC 2019
Figure 7 Diagnostic workup and management of suspected pulmonary embolism during pregnancy, and up to 6 weeks post-partum.
CTPA = computed tomography pulmonary angiography; CUS = compression ultrasonography; DVT = deep vein thrombosis; LMWH = low-molecular-
weight heparin; PE = pulmonary embolism.
a
If chest X-ray abnormal, consider also alternative cause of chest symptoms.
b
DVT in pelvic veins may not be ruled out by CUS. If the entire leg is swollen, or there is buttock pain or other symptoms suggestive of pelvic thrombosis,
consider magnetic resonance venography to rule out DVT.
c
CTPA technique must ensure very low foetal radiation exposure (see Table 12).
d
Perform full blood count (to measure haemoglobin and platelet count) and calculate creatinine clearance before administration. Assess bleeding risk and
ensure absence of contra-indications.
e
See Table 8.
..
include reducing the anatomical coverage of the scan,393 reducing .. safe for ruling out PE in pregnancy, as suggested by retrospective
the kilovoltage, using iterative reconstructive techniques, and .. series.385,386,402404 Inconclusive results can be a problem
..
reducing the contrast-monitoring component of the .. (433% of investigations),385,386,405 especially late in preg-
CTPA.392,393 Modern CTPA imaging techniques may therefore .. nancy.405 A recent survey of 24 sites in the UK, representing a
..
expose the maternal breast to median doses as low as 34 mGy .. population of 15.5 million, revealed a similar rate of inadequate or
(Table 12).392 The effect on maternal cancer risk with modern .. indeterminate CTPA and scintigraphy scans, suggesting that the
..
CTPA techniques is negligible (lifetime cancer risk is reportedly .. initial choice of imaging is best determined by local expertise and
increased by a factor of 1.00031.0007); avoiding CTPA on the
.. resources.406
..
grounds of maternal cancer risk is therefore not justified.394 .. V/Q SPECT is associated with low foetal and maternal radiation
A normal perfusion scan and a negative CTPA appear equally
.. exposure, and has promise in PE diagnosis in pregnancy.407 However,
..
.
ESC Guidelines 39
..
Table 12 Estimated amounts of radiation absorbed in
.. anti-activated coagulation factor levels are lacking, and (iii) the assay
.. itself has limitations.414 In addition, there are no solid data on the clin-
procedures used to diagnose pulmonary embolism (based ..
on various references385,392–398) .. ical benefit vs. harm of frequent, weight-based dose adjustments of
.. LMWH during pregnancy. Thus, anti-activated coagulation factor X
Test Estimated Estimated maternal ..
foetal radiation radiation exposure .. monitoring may be reserved for specific high-risk circumstances such
.. as recurrent VTE, renal impairment, and extremes of body weight.
exposure to breast tissue ..
..
..
10 Long-term sequelae of .. appear to be attributable to ‘large’ residual thrombi, or persisting/
.. progressive PH and RV dysfunction. Ongoing prospective studies in
pulmonary embolism ..
.. large numbers of patients may help to better identify predictors of
.. functional and/or haemodynamic impairment after acute PE, and their
The patency of the pulmonary arterial bed is restored in the majority ..
of PE survivors within the first few months following the acute epi- .. possible implications for shaping follow-up programmes.438
.. As mentioned in section 6, it remains unclear whether early reper-
sode; therefore, no routine follow-up CTPA imaging is needed in ..
.. fusion treatment, notably thrombolysis, has an impact on clinical
Table 13 Risk factors and predisposing conditions for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension447449
Findings related to the acute PE event Concomitant chronic diseases and conditions predisposing to
(obtained at PE diagnosis) CTEPH (documented at PE diagnosis or at 36 month follow-up)
Previous episodes of PE or DVT Ventriculo-atrial shunts
Large pulmonary arterial thrombi on CTPA Infected chronic i.v. lines or pacemakers
Echocardiographic signs of PH/RV dysfunctiona
..
necessitates a true bilateral endarterectomy through the medial layer .. pulmonary arteries requires particular expertise, as the complexity
of the pulmonary arteries. It requires deep hypothermia and intermit- .. and individual variability of the pulmonary arterial tree greatly
..
tent circulatory arrest, without a need for cerebral perfusion.460,461 .. exceeds that of other vascular beds. Complications include wire- and
In-hospital mortality is currently as low as 4.7%462 and is even lower .. balloon-induced injury, which may result in intrapulmonary bleeding,
..
in high-volume single centres.463 The majority of patients experience .. haemoptysis, and reperfusion lung injury. Usually, bleeding resolves
substantial relief from symptoms and near-normalization of .. spontaneously, but sometimes it has to be controlled by transient
..
haemodynamics.461464 Owing to the complexity of both the surgical ..
