Biology

Douglas Wilkin, Ph.D.

Niamh Gray-Wilson

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AUTHORS
Douglas Wilkin, Ph.D.
To access a customizable version of this book, as well as other
Niamh Gray-Wilson
interactive content, visit www.ck12.org
CONTRIBUTOR
Jean Brainard, Ph.D.

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iii
Contents www.ck12.org

Contents

1 Cell 1
1.1 The Cell Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Cells - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Discovery of Cells - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Cell Size and Shape - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Common Parts of Cells - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6 Cell Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.7 Two Types of Cells - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8 The Nucleus - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.9 The Mitochondria - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.10 Ribosomes - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.11 Endoplasmic Reticulum - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.12 The Golgi Apparatus - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.13 Vesicles and Vacuoles - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.14 Other Structures of Cells - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.15 Plant Cells - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.16 The Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.17 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

2 Cell Cycle 58
2.1 Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.2 Mitosis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.3 Genetic Variation - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.4 Meiosis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.5 Significance of Mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.6 Significance of Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.7 Genetic Disorders - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3 Transport Mechanisms 90
3.1 The Cell Membrane: A Semi-Permeable Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2 Cell Transport - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.3 Diffusion - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.4 Facilitated Diffusion - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.5 Osmosis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.6 Active Transport - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.7 Exocytosis and Endocytosis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

4 Biological Molecules 115

4.1 Biological Molecules (organic compounds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.2 Carbohydrates - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

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4.3 Lipids - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

4.4 Proteins - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.5 Enzymes and Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.6 Nucleic Acids - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.7 Chemical Reactions - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.8 Solutions - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.9 How Enzymes Speed Up the Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

5 Energy Transformation 160

5.1 Energy Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.2 Energy Carrying Molecules - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.3 Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.4 Photosynthesis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5 The Photosynthesis Reaction - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.6 The Chloroplast - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.7 The Light Reactions - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.8 The Calvin Cycle - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.9 Chemosynthesis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.10 Cellular Respiration - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.11 Cellular Respiration Overview - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.12 Glycolysis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.13 The Mitochondria in Cellular Respiration - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.14 The Krebs Cycle - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.15 The Electron Transport Chain - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.16 Anaerobic Respiration - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.17 Lactic Acid Fermentation - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.18 Alcoholic Fermentation - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.19 Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
5.20 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

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3.5 Osmosis - Advanced

• Define osmosis.
• Distinguish between diffusion and osmosis.

Saltwater Fish vs. Freshwater Fish?

Fish cells, like all cells, have semi-permeable membranes. Eventually, the concentration of "stuff" on either side of
them will even out. A fish that lives in salt water will have somewhat salty water inside itself. Put it in the freshwater,
and the freshwater will, through osmosis, enter the fish, causing its cells to swell, and the fish will die. What will
happen to a freshwater fish in the ocean?

Osmosis

Imagine you have a cup that has 100ml water, and you add 15g of table sugar (sucrose, C12 H22 O11 ) to the water.
The sugar dissolves and the mixture that is now in the cup is made up of a solute (the sugar), that is dissolved in the

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solvent (the water). The mixture of a solute in a solvent is called a solution.

Imagine now that you have a second cup with 100ml of water, and you add 45 grams of sucrose to the water. Just
like the first cup, the sugar is the solute, and the water is the solvent. But now you have two mixtures of different
solute concentrations. In comparing two solutions of unequal solute concentration, the solution with the higher
solute concentration is hypertonic, and the solution with the lower concentration is hypotonic. Solutions of equal
solute concentration are isotonic. The first sugar solution is hypotonic to the second solution. The second sugar
solution is hypertonic to the first.
You now add the two solutions to a beaker that has been divided by a selectively permeable membrane. The pores
in the membrane are too small for the sugar molecules to pass through, but are big enough for the water molecules
to pass through. The hypertonic solution is on one side of the membrane and the hypotonic solution on the other.
The hypertonic solution has a lower water concentration than the hypotonic solution, so a concentration gradient of
water now exists across the membrane. Water molecules will move from the side of higher water concentration to
the side of lower concentration until both solutions are isotonic.

