MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION,

VIBRATION AND DENSITY

Accelerometer
An accelerometer is a tool that measures proper
acceleration.Proper acceleration is the acceleration (the rate
of change of velocity) of a body in its own instantaneous rest
frame; this is different from coordinate acceleration, which is
acceleration in a fixed coordinate system. For example, an
accelerometer at rest on the surface of the Earth will measure
an acceleration due to Earth's gravity, straight upwards (by
definition) of g ≈ 9.81 m/s2. By contrast, accelerometers
in free fall (falling toward the center of the Earth at a rate of
about 9.81 m/s2) will measure zero.

An accelerometer is a device that measures the vibration, or

acceleration of motion of a structure. The force caused by
vibration or a change in motion (acceleration) causes the mass
to "squeeze" the piezoelectric material which produces an
electrical charge that is proportional to the force exerted upon
it. Since the charge is proportional to the force, and the mass is
a constant, then the charge is also proportional to the
acceleration. These sensors are used in a variety of ways from
space stations to handheld devices

An accelerometer works using an electromechanical sensor

that is designed to measure either static or dynamic
acceleration. Static acceleration is the constant force acting on
a body, like gravity or friction. These forces are predictable and
uniform to a large extend. For example, the acceleration due to
gravity is constant at 9.8m/s, and the gravitation force is almost
the same at every point on earth.

Dynamic acceleration forces are non-uniform, and the best

example is vibration or shock. A car crash is an excellent
example of dynamic acceleration. Here, the acceleration
change is sudden when compared to its previous state. The
theory behind accelerometers is that they can detect
acceleration and convert it into measurable quantities like
electrical signals.

How Does an Accelerometer Work?

An accelerometer comes in the form of a simple circuit for a
large electronic device. Despite the humble appearance, the
accelerometer is made of different parts and works in many
ways, two of which are the Piezoelectric Accelerometer and
the Capacitance Accelerometer.

Piezoelectric Accelerometer
The piezoelectric effect is the most popular form and uses
microscopic crystal structures that get stressed due to
accelerative forces. A voltage arises in the crystals from the
stress, and the accelerometer translates this voltage to velocity
and orientation.

Capacitance Accelerometer
The capacitance accelerometer senses the changes
in capacitance between microstructures. If the accelerative
force moves one of these microstructures, the capacitance
changes and the accelerometer translates this capacitance into
voltage for interpretation.
  Accelerometers are made of multiple axes – two to
determine two-dimensional motion with an option for a
third for 3D positioning. Smartphones make use of the
three-axis model while cars make use of the two-axis to
determine the moment of impact.

Applications of Accelerometer
The applications of accelerometer extend to multiple
disciplines, following are a few of its uses:

 Accelerometers in laptops protect the hard drive from

damage. If the laptop were to fall while in use, the
accelerometer would detect the fall and immediately turn
off the hard drive to avoid hitting the reading heads into
the hard drive platter.
 Accelerometers in cars are used to detect car crashes and
deploy airbags immediately.
 Smartphones rotate their display between landscape and
portrait mode depending on how one titles the phone.

Accelerometer Working Principle

The main working principle of an accelerometer is that it
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. When a
mass is kept on the sensor which is actually just like a spring it
starts moving down. Since it is moving down it starts
experiencing acceleration. That acceleration hen gets
converted into an amount of electric signal which is used for
the measurements of variation in the position of the device.
AThe accelerometer can be found with both the forms analog
as well as digital form devices. No just like any other device
would work happens to look like a simple circuit for some
larger electronic device despite its simple appearance, it
consists of many different varieties of parts which of course has
their own functions and works in many ways, the most
common terms would be piezoelectric effect and the
capacitance sensor. The piezoelectric effect can be termed as
the most common form, which uses microscopic crystal
structure that becomes stress due to accelerative forces, not
these crystals internal create a voltage from the stress that has
been produced and the accelerometer interprets the voltage to
determine its velocity and the orientation.

Whereas the capacitance accelerometer is used to sense

changes in capacitance between microstructures located next
to the device so if an accelerated force moves one of these any
given structures, the capacitance will change which will cause
the accelerometer to translate that capacitance into voltage for
interpretation.

