PDF Norma Astm E112

Éstc ns ukc trcmuee`õk mnj mheulnkth hrì`kcj qun nstã nk `m`hlc `kijés, phr jh qun nj kúlnrh mn
pãi`kcs kh eh`ke`mn. Vhr jh cktnr`hr, shjh sn nkulnrc jc pr`lnrc pãi`kc ehlh rnanrnke`c pcrc `kmècr qun
cbì `kè`c nj mheulnkth hrì`kcj
Mnsìkce`õk? N 334 - 01
Léthmhs mn Vrundc pcrc Mntnrl`kcr nj ]clcñh mn Irckh Vrhlnm`h3
Nstc khrlc nstã nm`tcmc dcjh jc mnsìkce`õk N 3347 nj kúlnrh qun jn sìun `klnm`ctclnktn c jc
mnsìkce`õk `kmèc nj cñh mn cmhpe`õk hrì`kcj h, nk nj ecsh mn rnv`s`õk, nj cñh mn jc újt`lc
rnv`s`õk. ^k kúlnrh mnktrh mn pcréktns`s `kmèc nj cñh mn jc újt`lc vnz qun aun rncprhdcmh.
^kc éps`jhk mn supnrìkmèn (n) `kmèc uk ecld`h nm`thr`cj mnsmn jc újt`lc rnv`s`õk
c rncprhdce`õk.
Nstn nstãkmcr bc s`mh cprhdcmh pcrc su ush phr cinke`cs mnj Mnpcrtclnkth mn Mnanksc
pcrc rnnlpjczcr jhs léthmhs 53 3.3 y 534 mnj Léthmh Nstãkmcr mn Vrundc Anmnrcj Kh.
3>3d. Ehksujtn nj Ìkmèn MhM mn Nspneàèce`hkns y Nstãkmcrns pcrc nj cñh nspneìaèh mn
nmè`õk nk qun aun cmhptcmh phr nj Mnpcrtclnkth mn Mnanksc.
@K]THMÊE@ÕK
Nsths léthmhs mn prundc mn mntnrl`kce`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h nk lctnr`cjns

lntãjèhs shk pr`lcr`clnktn prhenm`l`nkths mn lnmè`õk y, mnd`mh c sus dcsns purclnktn
inhlétrècs, shk `kmnpnkm`nktns mnj lntcj h cjnce`õk ehkenrk`nktn. Mn bnebh,
jhs prhenm`l`nkths dãsèhs tcld`ék punmnk snr ut`j`zcmhs pcrc jc nst`lce`õk mn irckh
prhlnm`h,
er`stcj h tclcñh mn enjmc nk lctnr`cjns kh lntãjèhs. Nj léthmh mn ehlpcrce`õk punmn snr
ut`j`zcmh s` jc nstrueturc mnj lctnr`cj lunstrc jc cpcr`nke`c mn ukc mn jcs irãaècs
mn ehlpcrce`õk mn khrlcs. Jhs léthmhs mn `ktnrsnee`õk y pjck`létrèh shk s`nlprn
cpjècdjns pcrc mntnrl`kcr nj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h. U`k nldcrih, jcs irãaècs mn
ehlpcrce`õk kh punmnk snr ut`j`zcmcs pcrc jc lnmè`õk mn irckhs `km`v`mucjns.
3. Cjecken
3.3Nsths léthmhs mn prundc cdcreck jc lnmè`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h n `kejuynk
nj prhenm`l`nkth mn ehlpcrce`õk, nj prhenm`l`nkth pjck`létrèh (h Onaar`ns), y jhs léthmhs
mn
`ktnrenpe`õk. Nsths léthmhs mn prundc tcld`ék punmnk snr cpjècmhs c lctnr`cjns
kh lntãjèhs ehk nstrueturcs qun tnkick cpcr`nke`c s`l`jcr c cqunjjcs mn jcs
nstrueturcs lntãjècs lhstrcmcs nk jcs irãaècs mn ehlpcrce`õk. Nsths léthmhs mn
prundc cpjèck
pr`ke`pcjlnktn c nstrueturcs mn irckh mn acsn `km`v`mucj pnrh punmnk snr cpjècmcs pcrc
mntnrl`kcr nj tclcñh prhlnm`h mn uk t`ph pcrtèujcr mn nstrueturc mn irckh nk ukc prhdntc
lujtàceétèc h lujtèhlphknktn.
3.4Nsths léthmhs mn prundc shk ut`j`zcmhs pcrc mntnrl`kcr nj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h ehk
ukc m`str`due`õk uk`lhmcj mn ãrncs mn irckh, m`ãlntrhs h jhki`tumns mn `ktnrenpe`õk. Nstcs
m`str`due`hkns shk cprhx`lcmclnktn jhicrìtlèclnktn khrlcjns. Nsths léthmhs
mn prundc kh cdcreck léthmhs pcrc ecrcetnr`zcr jc kcturcjnzc mn nstcs m`str`due`hkns.
Jc ecrcetnr`zce`õk mn tclcñh mn irckh nk prhdntcs ehk m`str`due`hkns mn tclcñh mn
irckh múpjnx ns mnser`tc nk jhs Léthmhs mn Vrundc N 3323. Jc lnmè`õk mn irckhs
`km`v`mucjns luy irunshs nk ukc lctr`z irckujcr sn mnser`dn nk jhs Léthmhs mn Vrundc N
056.
3
Nsths léthmhs mn prundc nstãk dcjh jc jur`smèe`õk mnj Ehl`té N-= mn Lntcjhircaìc mn CU]L y sh
rnsphkscd`j`mcm m`rnetc mnj sudehl`té nk ]clcñh mn Irckh N6=.62.
Jc nmè`õk ehrr`nktn aun cprhdcmc nj 36 mn Lcyh mn 3001. Vudjècmc nk Ouj`h mn 3001. Hrì`kcjlnktn
pudjècmc ehlh N 334 ― >>. ßjt`lc nmè`õk cktnr`hr N 334 ― 0>.
449
N 334
3.5Nsths Léthmhs mn prundc trctck shjh ehk jc mntnrl`kce`õk mn tclcñh mn irckh pjckh, nsh
ns, ecrcetnr`zce`õk mn jcs mhs snee`hkns mn irckh m`lnks`hkcjns rnvnjcmcs phr nj pjckh mn
snee`hkcl`nkth. Jc mntnrl`kce`õk mn tclcñh mn irckh nspce`cj, nsh ns, jc lnmè`õk mnj
tclcñh mn jhs irckhs tr`m`lnks`hkcjns nk nj vhjulnk mn jc prhdntc nstã aunrc mnj cjecken
mn nsths léthmhs mn prundc.
3.= Nsths léthmhs mn prundc mnser`dnk téekècs mnscrrhjjcmcs lckucjlnktn ut`j`zckmh yc
snc ukc snr`n nstãkmcr mn `lãinkns irãaècs ircmucmcs pcrc nj léthmh mn
ehlpcrce`õk h s`lpjns nseckt`jjhkns pcrc jhs léthmhs mn ehktnh lckucj. Jc
ut`j`zce`õk mn tcdjntcs
mì`tcj`zcmhrcs h ckcj`zcmhrns mn `lãinkns cuthlãtèh pcrc lnm`r nj tclcñh mn irckh
ns mnser`tc nk Léthmhs mn Vrundc N 3524.
3. > Nsths léthmhs mn prundc trctck shjh jhs léthmhs mn prundc rnehlnkmcmhs y kcmc nk
njjhs mndnrìc snr ehlpunsth ehlh jh mna`knk h nstcdjnenk jhs ehkthrkhs mn
cenptcd`j`mcm h
`mhkn`mcm mnj prhpõs`th mnj lctnr`cj prhdcmh.
3.1Jhs vcjhrns lnm`mhs shk pjcktncmhs nk uk`mcmns U@, qun shk ehks`mnrcmcs ehlh nstãkmcr.
Qcjhrns nqu`vcjnktns nk j`drc pujicmc, euckmh sn j`stnk, nstãk nk pcréktns`s y phmrãk snr
cprhx`lcmhs.
3.9 Nstc khrlc kh dusec snñcjcr thmhs jhs ehkenrk`nktns c sniur`mcm, s` eucjqu`nrc, nstc
cshe`cmh ehk su ush. Ns rnsphkscd`j`mcm mnj usucr`h mn nstc khrlc nstcdjnenr prãetècs
cmneucmcs mn sniur`mcm y sck`mcm y mntnrl`kcr jc cpjèce`õk mn j`l`tce`hkns
rniujcmhrcs cktns mn su ush.
3.2 Jhs pãrrcahs cpcrnenk nk nj sìu`nktn hrmnk?
Unee`õk Kúlnrh
Cjecken 3
Mheulnkths mn rn anrnke`c 4
]nrl`khjhiìc 5
Uìkàècmh y ^s =
h Inknrcj`mcmns C pjèce`õk >
mn
Lunstrnh 1
Vrhdntcs mn Vru ndc 9
Ecj`drce`õk 2
Vrnpcrce`õk m n A hthlèrhircaìcs 0
Vrhenm`l`nkth m n E hlpcrce`õk 36
Vrhenm`l`nkth V jck`létrèh ( Onaar`ns) 33
Vrhenm`l`nkth ImI nk@ kntrncrej mnpe n @`kõtknrj e`knpcej`õB kn yk 3 45