..
Off-label combination of drugs approved for pulmonary arterial .. 10.3 Strategies for patient follow-up after
hypertension has been proposed for CTEPH patients presenting with ..
.. pulmonary embolism
severe haemodynamic compromise, but only limited prospective .. Figure 8 displays a proposed follow-up strategy for survivors of acute
data are available to date.470 ..
.. PE following discharge from hospital. Evaluation of the patients 36
Medical therapy is not indicated in symptomatic survivors of acute .. months after the acute PE episode is recommended to assess the
PE with documented post-thrombotic obstructions but an absence ..
.. persistence (or new onset) and severity of dyspnoea or functional
.. limitation, and to check for possible signs of VTE recurrence, cancer,
DIAGNOSIS OF ACUTE PE
Anticoagulate
work-up
Figure 8 Follow-up strategy and diagnostic workup for long-term sequelae of pulmonary embolism. CPET = cardiopulmonary exercise testing;
CTEPH = chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension; NT-proBNP = N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide;
PE = pulmonary embolism; PH = pulmonary hypertension; TTE = transthoracic echocardiography/echocardiogram; V/Q = ventilation/perfusion (lung scin-
tigraphy).
a
Assess the persistence (or new onset) and severity of dyspnoea or functional limitation, and also check for possible signs of VTE recurrence, cancer, or
bleeding complications of anticoagulation.
b
The Medical Research Council scale can be used to standardize the evaluation of dyspnoea;160 alternatively, the World Health Organization functional
class can be determined (Supplementary Data Table16).289
c
As defined by the ESC/ERS guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension (Supplementary Data Tables 17 and 18).289
d
Risk factors and predisposing conditions for CTEPH are listed in Table 13.
e
Cardiopulmonary exercise testing, if appropriate expertise and resources are available on site; abnormal results include, among others, reduced maximal
aerobic capacity (peak oxygen consumption), reduced ventilatory equivalent for carbon dioxide, and reduced end-tidal carbon dioxide pressure.
f
Consider CPET in the diagnostic work-up.
ESC Guidelines 45
..
(2) If you suspect acute PE, institute anticoagulation therapy as soon ..
..
13 Gaps in the evidence
as possible, while the diagnostic workup is ongoing, unless the
.. Diagnosis
patient is bleeding or has absolute contraindications to this ..
therapy. ..
.. • The optimal method to adjust (based on the patient’s age or in
(3) Use recommended, validated diagnostic algorithms for PE, includ- .. combination with clinical probability) the D-dimer threshold, per-
ing standardized assessment of (pre-test) clinical probability and ..
.. mitting the exclusion of PE while reducing the number of
..
• The evidence supporting the efficacy and safety of NOACs for .. more precise information on the risks and complications of these
..
the treatment of PE in patients with cancer needs to be .. drugs, and adapt the instructions to physicians in the future.
extended by further studies. ..
• In patients with cancer, the anticoagulant regimen and dose after
.. Long-term sequelae of pulmonary embolism
..
the first 6 months should be clarified and prospectively tested. .. • The optimal follow-up strategy, including the spectrum of diag-
• The optimal time for discontinuing anticoagulant treatment after ..
.. nostic tests that may be necessary, in patients with persisting
an episode of acute PE in patients with cancer is yet to be .. symptoms and functional limitation after acute PE needs to be
Diagnosis Classa
In suspected high-risk PE, perform bedside echocardiography or emergency CTPA (depending on availability and clinical circumstan-
I
ces) for diagnosis.
In suspected high-risk PE, initiate intravenous anticoagulation with UFH without delay, including a weight-adjusted bolus injection. I
In suspected PE without haemodynamic instability, use validated diagnostic criteria. I
In suspected PE without haemodynamic instability, initiate anticoagulation in case of high or intermediate clinical probability, while
I
diagnostic workup is in progress.
Base the diagnostic strategy on clinical probability, using either clinical judgement or a validated prediction rule. I
Measure D-dimers in plasma, preferably with a highly sensitive assay, in outpatients/emergency department patients with low or inter-
I
mediate clinical probability, or who are PE-unlikely.
Reject the diagnosis of PE (without further testing) if CTPA is normal in a patient with low or intermediate clinical probability, or if
I
the patient is PE-unlikely.
Reject the diagnosis of PE (without further testing) if the perfusion lung scan is normal. I
Accept the diagnosis of PE if CTPA shows a segmental or more proximal filling defect in a patient with intermediate or high clinical
I
probability.
