MATHEMATICS OF GRAPHS

A graph consists of a set of dots, called vertices, and a set of edges connecting pairs of vertices.

Vertices are often connected by edges. The degree of a vertex 𝑉 is the number of edges of the graph 𝐺 incident with 𝑣,
each loop counting as two edges.

Edges connect pairs of vertices.

An edge that connects a vertex itself is called a loop. It is an edge with identical ends.

A graph 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) consists of a nonempty set 𝑉 of vertices (or nodes) and a set 𝐸 of edges. Each edge has either one or
two vertices associated with it, called its endpoints. An edge is said to connect its endpoints.

There are two basic types of graphs – directed and undirected.

Euler Circuits
Euler circuit is a circuit that uses every edge in a graph with no repeats. Being a circuit, it must start and end at the same
vertex.

A circuit is a path that begins and ends at the same vertex. A circuit starting and ending at vertex A is shown below.

The graph below has several possible Euler circuits. Here’s a couple, starting and ending at vertex A: ADEACEFCBA and
AECABCFEDA.

Euler Paths
Euler path is a path that uses every edge in a graph with no repeats. Being a path, it does not have to return to the starting
vertex.

A path is a sequence of vertices using the edges. Usually we are interested in a path between two vertices. For example, a
path from vertex A to vertex M is shown below. It is one of many possible paths in this graph.
In the graph shown below, there are several Euler paths. Give one path. One such path is CABDCB. The path is shown in
arrows to the right, with the order of edges numbered.

DEGREES OF GRAPHS
The degree of a vertex is the number of edges meeting at that vertex. It is possible for a vertex to have a degree of zero or
larger.

The sum of the degrees of the vertices of a graph is an even number (twice the number of edges). The number of vertices
of odd degree in a graph is always even.

A graph will contain an Euler path if it contains at most two vertices of odd degree.

A graph will contain an Euler circuit if all vertices have even degree.

In the graph below, vertices A and C have degree 4, since there are 4 edges leading into each vertex; B has a degree of 2;
D has a degree of 3; E has a degree of 1

HAMILTONIAN GRAPHS
Hamiltonian graphs are named after the 19th century Irish mathematician Sir William Rowan Hamilton (1805-1865).

A path on a connected graph that passes through every vertex exactly once is called a Hamiltonian path. A Hamiltonian path
begins and ends at the same vertex, but passes through all vertices exactly once is called a Hamiltonian circuit.

Hamiltonian circuit: A Hamiltonian circuit in a graph is a closed path that visits every vertex in the graph exactly once.

A Hamiltonian circuit ends up at the vertex from where it started.

Hamiltonian Graph: If a graph has a Hamiltonian circuit, then the graph is called a Hamiltonian graph.

Complete graphs are graphs in which every possible edge is drawn between vertices. Every complete graph (without any
multiple edges) with more than two vertices has a Hamiltonian circuit. Furthermore, the number of Hamiltonian circuits in
a complete graph with 𝑛 vertices (𝑛 − 1)!.

A complete graph is a graph in which every pair of vertices is joined by exactly one edge.

𝐾𝑛 denotes a complete graph with 𝑛 vertices.

A complete weighted graph is a graph in which edge is associated with a value, called a weight. The value can represent any
quantity we desire. They are labeled according to a quantity of interest such as distances, travel time, costs or something
relevant to the problem.

A weighted graph is a graph in which every edge has been assigned a weight. The assigned numbers are called weights.

The weight of a path or circuit is the sum of the weights of the edges in the path or circuit.

Find Hamiltonian Circuits in a Weighted Graph

The graph below is a model graph for one-way bus fares for locations A, B, C, D. Use the weighted graph to find the cost of
the trip for the Hamiltonian circuit A, B, D, C, A.

Solution:

Total Bus Fare = fare from A to B + fare from B to D + fare from D to C + fare from C to A

= 190 + 155 + 179 + 124 = 648

Assessment:
1. How many vertices and edges are in this graph?

a.

b.

2. Draw a connected graph with six vertices such that each vertex has degree 2.
3. Draw a disconnected graph with six vertices such that each vertex has degree 2.