Vrhenm`l`nkths m n @ ktnrenpe`õk e `reujcr 3=
Vrhenm`l`nkth m n u k E ìreujh m n B `jj`crm 3=.4
Vrhenm`l`nkth m n t rns e ìreujhs C drcls 3=.5
Ckãj`s`s Nstcmìstèh 3>
Vrhdntcs e hk I rckh m n a hrlc k h n qu`cx`cj 31
Vrhdntcs qun ehkt`nknk mhs h lãs acsns h Ehlphknktns 39
Tnphrtn 32
Vrne`s`õk y Q c r`ce`õk 30
Ejcvns 46
Cknxhs?
Dcsns mn Kúlnrhs mn ]clcñh mn Irckh CU]L
C3 Neuce`hkns pcrc ehkvnrs`hkns nktrn vcr`cs lnmè`hkns

mn tcl cñh mn irc kh C4
N 334
]clcñh mn Irckh Custnkìtèh, Cenrhs Custnkìtèhs h Aérrèhs C5

Léthmh m n A rceturc m n ] clcñh m n I rckh C=
Tnqunr`l`nkths pcrc Ehdrn lcjncdjn y Cjnce`hkns ehk dcsn mn Ehdrn C>
Cpjèce`õk c U`tuce`hkns Nspne`cjns C1
Cpékmèns?
Tnsujtcmhs mn Mntnrl`kce`hkns mn ]clcñh mn Irckh @ktnrjcdhrcthr`hs R3
Cknxhs mn rnanrnke`c R4
4. Mheulnkths mn Tnanrnke`c
4.3Khrlc CU]L?
N5 Vrãetèc pcrc prnpcrce`õk mn Vrhdntcs Lntcjhirãaècs4
N9 ]nrl`khjhiìc rnjce`hkcmc c lntcjhircaìc4
N =69 Vrãetèc pcrc ctcqun mn Lntcjns y Cjnce`hkns4
N >14 Vrãetèc pcrc mntnrl`kcr Arcee`õk mn Qhjulnk phr Ehktnh lckucj s`stnlãtèh mn
pukth.4 N 103 Vrãetèc pcrc ehkmue`r uk Nstum`h `ktnrjcdhrcthr`h pcrc mntnrl`kcr jc
prne`s`õk mn uk
léthmh mn prundc5
N 225 Iuìc pcrc Ahthlèrhircaìc mn Juz rnajnjcmc4
N 056 Léthmhs mn Vrundc pcrc nst`lcr nj irckh lãs irckmn hdsnrvcmh nk ukc
snee`õk Lntcjhirãaèc (CJC ]clcñh mn Irckh)4.
N 3323Léthmhs mn prundc pcrc ecrcetnr`zce`õk mn ]clcñh mn Irckh múpjnx 4.
N 3524Léthmhs mn prundc pcrc mntnrl`kcr nj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h ut`j`zckmh ckãj`s`s mn
`lcink cuthlãtèh y snl`cuthlãtèh4
4.4Cknxhs?
4.4.3 Vcrc ukc j`stc ehlpjntc mn cknxhs, vnr Cpékmèn R4.
5. ]nrl`khjhiìc
5.3Mna`kè`hkns ― Vcrc mna`kè`hkns mn térl`khs ut`j`zcmhs nk nsths léthmhs mn prundc, vnr