Accept the diagnosis of VTE if CUS shows a proximal DVT in a patient with clinical suspicion of PE. I
Do not measure D-dimers in patients with high clinical probability, as a normal result does not safely exclude PE. III
Do not perform CT venography as an adjunct to CTPA. III
Do not perform MRA to rule out PE. III
Risk assessment
Stratify patients with suspected or confirmed PE, based on the presence of haemodynamic instability, to identify those at high risk of
I
early mortality.
In patients without haemodynamic instability, further stratify PE into intermediate- and low-risk categories. I
Treatment in the acute phase
Administer systemic thrombolytic therapy to patients with high-risk PE. I
Surgical pulmonary embolectomy for patients with high-risk PE, in whom recommended thrombolysis is contraindicated or has failed. I
If anticoagulation is initiated parenterally in a patient without haemodynamic instability, prefer LMWH or fondaparinux over UFH. I
Continued
48 ESC Guidelines
When oral anticoagulation is initiated in a patient with PE who is eligible for a NOAC (apixaban, dabigatran, edoxaban, or rivaroxa-
I
ban), prefer a NOAC.
As an alternative to a NOAC, administer a VKA, overlapping with parenteral anticoagulation until an INR of 2.5 (range 2.03.0) has
I
been reached.
Administer rescue thrombolytic therapy to a patient with haemodynamic deterioration on anticoagulation treatment. I
Do not use NOACs in patients with severe renal impairment or in those with antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. III
CT = computed tomography; CTPA = computed tomographic pulmonary angiography/angiogram; CTEPH = Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension; CUS = com-
pression ultrasonography; DVT = deep vein thrombosis; INR = international normalized ratio; LMWH = low-molecular weight heparin; MRA = magnetic resonance angiogra-
phy; NOAC(s) = non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulant(s); PE = pulmonary embolism; UFH = unfractionated heparin; VKA = vitamin K antagonist; V/Q = ventilation/
perfusion (lung scintigraphy); VTE = venous thromboembolism.
a
Class of recommendation.
..
15 Supplementary data ..
..
Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands; Veli-
Pekka Harjola, Emergency Medicine, Department of Emergency
..
Supplementary Data with additional Web Supplementary Tables .. Medicine and Services, Helsinki University, Helsinki University
complementing the full text, as well as section 11 on non-thrombotic .. Hospital, Helsinki, Finland; Menno V. Huisman, Thrombosis and
..
PE, are available on the European Heart Journal website and via the .. Hemostasis, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands;
ESC website at www.escardio.org/guidelines. .. Marc Humbert, Service de Pneumologie, Hôpital Bic^etre,
..
.. Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université
.. Paris-Saclay, Le Kremlin-Bic^etre, France; Catriona Sian Jennings,
..
.. National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College London,
16 Appendix .. London, United Kingdom; David Jiménez, Respiratory Department,
..
Author/Task Force Member Affiliations: .. Ram on y Cajal Hospital and Alcala University, IRYCIS, Madrid, Spain;
.. Nils Kucher, Angiology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland;
Cecilia Becattini, Internal and Cardiovascular Medicine, University ..
of Perugia, Perugia, Italy; Héctor Bueno, Centro Nacional de .. Irene Marthe Lang, Cardiology, Medical University of Vienna,
.. Vienna, Austria; Mareike Lankeit, Department of Internal Medicine
Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Madrid, Spain; and Cardiology, ..
Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre & iþ12 Research Institute,
.. and Cardiology, Campus Virchow Klinikum, CharitéUniversity
.. Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany; and Center for Thrombosis and
Madrid, Spain; CIBERCV, Madrid, Spain; Geert-Jan Geersing, Julius ..
Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical
.. Hemostasis, University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Clinic
ESC Guidelines 49
..
of Cardiology and Pneumology, University Medical Center Göttingen, .. Society of Cardiology, George Giannakoulas; Hungary: Hungarian
Göttingen, Germany; Roberto Lorusso, Cardio-Thoracic Surgery .. Society of Cardiology, Endre Zima; Italy: Italian Federation of
..
Department, Heart and Vascular Centre, Maastricht University .. Cardiology, Carmine Dario Vizza; Kazakhstan: Association of
Medical Centre (MUMC), Cardiovascular Research Institute .. Cardiologists of Kazakhstan, Akhmetzhan Sugraliyev; Kosovo
..
Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht, Netherlands; Lucia Mazzolai, .. (Republic of): Kosovo Society of Cardiology, Ibadete Bytyçi;
Department of Angiology, CHUV, Lausanne, Switzerland; Nicolas .. Latvia: Latvian Society of Cardiology, Aija Maca; Lithuania:
..
.. Lithuanian Society of Cardiology, Egle Ereminiene; Luxembourg:
Simpson (United Kingdom), Miguel Sousa-Uva (Portugal), Rhian M. .. acute deep vein thrombosis: a joint consensus document from the European Society
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