What if the two solutions being compared are on either side of a cell membrane? A hypertonic solution is one having
a larger concentration of a substance on the outside of a cell than is found within the cells themselves. A hypotonic
solution contains a lesser concentration of impermeable solutes outside the cell compared to within the cell.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration. Water moves into and out of cells by osmosis. If a cell is in a
hypertonic solution, the solution has a lower water concentration than the cell cytosol does, and water moves out
of the cell until both solutions are isotonic. Cells placed in a hypotonic solution will take in water across their
membrane until both the external solution and the cytosol are isotonic.
A cell that does not have a rigid cell wall (such as a red blood cell), will swell and lyse (burst) when placed in a
hypotonic solution. Cells with a cell wall will swell when placed in a hypotonic solution, but once the cell is turgid
(firm), the tough cell wall prevents any more water from entering the cell. When placed in a hypertonic solution, a
cell without a cell wall will lose water to the environment, shrivel, and probably die. In a hypertonic solution, a cell
with a cell wall will lose water too. The plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall as it shrivels, a process
called plasmolysis. Animal cells tend to do best in an isotonic environment, plant cells tend to do best in a hypotonic
environment. This is demonstrated in Figure 3.5.

Osmotic Pressure

When water moves into a cell by osmosis, osmotic pressure may build up inside the cell. If a cell has a cell wall, the
wall helps maintain the cell’s water balance. Osmotic pressure is the main cause of support in many plants. When a
plant cell is in a hypotonic environment, the osmotic entry of water raises the turgor pressure exerted against the cell
wall until the pressure prevents more water from coming into the cell. At this point the plant cell is turgid (Figure
3.6). The effects of osmotic pressures on plant cells are shown in Figure 3.5.
Osmosis can be seen very effectively when potato slices are added to a high concentration of salt solution (hyper-
tonic). The water from inside the potato moves out of the potato cells to the salt solution, which causes the potato

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FIGURE 3.5
Unless an animal cell (such as the red
blood cell in the top panel) has an adap-
tation that allows it to alter the osmotic
uptake of water, it will lose too much water
and shrivel up in a hypertonic environ-
ment. If placed in a hypotonic solution,
water molecules will enter the cell causing
it to swell and burst. Plant cells (bottom
panel) become plasmolyzed in a hyper-
tonic solution, but tend to do best in a
hypotonic environment. Water is stored in
the central vacuole of the plant cell.

FIGURE 3.6
The central vacuoles of the plant cells in
this image are full of water, so the cells
are turgid.

cells to lose turgor pressure. The more concentrated the salt solution, the greater the difference in the size and weight
of the potato slice after plasmolysis.
The action of osmosis can be very harmful to organisms, especially ones without cell walls. For example, if a
saltwater fish (whose cells are isotonic with seawater), is placed in fresh water, its cells will take on excess water,
lyse, and the fish will die. Another example of a harmful osmotic effect is the use of table salt to kill slugs and snails.

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3.5. Osmosis - Advanced www.ck12.org

Controlling Osmosis

Organisms that live in a hypotonic environment such as freshwater, need a way to prevent their cells from taking
in too much water by osmosis. A contractile vacuole is a type of vacuole that removes excess water from a
cell. Freshwater protists, such as the paramecia shown in Figure 3.7, have a contractile vacuole. The vacuole is
surrounded by several canals, which absorb water by osmosis from the cytoplasm. After the canals fill with water,
the water is pumped into the vacuole. When the vacuole is full, it pushes the water out of the cell through a pore.
Other protists, such as members of the genus Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles that move to the surface of the cell
when full and release the water into the environment.

FIGURE 3.7
The contractile vacuole is the star-like
structure within the paramecia.

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/155251

Summary

• Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a semipermeable membrane and down a concentration
gradient. They can move into or out of a cell, depending on the concentration of the solute.

Review

1. How does osmosis differ from diffusion?

2. What would cause the central vacuole of a plant cell to shrunk and become smaller than normal? What is the
likely solute concentration of the cells’ environment which has caused this change?

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www.ck12.org Chapter 3. Transport Mechanisms

3.6 Active Transport - Advanced

• Compare passive and active transport.

• Explain how different types of active transport occur.

Need to move something really heavy?

If you did, it would take a lot of energy. Sometimes, moving things into or out of the cell also takes energy. How
would the cell move something against a concentration gradient? It starts by using energy.