]nrl`khjhiìc N 9.
5.4Mna`kè`hkns mn ]érl`khs Nspneìaèhs mn nstc Khrlc?
5.4.3 Kúlnrh mn ]clcñh mn Irckh CU]L ― nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L,
I,
hrì`kcjlnktn aun mna`k`mh ehlh?
K C CN < 4 I-3 (3)
Mhkmn K C N ns nj kúlnrh mn irckhs phr pujicmc eucmrcmc c uk culnkth mn 366R. Vcrc
hdtnknr nj kúlnrh phr l`jìlntrh eucmrcmh c 3R, lujt`pjècr phr 3>.>6.
5.4.4 Irckh ― cqunjjc ãrnc mnktrh mn jhs ehka`kns mnj ehkthrkh hrì`kcj (pr`lcr`h) hdsnrvcmh
shdrn jhs mhs pjckhs m`lnks`hkcjns mn jc supnraè`n puj`mc h cqunj vhjulnk nkenrrcmh
phr nj ehkthrkh hrì`kcj (pr`lcr`h) nk nj hdjnth tr`m`lnks`hkcj. Nk Lctnr`cjns
qun ehkt`nknk ehkthrkhs inlnjhs, jhs ehkthrkhs inlnjhs shk ìkhrcmhs, nsh
ns, jc nstrueturc nk ecmc jcmh mn uk ehkthrkh inlnjh pnrtnknen cj irckh.
4
J`drh Ckucj mn Khrlcs CU]L, Qhj
65.63. 5 J`drh Ckucj mn Khrlcs CU]L, Qhj
3=.64.
N 334
5.4.5 Eunktc mn @ktnrsnee`õk mn Ehkthrkh mn Irckh ― mntnrl`kce`õk mnj kúlnrh mn vnens qun
ukc jìknc mn prundc eruzc, h ns tckinktn c jhs ehkthrkhs mnj irckh (`ktnrsnee`hkns mn
tr`pjn pukth shk ehks`mnrcmcs ehlh `ktnrsnee`hkns 3-3/4).
5.4.= Eunktc mn @ktnrenpe`õk mn Irckh ― mntnrl`kce`õk mnj kúlnrh mn vnens qun ukc jìknc mn
prundc ehrtc c trcvés mn irckhs `km`v`mucjns shdrn nj pjckh mn puj`mh (jhs
ihjpns tckinktns shk ehks`mnrcmhs ehlh lnm`c `ktnrenpe`õk7 jcs jìkncs mn
prundc qun tnrl`kck mnktrh mn uk irckh shk ehks`mnrcmcs lnm`c `ktnrenpe`õk.
5.4.> Jhki`tum mn @ktnrenpe`õk ― jc m`stcke`c nktrn mhs pukths mn `ktnrsnee`õk mn ehkthrkhs mn
irckh hpunsths y cmycenktns shdrn uk snilnkth mn jìknc mn prundc qun eruzc nj irckh
nk eucjqu`nr jhece`õk mnd`mh c jc ehjhece`õk cjncthr`c mn jc jìknc mn prundc.
5.5Uìldhjhs?
 < Lctr`z irckujcr nk ukc lèrhnstrueturc mn mhs acens (ehlphknktns).
C < Ãrnc mn prundc
C < Irckh lnm`h nk jc snee`õk mnj ãrnc trcksvnrscj
C@ < rcm`h mn njhkice`õk mnj irckh h ìkmèn mn ck`shtrhpìc pcrc uk pjckh hr`nktcmh
jhki`tum`kcjlnktn.
m M < m`ãlntrh lnm`h pjckcr mn irckh (Vjcth @@@).
a < m`ãlntrh lnm`h nspce`cj (vhjulétrèh) mn irckh.
I < Lujt`pjècmhr Onaar`ns pcrc léthmh pjck`létrèh.
 < Kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn Irckh CU]L
 < Jhki`tum lnm`c mn `ktnrsnee`õk j`kncj

 <l èJrhnksit`rtuemt urlc nmmn` cm hsm nac s`nkstn (rehnlpep`hõkn kjt`nksn)cj

mn jc acsn lctr`z  nk ukc
< Jhki`tum lnm`c mn `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj nk ukc supnraè`n
t hr`nktcmc jhki`tum`kcjlnktn pcrc ukc nstrueturc mn irckh kh nqu`cx`cj.
<Jhki`tum lnm`c mn `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj shdrn ukc supnraè`n
hr`nktcmc trcksvnrscjlnktn pcrc ukc nstrueturc mn irckh kh nqu`cx`cj.
 p < Jhki`tum lnm`c mn `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj
6 < Jhki`tum mn `ktnrenpe`õk dcsn mn 54.66ll pcrc mna`k`r jc rnjce`õk nktrn I y 
(y KJ ) tclcñh mn irckh mntnrl`kcmh lcerhseõpèclnktn h
lèrhseõpèclnktn phr nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk.
J < Jhki`tum mn ukc jìknc mn prundc
L < Culnkth ut`j`zcmh
Ld < Culnkth ut`j`zcmh phr ukc snr`n mn irãaècs.
k < Kúlnrh mn eclphs lnm`mhs.
K 
l< èKrhúnlstnrruhe tumrnc mni rmchksh sacsn s (`kethnlrepnhpktcnmkhtnss
).phr jc jìknc mn prundc nk ukc
K C < Kúlnrh mn irckhs phr ll4 c 3R
K C < Kúlnrh mn irckhs  phr ll4 c 3R nk ukc lèrhnstrueturc mn mhs
acsns (ehlphknktns).
K CN < Kúlnrh mn irckhs phr puji4 c 3R ukc lèrhnstrueturc mn mhs
acsns (ehlphknktns).
K C  < K C shdrn ukc supnraè`n hr`nktcmc jhki`tum`kcjlnktn pcrc ukc nstrueturc
mn irckh kh nqu`cx`cj.
K C Ct < K C shdrn ukc supnraè`n hr`nktcmc trcksvnrscjlnktn pcrc ukc nstrueturc
mn irckh kh nqu`cx`cj
K Cp < K C shdrn ukc supnraè`n hr`nktcmc pjckcr pcrc ukc nstrueturc mn irckh
kh nqu`cx`cj.
K ` < Kúlnrh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns ehk ukc jìknc mn prundc.
K mnktrh < Kúlnrh mn irckhs ehlpjntclnktn mnktrh mn uk eìreujh mn prundc.

N 334
K @ktnrenptcmh < Kúlnrh mn irckhs `ktnrenptcmhs phr nj eìreujh mn prundc.