Linear Variable Differential Transformers

(LVDTs)
Linear displacement is movement in one direction along a
single axis. A position or linear displacement sensor is a device
whose output signal represents the distance an object has
traveled from a reference point. A displacement measurement
also indicates the direction of motion

Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used to

measure displacement. LVDTs operate on the principle of a
transformer. An LVDT consists of a coil assembly and a core.
The coil assembly is typically mounted to a stationary form,
while the core is secured to the object whose position is being
measured. The coil assembly consists of three coils of wire
wound on the hollow form. A core of permeable material can
slide freely through the center of the form. The inner coil is the
primary, which is excited by an AC source. Magnetic flux
produced by the primary is coupled to the two secondary coils,
inducing an AC voltage in each coil.

The main advantage of the LVDT transducer over other types of

displacement transducer is the high degree of robustness.
Because there is no physical contact across the sensing element,
there is no wear in the sensing element.

Because the device relies on the coupling of magnetic flux, an

LVDT can have infinite resolution. Therefore the smallest
fraction of movement can be detected by suitable signal
conditioning hardware, and the resolution of the transducer is
solely determined by the resolution of the data acquisition
system.

The term LVDT stands for the Linear Variable Differential

Transformer. It is the most widely used inductive transducer
that converts the linear motion into the electrical signal.

The output across secondary of this transformer is the

differential thus it is called so. It is very accurate inductive
transducer as compared to other inductive transducers.

Construction of LVDT
Main Features of Construction

 The transformer consists of a primary winding P and two

secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical
former (which is hollow in nature and contains the core).
 Both the secondary windings have an equal number of
turns, and we place them on either side of primary
winding
  The primary winding is connected to an AC source which
produces a flux in the air gap and voltages are induced in
secondary windings.
 A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and
displacement to be measured is connected to the iron
core.
 The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps
in reducing harmonics and high sensitivity of LVDT.
 The LVDT is placed inside a stainless steel housing
because it will provide electrostatic and electromagnetic
shielding.
 The both the secondary windings are connected in such a
way that resulted output is the difference between the
voltages of two windings.

Advantages of LVDT
 High Range – The LVDTs have a very high range for
measurement of displacement.they can used for
measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25 mm to
250 mm
 No Frictional Losses – As the core moves inside a hollow
former so there is no loss of displacement input as
frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate device.
 High Input and High Sensitivity – The output of LVDT is so
high that it doesn’t need any amplification.
The transducer posseses a high sensitivity which is
typically about 40V/mm.
 Low Hysteresis – LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence
repeatability is excellent under all conditions
 Low Power Consumption – The power is about 1W which
is very as compared to other transducers.
 Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals – They convert the
linear displacement to electrical voltage which are easy to
process
Disadvantages of LVDT
 LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so it always
requires a setup to protect them from stray magnetic
fields.
 LVDT gets affected by vibrations and temperature.

Applications of LVDT
1. We use LVDT in the applications where displacements to
be measured are ranging from a fraction of mm to few
cms. The LVDT acting as a primary transducer converts the
displacement to electrical signal directly.
2. The LVDT can also act as a secondary transducer. E.g. the
Bourbon tube which acts as a primary transducer and it
converts pressure into linear displacement and then LVDT
coverts this displacement into an electrical signal which
after calibration gives the readings of the pressure of fluid.

Strain Gauge Accelerometer

Principle of Strain Gauge Accelerometer

When a cantilever beam attached with a mass at its free end is

subjected to vibration, vibrational displacement of the mass
takes place. Depending on the displacement of the mass, the
beam deflects and hence the beam is strained. The resulting
strain is proportional to the vibration displacement of the mass
and hence the vibration/acceleration being measured when
calibrated.

The main parts of a strain gauge accelerometer are as follows:

 A cantilever beam fixed to the housing of the instrument.