Active Transport

In contrast to facilitated diffusion which does not require energy and carries molecules or ions down a concentration
gradient, active transport pumps molecules and ions against a concentration gradient. Sometimes an organism needs
to transport something against a concentration gradient, such as specific ions, or glucose and amino acids. The
only way this can be done is through active transport which uses transport proteins and energy that is produced by
cellular respiration (ATP) or through an electrochemical gradient. In active transport, the particles move across
a cell membrane from a lower concentration to a higher concentration. Active transport is the energy-requiring
process of pumping molecules and ions across membranes "uphill" against a gradient. The active transport of
small molecules or ions across a cell membrane is generally carried out by transport proteins that are found in the
membrane. These transport proteins have receptor regions that bind to specific molecules and transport them into
the cell. Larger molecules such as starch can also be actively transported across the cell membrane by vesicular
transport processes.
During active transport, specialized integral membrane proteins recognize the substance and allows it access. Es-
sentially this process is forcing a ion or molecule to cross the membrane when normally it would not. Moving a
substance against its concentration gradient is known as primary active transport, and the proteins involved in it
as "pumps". This process uses the energy of ATP. In secondary active transport, energy from an electrochemical
gradient is used to transport substances. This process involves pore-forming proteins that form channels through the
cell membrane.

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Primary Active Transport

Primary active transport involves an integral membrane protein and the energy from ATP to transport molecules
across a membrane. This type of transport is mainly done by ATPases. ATPases are a class of enzymes that catalyze
the dephosphorylation of adenosine triphosphate into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a free phosphate ion. This
reaction releases energy, which is used to drive other chemical reactions that would not otherwise occur.
One ATPase necessary to all life is the sodium-potassium pump, which helps to maintain the cell potential. This
pump will be discussed in the Active Transport: The Sodium-Potassium Pump (Advanced) concept. Other sources of
energy for primary active transport are redox energy and photon energy (light energy). Redox energy is used in the
mitochondrial electron transport chain during cellular respiration. In this transport, the reduction energy of NADH
is used to move protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane against their concentration gradient. An example
of primary active transport using photon energy occurs during photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, proteins use
the energy of photons to create a proton gradient across the chloroplast thylakoid membrane. That energy is used to
pump H+ ions into the thylakoid.

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/93969

Secondary Active Transport

In secondary active transport, which is also known as cotransport, energy is used to transport molecules across
a membrane. However, in contrast to primary active transport, there is no direct coupling of ATP. Instead, the
electrochemical potential difference created by pumping ions out of the cell is used. The process is called cotransport
because one carrier protein mediates the transport of both substances. The two main forms of this are antiport and
symport.

Antiport and Symport

The difference between the two types of cotransport depends on the direction of transport of the molecules. A system
in which one substance moves in one direction while cotransporting another substance in the other direction is called
antiport. Symport is transport of two substrates in the same direction across the membrane. The protein involved
in this transport is a symporter. The protein involved in antiport is an antiporter.
The energy for these processes come from an electrochemical gradient. In such a gradient, one of the two substances
is transported in the direction of their concentration gradient,and the energy derived is used to transport the second
substance against its concentration gradient. Thus, energy stored in the electrochemical gradient of an ion is
used to drive the transport of another solute against a concentration or electrochemical gradient. In antiport,
one substance moves along its electrochemical gradient, allowing a different substance to move against its own
electrochemical gradient. This movement is in contrast to primary active transport, in which all solutes are moved
against their concentration gradients, fueled by ATP. In symport, one substance moves down the electrochemical
gradient, allowing the other molecule(s) to move against its concentration gradient. One substance moves by
facilitated diffusion, which is coupled with the active transport of the other substance.

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Summary

• Active transport moves molecules across a cell membrane from an area of lower concentration to an area of
higher concentration. Active transport requires the use of energy.
• The active transport of small molecules or ions across a cell membrane is generally carried out by transport
proteins that are found in the membrane.
• During antiport and symport two substances are cotransported.

Review

1. What is active transport?

2. Describe the main difference between primary and secondary active transport.
3. Explain antiport and symport.

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3.7. Exocytosis and Endocytosis - Advanced www.ck12.org

3.7 Exocytosis and Endocytosis - Advanced

• Explain how different types of active transport occur.

• Compare endocytosis and exocytosis.

What does a cell "eat"?

Is it possible for objects larger than a small molecule to be engulfed by a cell? Of course it is. This image
depicts a cancer cell being attacked by a cell of the immune system. Cells of the immune system consistently
destroy pathogens by essentially "eating" them. Just as cells can bring substances into the cell, they can also export
substances out of the cell.

Vesicles and Active Transport

Some molecules or particles are just too large to pass through the plasma membrane or to move through a transport
protein. So cells use two other active transport methods to move these macromolecules (large molecules) into or
out of the cell. Vesicles or other bodies in the cytoplasm move macromolecules or large particles across the plasma
membrane. There are two types of vesicle transport, endocytosis and exocytosis. These processes are active transport
mechanisms, therefore energy is required.