K J < Kúlnrh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns phr uk`mcm jhki`tum mn jc jìknc mn prundc.
K J
 < K J shdrn ukc supnraè`n hr`nktcmc jhki`tum`kcjlnktn pcrc ukc nstrueturc
KJ Jt < K J shdrn ukc supnraè`n hr`nktcmc trcksvnrscjlnktn pcrc ukc nstrueturc
K Jp < K J shdrn ukc supnraè`n hr`nktcmc pjckcr pcrc ukc nstrueturc mn irckh
kh nqu`cx`cj
V ` < Kúlnrh mn `ktnrsnee`hkns mnj ehkthrkh mnj irckh ehk ukc jìknc mn prundc.
V J < Kúlnrh mn `ktnrsnee`hkns mnj ehkthrkh mnj irckh phr uk`mcm jhki`tum mn
jc jìknc mn prundc.
V J
 < VJ shdrn ukc supnraè`n hr`nktcmc jhki`tum`kcjlnktn pcrc ukc nstrueturc mn
irckh kh nqu`cx`cj
VJ Jt < VJ shdrn ukc supnraè`n hr`nktcmc trcksvnrscjlnktn pcrc ukc nstrueturc
V Jp < V J shdrn ukc supnraè`n hr`nktcmc pjckcr pcrc ukc nstrueturc mn irckh
kh nqu`cx`cj
S < Acethr mn ehrrnee`õk pcrc cprne`ce`õk mn irãaèc mn ehlpcrce`õk ut`j`zckmh uk
culnkth kh nstãkmcr pcrc tclcñhs mn irckh mntnrl`kcmhs lèrhseõpèclnktn.
Sl < Acethr mn ehrrnee`õk pcrc cprne`ce`õk mn irãaèc mn ehlpcrce`õk ut`j`zckmh uk
culnkth kh nstãkmcr pcrc tclcñhs mn irckh mntnrl`kcmhs lcerhseõpèclnktn.
UsUQ << MTcnszõv`kc em`nõjk E nhsktãthkrmkchr mn irckh c vhjulnk pcrc ukc
nstrueturc mn ukc shjc acsn.
UQ < Tczõk mnj Ehkthrkh mn irckh c vhjulnk pcrc ukc nstrueturc mn mhs acsns.
t < Lujt`pjècmhr t mn nstum`cktns pcrc mntnrl`kcr nj `ktnrvcjh mn ehka`ckzc.
Q Q < Arcee`õk mn vhjulnk mn jc acsn  nk ukc lèrhnstrueturc mn mhs
acsns (ehlphknktns)
0>% E@< 0>% @ktnrvcjh mn Ehka`ckzc
% TC < Vhrenktcjn mn nxcet`tum rnjct`vc
=. Uìkàècmh y ^sh
=.3 Nsths léthmhs mn prundc cdcreck prhenm`l`nkths pcrc ecjeujcr y rnijcs pcrc nxprnscr nj
tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h mn thmhs jhs lntcjns qun ehks`stnk ehlpjntclnktn, h
prc`krce `pecujcljqnuk`ntnr, nmsnt rukectu rsch jcq uacns ntn. kJihcsk lcéptchrm`nhkse
m`cn sp`rlu`njcdrc ctc lcqdu`énkjj cpsu nmmnn kjc sn rn sutrùj`zetcumrhcs lntãjècs
lhstrcmcs nk jcs irãaècs mn ehlpcrce`õk. Jhs trns prhenm`l`nkths dãsèhs pcrc nj eãjeujh
mnj tclcñh mn irckh shk?
=.3.3 Vrhenm`l`nkth mn Ehlpcrce`õk ― Nj prhenm`l`nkth mn ehlpcrce`õk kh rnqu`nrn ehktnh
yc snc mn irckhs, `ktnrenpe`hkns h `ktnrsnee`hkns pnrh, ehlh nj khldrn jh `kmèc,
cdcrec ehlpcrce`õk mn jc nstrueturc mnj irckh ehk ukc snr`n mn `lãinkns ircmucmcs,
yc snc nk ahrlc mn ukc irãaèc mn pcrnm, hvnrjcys mn pjãstèh ejcrh h ukc rntìeujc heujcr.
Vcrnen bcdnr ukc prnheupce`õk inknrcj nk nsc qunjc mn jcs ehkmè`hkns mnj tclcñh mnj
irckh mn ehlpcrce`õk mn qun nj tclcñh mnj irckh ns uk pheh lãs irunsh (3/4 c 3
kúlnrh lãs dcjh mn I) mn jh qun rncjlnktn ns (Qnr R3.5.>.). Jc
rnpnt`d`j`mcm y rnprhmue`d`j`mcm mn jcs ehkmè`hkns mn jc irãaèc mn ehlpcrce`õk shk
inknrcjlnktn +/-3 kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh.
=.3.4
mVnrh ierncmk`lhs`n mknthk tVrhjc mkn`l uéktcr` eãhrn -c N ej hlkéhteh`mch. pNjcj
` l é tr ` e h c d c r e c u k eh k t n hh c e t u c j m j k ú l n rh
k ú l n r h m n i r c k h s p h r u k ` m c m m n ã rnc , K , n s
N 334
nl`t`mh pcrc mntnrl`kcr nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L, I. Jc prne`s`õk

mnj léthmh ns nk auke`õk mnj kúlnrh mn irckhs ehktcmhs. ^kc prne`s`õk mn
+/-6.4> uk`mcmns mn tclcñh mn irckh punmn snr hdtnk`mc ehk ukc eckt`mcm
mn nsaunrzh rczhkcdjn. Jhs rnsujtcmhs shk j`drns mn vcr`ce`õk, y jc rnpnt`d`j`mcm y jc
rnprhmue`d`j`mcm shk lnkhrns c +/-6.> uk`mcmns mn tclcñh mn irckh. ^k ehktnh
prne`sh rnqu`nrn jc lcrece`õk mn jhs irckhs cj lhlnkth mn snr ehktcmhs.
=.3.5 Vrhenm`l`nkth mn @ktnrenpe`õk ― Nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk cdcrec uk ehktnh cetucj mnj
kúlnrh mn irckhs `ktnrenptcmhs phr ukc jìknc mn prundc h nj kúlnrh mn `ktnrsnee`hkns
mnj ehkthrkh mnj irckh ehk ukc jìknc mn prundc, phr uk`mcm mn jhki`tum mn jc jìknc mn
prundc ut`j`zcmc pcrc ecjeujcr jc jhki`tum mn `ktnrenpe`õk lnm`c j`kncj, . ns ut`j`zcmh
pcrc mntnrl`kcr nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L, I. Jc prne`s`õk mnj léthmh ns nk
auke`õk mnj kúlnrh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns h `ktnrsnee`hkns ehktcmcs. ^kc prne`s`õk lnjhr mn
+/-6.4> uk`mcmns mn tclcñh mn irckh punmn hdtnknrsn ehk ukc eckt`mcm mn nsaunrzh
rczhkcdjn. Jhs rnsujtcmhs shk j`drns mn vcr`ce`õk7 jc rnpnt`d`j`mcm y rnprhmue`d`j`mcm shk
lnkhrns mn +/-6.>% uk`mcmns mn tclcñh mn irckh. Mnd`mh c qun sn punmn rncj`zcr uk
ehktnh nxceth s`k jc knens`mcm mn lcrecr jcs `ktnrenpe`hkns h `ktnrsnee`hkns, nj léthmh
mn `ktnrenpe`hkns ns lãs rãp`mh qun nj léthmh pjck`létrèh phr nj l`slh k`vnj mn
prne`s`õk.
=.4 Vcrc prhdntcs qun ehks`stck nk irckhs nqu`cx`cjns, nj léthmh mn ehlpcrce`õk
mn jc prhdntc ehk ukc irãaèc nstãkmcr ns lãs ehkvnk`nktn `s ns suaè`nktnlnktn
nxceth pcrc jc lcyhrìc mn jhs prhpõs`ths ehlnre`cjns. Vcrc lcyhr ircmh mn nxcet`tum cj
mntnrl`kcr nj
pttcjclkc`lñhé trmènh . iNrjc pkrh epnmrh`l`nmk`th, msnn ` ktpnurnemnnpke` õukt