 A mass is fixed to the free end of the cantilever beam.
 Two bounded strain gauges are mounted on the
cantilever beam
 Damping is provided by a viscous fluid filled inside the
housing.
Operation of Strain Gauge Accelerometer

 The accelerometer is fitted on to the structure whose

acceleration is to be measured.
 Due to the vibration, vibrational displacement of the mass
occurs, causing the cantilever beam to be strained.
 Hence the strain gauges mounted on the cantilever beam
are also strained and due to this their resistance change.
 Hence a measure of this change in resistance of the strain
gauge becomes a measure of the extent to which the
cantilever beam is strained.
 But the resulting strain of the cantilever beam is
proportional to the vibration/acceleration and hence a
measure of the change in resistance of the strain gauges
becomes a measure of vibration/acceleration.
 The leads of the strain gauges are connected to a wheat
stone bridge whose output is calibrated in terms of
vibration/acceleration.

Advantages of Strain gauge accelerometer

 Strain gage accelerometers are preferred in high shock

applications.
 They can measure accelerations down to zero Hertz.
Disadvantages of Strain gauge accelerometer

 Limited high frequency response

Density and Specific Gravity

Density is the property of matter represented by a ratio of

mass to a unit volume of matter. Specific gravity which is also
called as relative density is a measure of density with respect to
a density of pure water. There are many properties of water,
such as conductivity of water and many more.

Difference Between Specific Gravity and Density

If a material has a specific gravity less than 1, it will float on
water.
It is represented as,

Specific gravity substance =ρ substance/ρ reference

Density, on the other hand, is represented as,

ρ=mass/volume

Difference Between Density and Specific Gravity

Density Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

It is the mass of an object per unit volume Relative density is the ratio of a substance’s weight to
the weight of the same volume of water.

To calculate density, we need to know the We can get this by dividing the density of a substance
weight and volume of the substance. with the density of water.

It is represented in absolute term It is represented in relative term

Its symbol is ρ is represented in kilogram per It does not have a SI unit

cubic meter

It is used in many domestic and commercial It is used in industries to measure the concentration of
applications solutions.
And it is represented in kilograms per cubic meter

Density is a feature of matter that may alternatively be defined

as the ratio of mass to a unit volume of the substance. It is
usually expressed in grams per cubic centimetre or kilogramme
per cubic metre units. The mass per unit volume is used to
calculate it. As a result, density is a measurement of how
compact a material or object is. It is a scalar quantity since it
lacks direction. Its measurement is a method of determining
mass in a continuous system.

It is the measurement of density in comparison to the density

of a set of standard reference materials. In most cases, the
reference material is pure water. A substance with a specific
gravity of less than one can also float on water. The specific
gravity of a substance can be calculated using a simple ratio of
the substance's density to the density of a standard substance.

The density of a substance or liquid in comparison to the

density of water at a certain temperature and pressure is
known as specific gravity. As a result, any change in
temperature or pressure will have an impact on the density.

Seismic Displacement Sensing Accelerometer

When a spring – mass – damper system is subjected

to acceleration, the mass is displaced, and this displacement of
the mass is proportional to the acceleration. Hence a measure
of displacement of the mass becomes a measure of
acceleration.
The main parts of a seismic accelerometer are as follows:

1. A seismic mass is suspended from the housing of the

accelerometer through a spring.
2. A damper is connected between the seismic mass and the
housing of the accelerometer.
3. The seismic mass is connected to an electric displacement
transducer.

There are two types of seismic – displacement sensing

accelerometers namely.

1. Linear seisimic accelerometer.

2. Rotational Seismic Accelerometer.

Operation

1. The accelerometer is fitted on to the structure whose

acceleration is to be measured.
2. Due the acceleration, the seismic mass experience a
displacement and this displacement of the mass is
proportional to the acceleration.
3. As the mass is connected to an electric displacement
transducer, the output of the transducer depends on the
extent – to which the mass is displaced.
4. Hence the output of the transducer is calibrated to give a
direct indication of the acceleration characteristics of the
structure.

Vibration Sensor

The vibration sensor is also called a piezoelectric sensor. These

sensors are flexible devices which are used for measuring
various processes. This sensor uses the piezoelectric
effects while measuring the changes within acceleration,
pressure, temperature, force otherwise strain by changing to
an electrical charge. This sensor is also used for deciding
fragrances within the air by immediately measuring
capacitance as well as quality.