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Endocytosis is the process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the cell by engulfing it with the cell
membrane. The membrane folds over the substance and it becomes completely enclosed by the membrane. At this

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point a membrane-bound sac, or vesicle pinches off and moves the substance into the cytosol. There are two main
kinds of endocytosis:

• Phagocytosis or "cellular eating," occurs when the dissolved materials enter the cell. The plasma membrane
engulfs the solid material, forming a phagocytic vesicle.
• Pinocytosis or "cellular drinking," occurs when the plasma membrane folds inward to form a channel allowing
dissolved substances to enter the cell, as shown in Figure 3.8. When the channel is closed, the liquid is
encircled within a pinocytic vesicle.

FIGURE 3.8
Transmission electron microscope image
of brain tissue that shows pinocytotic vesi-
cles. Pinocytosis is a type of endocytosis.

Exocytosis describes the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and releasing their contents to the
outside of the cell, as shown in Figure 3.9. Exocytosis occurs when a cell produces substances for export, such as a
protein, or when the cell is getting rid of a waste product or a toxin. Newly made membrane proteins and membrane
lipids are moved to the plasma membrane by exocytosis.

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/183327

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Some substances are internalized after binding to a membrane-bound receptor. This process is known as receptor-
mediated endocytosis (RME). RME is a process by which cells internalize molecules by endocytosis. This occurs

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3.7. Exocytosis and Endocytosis - Advanced www.ck12.org

FIGURE 3.9
Illustration of the two types of vesicle
transport, exocytosis and endocytosis.
Endocytosis and exocytosis are types of
vesicle transport that carry very large
molecules across the cell membrane.

FIGURE 3.10
Illustration of an axon releasing dopamine
by exocytosis.

by the inward budding of plasma membrane vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules
being internalized. After the binding of a ligand to the plasma membrane-spanning receptors, a signal is sent through
the membrane, leading to membrane coating by the protein clathrin, and formation of a membrane invagination. The
receptor and its ligand are then internalized in clathrin-coated vesicles. RME is also known as clathrin-dependent
endocytosis, named after the clathrin protein that accumulates on the internal segment of membrane that will form
a vesicle.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 3. Transport Mechanisms

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/139338

Homeostasis and Cell Function

Homeostasis refers to the balance, or equilibrium within the cell or a body. It is an organism’s ability to keep a
constant internal environment. Keeping a stable internal environment requires constant adjustments as conditions
change inside and outside the cell. The adjusting of systems within a cell is called homeostatic regulation. Because
the internal and external environments of a cell are constantly changing, adjustments must be made continuously
to stay at or near the set point (the normal level or range). Homeostasis is a dynamic equilibrium rather than an
unchanging state. The cellular processes discussed in this lesson all play an important role in homeostatic regulation.
More concerning homeostasis will be presented in additional concepts.

Summary

• Endocytosis and exocytosis are active transport mechanisms in which large molecules enter and leave the cell
inside vesicles.
• In endocytosis, a substance or particle from outside the cell is engulfed by the cell membrane. The membrane
folds over the substance and it becomes completely enclosed by the membrane.
• There are two main kinds of endocytosis: pinocytosis and phagocytosis.

Review

1. What is the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis?

2. Why is pinocytosis a form of endocytosis?
3. Are vesicles involved in passive transport?

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3.8 References

1. LadyofHats. The composition of the cell membrane. CC BY-NC 3.0

2. User:Pidalka44/Wikimedia Commons. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Semipermeable_membrane.pn
g . Public Domain
3. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (User:LadyofHats/Wikimedia Commons). http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:S
cheme_simple_diffusion_in_cell_membrane-en.svg . Public Domain
4. Hana Zavadska, based on image by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Scheme_-
facilitated_diffusion_in_cell_membrane-en.svg). CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
5. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (User:LadyofHats/Wikimedia Commons). http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi
le:Osmotic_pressure_on_blood_cells_diagram.svg; http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Turgor_pressure_-
on_plant_cells_diagram.svg . Public Domain
6. Flickr:fickleandfreckled. http://www.flickr.com/photos/fickleandfreckled/7980692858/ . CC BY 2.0
7. Image copyright Lebendkulturen.de, 2014. A photo that shows the contractile vacuole within paramecia .
Used under license from Shutterstock.com
8. Louisa Howard, Miguel Marin-Padilla. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Junctional_complex_and_pi
nocytotic_vesicles_-_embryonic_brain-TEM.jpg . Public Domain
9. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for the CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
10. Image copyright Andrea Danti, 2014. Axon signaling using exocytosis . Used under license from Shutter-
stock.com

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