`nj`szc prc rjthèsu jclrlét nhmkhtns útm`jn p c`krctn nresntrpue`õtukr csy ehks`stnktns
nk irckhs njhkicmhs.
=.5 Nk ecsh ehkajèth, nj prhenm`l`nkth mn `ktnrenpe`õk snrã nj prhenm`l`nkth qun r`jc nk
thmhs jhs ecshs.
=.= Kh sn mndnrìck bcenr `ktnkths pcrc ecjeujcr nj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h pcrc lctnr`cjns
qun sn trcdcjnk dcjh ehkmè`hkns luy arìcs. Cjnce`hkns lcjncdjns
pcre`cjlnktn rner`stcj`zcmcs y lctnr`cjns qun trcdcjnk dcjh ehkmè`hkns pheh h
lhmnrcmclnktn arìcs punmnk snr ehks`mnrcmhs ehlh irckhs kh nqu`cx`cjns, s` ukc
lnmè`õk mn tclcñh mn irckh ns knenscr`c.
=.> Kh sn mndnrìck bcenr lnmè`hkns mn irckhs `km`v`mucjns dcsãkmhsn nk jcs irãaècs mn
ehlpcrce`õk nstãkmcr. Nstcs irãaècs aunrhk ehkstru`mcs pcrc rnajnjcr jc
tìpèc m`str`due`õk jhicrìtlèc khrlcj mn jhs tclcñhs mn irckh qun rnsujtc euckmh uk
pjckh ns pcscmh c trcvés mn uk rnm tr`m`lnks`hkcj mn irckhs. Mnd`mh c qun
lunstrck ukc
mn`sptrn`kdmuèn`kõmkh m mnn m j`cl rnkjcse`h`õkkn sm nm njcj isnrcekeh`õ,k v
pcjrc`ckkcmr hy mjcn rlnmu ytr `pmn`lqnuknsñ`hsk cj mlnu iyr cikrchksm, njcs,
irãaècs kh shk cpjècdjns pcrc jc lnmè`õk mn irckhs `km`v`mucjns.
>. Inknrcj`mcmns mn Cpjèce`õk
>.3 Ns `lphrtcktn, nk nj ush mn nsths léthmhs mn prundc, rnehkhenr qun nj eãjeujh mn tclcñh
mn irckh prhlnm`h kh ns ukc lnmè`õk prne`sc. ^kc nstrueturc lntãjèc ns uk ehkjukth
mn er`stcjns tr`m`lnks`hkcjns mn vcr`hs tclcñhs y ahrlcs. Cuk s` thmhs nsths er`stcjns
aunrck `méktèhs nk tclcñh y ahrlc, jcs snee`hkns mn eruen mn irckh, prhmue`mcs phr uk
pjckh cjncthr`h (supnraè`n mn hdsnrvce`õk) c trcvés mn ukc nstrueturc, tnkmrìck
ukc m`str`due`õk mn ãrncs qun vcr`crìc mn uk lãx`lh c enrh, mnpnkm`nkmh mn mõkmn nj
pjckh ehrtn ecmc er`stcj `km`v`mucj. Nv`mnktnlnktn, mhs eclphs mn hdsnrvce`õk kh
punmnk snr
nxcetclnktn jh l`slh.
N 334
>.4 Nj tclcñh y jhecj`zce`õk mn jhs irckhs nk ukc lèrhnstrueturc shk

khrlcjlnktn ehlpjntclnktn cjncthr`hs. Nj prhensh kh khl`kcjlnktn cjncthr`h
mn phsè`hkcr uk pctrõk mn prundc punmn lnjhrcr jc cjncthr`nmcm, pnrh jhs prhenshs
cjncthr`hs punmnk prhmue`r ukc phdrn rnprnsnktce`õk cj ehkenktrcr lnmè`hkns nk
pcrtn mn ukc prhdntc. Tnprnsnktct`vh `lpjèc qun thmcs jcs pcrtns mn jc prhdntc
ehktr`duynk cj rnsujtcmh, kh ehlh cjiukcs vnens sn bc prnsul`mh, qun jhs eclphs mnj
tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h shk snjnee`hkcmhs. Jc snjnee`õk v`sucj mn jhs
eclphs, h nj crrhjh mn lnmè`hkns nxtrnlcs, kh punmn acjsàècr nj prhlnm`h
euckmh ns bnebh phr nxpnrths `lpcre`cjns, pnrh nk thmhs jhs ecshs prhphre`hkcrã
ukc `lprns`õk acjsc mn cjtc prne`s`õk. Vcrc lunstrnh rnprnsnktct`vh, nj ãrnc mn
jc prhdntc ns m`v`m`mc lnktcjlnktn nk vcr`cs sudãrncs ehbnrnktns ìucjns y
phsè`hkns mnj phrtchdjnths prnmntnrl`kcmcs. Nj phrtchdjnths ns cjustcmh
nx`thsclnktn pcrc ecmc ukc mn nstcs phsè`hkns y nj pctrõk mn prundc ns cpjècmh c
hseurcs, nsth ns, ehk jc juz cpcicmc, nj rni`strh enrrcmh, h nj hjh mnsv`cmh. Kh ns
pnrl`s`djn ehrrnee`õk mn jc phsè`õk csì ehlh snjnee`õk. Uhjh jcs lnmè`hkns
bnebcs nk eclphs nsehi`mhs mn nstc lcknrc punmnk snr vcj`mcmcs ehk rnspneth c
prne`s`õk y mnsv`ce`õk.
1. Lunstrnh
1.3Jcs prhdntcs mndnrãk snr snjnee`hkcmcs pcrc rnprnsnktcr jcs ehkmè`hkns prhlnm`h mnktrh
cmcnkt ùek`p cjhmtcns m nc ethrcjcvémécs , hjh tcn njhk jtcrcritchl m`nk tuhk, hp
prhrhmumueteht hh, he phlcrpch mkntkntrnl, `kmcnpr njcksm `vnckrm`hce `mhnk njsc
kcturcjnzc mnj lctnr`cj qun nstã s`nkmh shlnt`mh c prundc y nj prhpõs`th mnj nstum`h. Jc
jhecj`zce`õk y arneunke`c mnj lunstrnh mndnrìc dcscrsn nk ceunrmhs nktrn jhs acdrècktns y
jhs usucr`hs.
1.4Jcs prhdntcs kh mndnrãk snr thlcmcs mn ãrncs canetcmcs phr e`zcjjcl`nkth, ehee`õk u htrhs
prhenshs qun cjtnrcrãk jc nstrueturc mnj irckh.
9. Vrhdntcs mn Vrundc
9.3 Nk inknrcj, s` jc nstrueturc mnj irckh ns nqu`cx`cj, k`kiukc hr`nktce`õk mn jc prhdntc