Vibration Sensor Working Principle

The working principle of vibration sensor is a sensor which

operates based on different optical otherwise mechanical
principles for detecting observed system vibrations.

The sensitivity of these sensors normally ranges from 10 mV/g

to 100 mV/g, and there are lower and higher sensitivities are
also accessible. The sensitivity of the sensor can be selected
based on the application. So it is essential to know the levels of
vibration amplitude range to which the sensor will be exposed
throughout measurements.

Vibration Sensor Types

The types of vibration sensors include the following.

Accelerometer Sensor

This sensor is used for general purposes like vibration and

shock

Strain Gauge Sensor

These sensors are used for curved surfaces. When mass and
size are significant, then strain data is required.

Velocity Sensor
These sensors are used for high-temperature applications like
above 700 °F.

Gyroscope Sensor

These sensors are used where orientation information is

necessary.

Pressure or Microphone Sensor

These sensors are used for health monitoring, as well as to

determine vibration frequency.

Laser Displacement Sensor

This sensor is used to calculate the displacement straight

without changing the product or structure.

Capacitive Displacement or Eddy Current

This sensor is used to calculate the displacement straight

without changing the product or structure.

Vibration Meter

This type of sensor is used in the diagnosis of equipment.

Vibration Data Logger

Save time & cost, testing in the field (portability important)

Applications
The applications of vibration sensors include different
industries for measuring the vibration. The exclusive industrial
characteristics will decide sensor characteristics.
For instance, this sensor is used in industries like wind power
and mining for slow rotation of turbines with 1 Hz or less
frequency response.

In disparity, the industries like gas and oil need high frequency
ranges from 10 Hz to 10 kHz uses these sensors to handle with
the speed rotation of gears and turbines.

The industries which use the vibration sensor mainly include

food & beverage, mining, metalworking, gas & oil, paper, wind
power, power generation, etc.

Densitometer
A densitometer is a device that measures the degree of
darkness (the optical density) of a photographic or
semitransparent material or of a reflecting surface. The
densitometer is basically a light source aimed at
a photoelectric cell. It determines the density of a sample
placed between the light source and the photoelectric
cell from differences in the readings. Modern densitometers
have the same components, but also
have electronic integrated circuitry for better reading.

A densitometer is a device that measures the degree of

darkness (the optical density) of a photographic or
semitransparent material or of a reflecting surface. A
densitometer does not measure color but measures density. In
print work, density is caused by the light-stopping ability of the
pigments in the printing ink that are deposited on the paper by
the printing process. Densitometers are widely used in the
graphics industry to help control color in each step of the
printing process.

How it works
Within a densitometer the light passes through the optical
system bundled from a stabilized light source on the printed
surface. The amount light absorbed depends on the ink density
and pigmenting of the ink. The non-absorbed light penetrates
the translucent (transparent) ink layer and is weakened. The
remainder is re-emitted by the surface of the material, i.e.
diffusely reflected or scattered A part of this scattered light
passes through the ink layer and is weakened again.
A lens system captures the light rays coming from the ink layer
and sends them to a photodiode. The light striking the
photodiode is converted into electric energy. The electronics
compares this current with a reference value. The difference
between the measured current and the reference value forms
the basis for calculating the absorption behavior of the
measured ink layer.
Types

 Transmission densitometers that measure transparent

materials
 A transmission densitometer used to measure
transparent surfaces measure color transparencies. Film &
transparent substrates are some examples of common
transparent surface measures.
 Reflection densitometers that measure light reflected
from a surface.
Uses

 Densitometers are used for measuring color saturation by

print professionals
 Calibration of printing equipment
 It serves as one of the Molecular tools for gene study, to
quantify the radioactivity of a compound such as
radiolabeled DNA.
 They are also used for making adjustments so that
outputs are consistent with the colors desired in the finished
products.
 They are used in industrial radiography to ensure x-ray
films are within code-required density ranges. They are also
used to compare relative material thicknesses.
 Densitometers are used for process control of density dot
gain, dot area & ink trapping.
 Densitometer readings will be different for different types
of printing process & substrates.

Densitometers are use for process control of density, dot gain

(TVI), dot area, and ink trap. Densitometer readings will
different for different types of substrates.