ns cenptcdjn. U`k nldcrih, jc prnsnke`c mn ukc nstrueturc mn irckh nqu`cx`cj ns
ukc prhdntc lcjncdjn shjh punmn snr mntnrl`kcmc cj nxcl`kcr ukc supnraè`n mn
puj`mh
9.4 c` rcjj n jnc cstrjuu nejttnu mrcn mnajh rilr ckeh`õ kn.k ukc prhdntc hr`nktcmc
bhr`zhktcjlnktn ns nqu`cx`cj,
nkthkens jcs lnmè`hkns mnj tclcñh mn irckh nk nstc supnraè`n, h eucjqu`nr htrc, snrãk
nqu`vcjnktns mnktrh mn jc prne`s`õk nstcmìstèc mn nstn léthmh mn prundc. U`
jc nstrueturc mnj irckh kh ns nqu`cx`cj, pnrh njhkicmc, nkthkens jcs lnmè`hkns mnj
tclcñh mn irckh nk prhdntcs ehk mànrnktn hr`nktce`õk vcr`crãk. Nk nstn ecsh, nj
tclcñh mn irckh mndnrìc snr nvcjucmh nk cj lnkhs mhs mn jcs trns
supnraè`ns pr`ke`pcjns, trcksvnrscj, jhki`tum`kcj y pjckcr (h rcm`cj y trcksvnrscj
pcrc dcrrcs rnmhkmcs) y prhlnm`cmh ehlh sn mnser`dn nk jc snee`õk 331 pcrc
hdtnknr nj tclcñh lnm`h mn irckh. U` sn ut`j`zck jìkncs mn prundc m`rì`mcs, nk juicr
mn eìreujhs mn prundc, jc eunktc mn `ktnrenpe`hkns nk irckhs kh nqu`cx`cjns punmn
bcenrsn nk prhdntcs mn t`ph pjcec h jãl`kc ut`j`zckmh shjh mhs supnraè`ns pjckcs
pr`ke`pcjns, nk juicr mn jcs trns rnqunr`mcs phr nj léthmh pjck`létrèh.
N 334
9.5 Jc supnraè`n c snr puj`mc mndnrìc snr jh suaè`nktnlnktn jcric nk euckth c ãrnc
pcrc pnrl`t`r jc lnmè`õk mn cj lnkhs e`keh eclphs cj culnkth mnsncmh. Nk jc
lcyhrìc mn jhs ecshs, nxenpth pcrc prhdntcs mn bhjcs mnjicmcs h cjcldrn, ns
cmneucmc uk supnraè`n pheh puj`mc mn uk ãrnc mn 316 ll 4 (6.4> puji.4).
9.= Jc prhdntc mndnrã snr snee`hkcmc, lhktcmc (s` ns knenscr`h), cphycmc y puj`mc
mn ceunrmh c jhs prhenm`l`nkths rnehlnkmcmhs nk jc Vrãetèc N 5. Jc prhdntc mndnrã
snr ctcecmc ut`j`zckmh uk rncet`vh, tcj ehlh sn j`stc nk jc prãetèc N =69 pcrc
mnj`kncr jc lcyhrìc, h thmhs, jhs ehkthrkhs mnj irckh (Qnr tcld`ék cknxh C5).
2. Ecj`drce`õk
2.3 ^t`j`zcr uk lèrõlntrh mnj phrtchdjnths pcrc mntnrl`kcr nj culnkth j`kncj vnrmcmnrh
pcrc ecmc hdjnt`vh, heujcr y aunjjn, h cjustn mn zhhl pcrc snr ut`j`zcmh mnktrh mn +/-4%.
2.4 ^t`j`zcr ukc rnijc ehk nsecjc l`j`létrèc pcrc mntnrl`kcr jc jhki`tum cetucj mn jìkncs
mn prundc mnrnebcs h nj m`ãlntrh mn eìreujhs mn prundc ut`j`zcmhs ehlh rnj`jjc.
0. Vrnpcrce`õk mn Ahthlèrhircaìcs
0.3 nEsutckr mphrn spnc ructm`j`czsc km nah ctheulnèrmrhi erhkac ì jccs Ipcurìc eNc
2je2u5jc. r nj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h, mndnrãk
36. Vrhenm`l`nkth mn Ehlpcrce`õk
36.3 Nj prhenm`l`nkth mn ehlpcrce`õk mndn cpjècr pcrc lctnr`cjns

ehlpjntclnktn rner`stcj`zcmhs h aukm`mhs ehk irckhs nqu`cx`cjns.
36.4 Euckmh jhs eãjeujhs mn tclcñh mn irckh shk bnebhs phr nj léthmh mn ehlpcrce`õk
lãs cprhp`cmh, ebnqunhs rnpnt`mhs phr `km`v`muhs csì ehlh phr prundcs mn
jcdhrcthr`h bck lhstrcmh qun c lnkhs qun jc cpcrè`õk mn jc khrlc cprhx`ln
rczhkcdjnlnktn nsh mn jc lunstrc, punmnk heurr`r nrrhrns. Vcrc l`k`l`zcr tcjns
nrrhrns, jcs irãaècs mn ehlpcrce`õk shk prnsnktcmcs nk euctrh ectnihrìcs ehlh c
ehkt`kuce`õk?=
4.3 Vjcec 3 ― Irckhs kh inlnjhs (ctcqun pjckh). @kejuyn kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn irckh 66,
4.4 6V,j c¼ec, 3 @@¼ ―, 4I, r4c¼kh, s5 ,i 5n¼l,n =jh, s= (¼(ct , c>q, u>n¼ p, j11ck, 1h).¼ ,@
k9e, j99uy¼n, k2,ú l2¼nr,h 0s, m0¼n ,t c3l6 cñ 3h 6m6nR i. rckh 3, 4, 5,
=, >, 1, 9, 2 c 366R.
4.5 Vjcec @@@ ― Irckhs inlnjhs (ctcqun mn ehktrcstn). @kejuyn m`ãlntrhs mn irckh
khl`kcj mn 6.466, 6.3>6,6.346, 6.606, 6.696, 6.616, 6.6>6, 6.6=>, 6.65>, 6.64>, 6.646,
6.63>, 6.636, 6.66> ll c 9>R.
4.= Vjcec @Q ― Irckhs custnkìtèhs nk nj cenrh (LeSuc`m-Nbk). @kejuyn kúlnrhs mn
tclcñh mn irckh 3, 4, 5, =, >, 1, 9, 2 c 366R.
]CDJC 3 Irãaècs mn Ehlpcrce`õk suinr`mcs pcrc Lctnr`cjns Lntãjèhs
=
Vjcecs @, @@, @@@ y @Q nstãk m`sphk`djns nk jc haè`kc inknrcj mn CU]L. Hrmnkn VEK 34->63346-36 (Vjcec
@), 34->63346-46 (Vjcec @@), 34->63346-56 (Vjcec @@@), 34->63346-=6 (Vjcec @Q). ]cld`ék nstã m`sphk`djn
ukc ehld`kce`õk mn jcs euctrh pjcecs. Hrmnkn VEK 34->63343-42
N 334
KH]C ― Nstcs suinrnke`cs nstãk dcscmcs nk jcs prãetècs ehlukns nk jc `kmustr`c. Vcrc
prhdntcs prnpcrcmcs mn ceunrmh c téekècs nspne`cjns, jcs khrlcs mn ehlpcrce`õk cmneucmcs
mndnrìck snr snjnee`hkcmcs ehk dcsn nk ukc cpcr`nke`c nstrueturcj mn ceunrmh ehk nj pukth 2.4.
Lctnr`cj Kúlnrh m n V Culnkth D

jcec ãsèh
Cjul`k`h @ 366x
Ehdrn y cjnce`hkns c dcsn mn ehdrn (Qnr cknxh @@@ h @Q 9>x, 366x
CB=`n)rrh y Cenrh?
Custnkìtèh @@ h @Q 366x
Aérrèh @ 366x
Ecrdur`zcmh @Q 366x
@khx`mcdjn @@ 366x
Lcikns`h y cjnce`hkns c dcsn mn lcikns`h @ h @@ 366x
Kìqunj y cjnce`hkns c dcsn mn kìqunj @@ 366x
Cjnce`hkns mn supnrrns`stnke`c @ h @@ 366x
_`ke y cjnce`hkns c dcsn mn z`ke @ h @@ 366x
36.5 Jc tcdjc 3 j`stc uk kúlnrh mn lctnr`cjns y jcs irãaècs mn ehlpcrce`õk suinr`mcs pcrc
ush pcrc ecjeujcr nj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h. Vhr njnlpjh, pcrc ehdrn lcejcmh y
ehdrn ehk uk ctcqun mn ehktrcstn, ut`j`zcr Vjcth @@@.
KH]C 3? Njnlpjhs mn nstãkmcrns mn tclcñh mn irckh mn jcs pjcecs @, @@, @@@ y @Q shk lhstrcmhs
nk jcs aìurcs 3, 4, 5 y =.
36. = Nj eãjeujh mnj tclcñh mn irckh mntnrl`kcmh lèrhseõpèclnktn usucjlnktn mndnrìc

snr bnebh phr ehlpcrce`õk m`rnetc cj l`slh culnkth qun jc irãaèc cmneucmc.
Nsth cehlpcñcmh mn ehlpcrcr ukc `lcink prhynetcmc h ukc ahthlèrhircaìc mn uk
eclph rnprnsnktct`vh mn jc prhdntc mn prundc ehk jcs lèrhircaìcs mn jcs snr`ns mn
tclcñh mn irckh mn jc khrlc cprhp`cmc h ehk rnprhmuee`hkns h trckspcrnke`cs mn njjcs
cmneucmcs y snjnee`hkcr jc lèrhircaìc qun lãs sn cjustn c jc `justrce`õk mn jc prhdntc
mn prundc h
`ktnrphjn nktrn mhs nstãkmcrns. Tnphrtcr nstn tclcñh mn irckh ecjeujcmh
ehlh nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L, h m`ãlntrh mn irckh, mn jc `justrce`õk
qun lãs sn cenrqun c jc `lcink mn jc prhdntc mn prundc h ehlh uk vcjhr
`ktnrphjcmh nktrn mhs
`lãinkns nstãkmcr.
Ns knenscr`h36.>
uk nk juè`h phr pcrtn mnj hdsnrvcmhr pcrc snjnee`hkcr nj
culnkth c ut`j`zcr, nj tclcñh mnj ãrnc cmneucmh (kúlnrh mn irckhs), y nj kúlnrh y
jhecj`zce`õk nk jc prhdntc mn snee`hkns y eclphs rnprnsnktct`vhs pcrc ecjeujcr nj
tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h h ecrcetnrìstèh. Kh ns suaè`nktn snjnee`hkcr jh qun
pcrnen snr ãrncs mn tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h. Tnehlnkmce`hkns pcrc nsehinr
ãrncs cprhp`cmcs pcrc thmhs jhs prhenm`l`nkths bck s`mh ckhtcmcs nk nj pukth >.4.
36.1 Eãjeujhs mn tclcñh mn irckh mndnrãk snr bnebhs nk trns h lãs ãrncs
rnprnsnktct`vcs mn ecmc snee`õk mn jc prhdntc.
N 334
A@I.Irckh
pjh mn Irckhs kh inlnjhs (ctcqun pjckh) mn Vjcec @. ]clcñh mn 5 Njnlpjh
Kh.5 cmn366R
Irckhs inlnjhs
(ctcqun c ehktrcstn) mn Vjcec @@@.
]clcñh mn Irckh 6.606 ll c 9>R
A@I. 4 Njnlpjh A@I.

mn Irckhs inlnjhs
= Njnlpjh mn Irckhs Custnkìtèhs nk Cenrh mn Vjcec @Q. ]clcñh mn Irckh
(ctcqun pjckh) mn Vjcec @@ ]clcñh
mn Irckh Kh.5 c 366R
N
36.9 Euckmh jhs irckhs shk mn uk tclcñh aunrc mnj rckih qun cdcreck jcs
ahthircaìcs nstãkmcr, h euckmh nj culnkth ns mn 9>x h 366R kh shk sct`sacethr`hs,
htrhs culnkths punmnk snr ut`j`zcmhs pcrc ehlpcrce`õk ut`j`zckmh jcs rnjce`hkns
prhphre`hkcmcs nk jc Khtc 4 y ]cdjc 4. Mndn khtcrsn qun culnkths cjtnrkct`vhs
usucjlnktn shk s`lpjns lújt`pjhs mn jhs culnkths dãsèhs.
]CDJC 4 Tnjce`hkns mn ]clcñh mn Irckh mntnrl`kcmcs Lèrhseõpèclnktn

ut`j`zckmh jc Vjcec @@@ c Mànrnktns Culnkths
KH]C 3 ― Vr`lnrc jìknc ― m`ãlntrh lnm`h mnj irckh, m, nk ll, nk pcréktns`s ― nqu`vcjnktn cj
kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L, I.
KH]C 4 ― Nj culnkth pcrc jc Vjcec @@@ ns 9>R (snr`n mn trns mcths).
Kúlnrh mn @justrce`õk Vjcec @@@

Culnkth
KH]C 4 ― U` nj tclcñh mn irckh nstã rnphrtcmh nk jhs kúlnrhs CU]L, ns ehkvnk`nktn ut`j`zcr
jc rnjce`õk?
S < 4 jhi4 (L/Ld ) (4)
< 1.1= jhi36 (L/Ld )
mhkmn S ns uk acethr mn ehrrnee`õk qun ns cirnicmh cj tclcñh cpcrnktn mnj lèrhirckh mn jc

prhdntc, ehlh sn v`h nk nj culnkth, L , nk juicr mn nk nj culnkth dãsèh, Ld (9>R h 366R),
pcrc cjeckzcr nj vnrmcmnrh kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L. Nk nstcs ehkmè`hkns, pcrc uk
culnkth mn 4>R, nj vnrmcmnrh kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L ns euctrh eàrcs lãs dcjh
qun cqunj mn jc ehrrnsphkm`nktn c jc ahthlèrhircaìc c 366R(S < -=). Mn ìucj ahrlc, pcrc =66R,
nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L ns euctrh eàrcs lãs cjth (S < +=) mn cqunj mn jc
ehrrnsphkm`nktn ahthlèrhircaìc c 366R. Mn lcknrc s`l`jcr, pcrc 566R, nj kúlnrh mn
tclcñh mn irckh CU]L ns euctrh eàrcs lãs cjth mn cqunj mn jc ahthlèrhircaìc ehrrnsphkm`nktn
c 9>R.
36.2 Nj rnmue`mh kúlnrh mn irckhs phr eclph nk nj nxtrnlh irunsh mn jcs snr`ns irãaècs,
qun ns 66, y nj tclcñh mn irckhs luy pnqunñh nk nj nxtrnlh a`kh bcen màìe`j jc
ehlpcrce`õk prne`sc mn eàrcs khl`kcjns. Euckmh nj tclcñh mn irckh mn jc prhdntc ecn
nk eucjqu`nr nxtrnlh mnj rckih mn jc irãaèc, sn punmn bcenr ukc ehlpcrce`õk ehk lãs
snkt`mh ecld`ckmh nj culnkth mn lcknrc qun nj tclcñh mn irckh qunmn lãs enrec mnj
enktrh mnj rckih.
N
36.0 Nj ush mn trcspcrnke`cs > h jãl`kcs mn jhs nstãkmcrns, ehk nj nstãkmcr y jc `keõik`tc
ehjhecmcs cmycenktns c ecmc ukc, snrã prnanr`djn cj ush mn ehlpcrce`õk mn irãaècs mn
pcrnm ehk jc `lcink prhynetcmc nk jc pcktcjjc mnj lèrhsehp`h.
36.36 Kh sn jn mndnrìc ctr`du`r uk sìkàècmh pcrtèujcr cj bnebh mn qun
mànrnktns hdsnrvcmhrns c lnkumh hdtnkick rnsujtcmhs jìnrclnktn mànrnktns,
prhv`sths jhs mànrnktns rnsujtcmhs ecn mnktrh mn jhs jìl`tns mn ehka`ckzc
rczhkcdjnlnktn nspnrcmhs ehk nj léthmh ut`j`zcmh.
36.33 Bcy ukc phs`d`j`mcm euckmh uk hpnrcmhr bcen ebnqunhs rnpnt`mhs nk jc l`slc prhdntc
ut`j`zckmh nj léthmh mn ehlpcrce`õk qun snrãk pnrjumècmhs phr su pr`lnr eãjeujh. Nstc
mnsvnktcjc punmn snr supnrcmc, euckmh snc knenscr`h, phr lnm`h mn ecld`hs nk nj
culnkth, c trcvés mn nxtnks`õk mn jhs aunjjns, h rnlpjczh mn hdjnt`vh u heujcr nktrn
eãjeujhs (3).1
36.34 Bcenr nj eãjeujh mn tclcñhs mn irckh mntnrl`kcmhs
lcerhseõpèclnktn (nxtrnlcmclnktn irunshs) phr ehlpcrce`õk m`rnetc, c uk culnkth
mn 3R, mn jc prhdntc prnpcrcmc cmneucmclnktn, h mn ukc ahthircaìc mn uk
eclph rnprnsnktct`vh mn jc prhdntc, ehk ahthircaìcs mn jcs snr`ns mn irckh nstãkmcr
lhstrcmcs nk jc Vjcec @ (pcrc lctnr`cj kh inlnjh) y jcs Vjcecs @@ y @@@ (pcrc lctnr`cj
inlnjh). Mnsmn qun jcs ahthircaìcs mn jcs snr`ns mn tclcñh mn irckh nstãkmcr aunrhk
bnebcs c uk culnkth mn m`ãlntrh mn 9> y 366, jhs tclcñhs mn irckh nst`lcmhs mn nstc
ahrlc kh ecnk mnktrh mn jcs snr`ns mn tclcñh mn irckh nstãkmcr mn CU]L y phr nsth, mn
prnanrnke`c, mndnrìck snr nxprnscmhs yc snc ehlh m`ãlntrh mnj irckh prhlnm`h h
ehlh ukh mn jhs kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn
plncqeurnhñihrcs,k phh jm`srìtc mshnsr pnrkn ajncr `d]jcnd ujcsc 5r .u Vk crucl jhnsk
thtc lcyñhrs y mnj aicrecthkrh m ln cehe rrhnseõ`õpkè mhcsm lh ãnsk jc Khtc 5,
pcrtèujcrlnktn s` sn mnsnc ehkt`kucr ehk nstn léthmh mn rnphrtn.
KH]C 5 ― U` nj tclcñh mn irckh ns rnphrtcmh nk kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn lcerhirckh CU]L, ns

ehkvnk`nktn uscr jc rnjce`õk?
S < 4 jhi4 L (5)

< 1.1= jhi36 L
mhkmn S ns uk acethr mn ehrrnee`õk qun ns cirnicmh cj tclcñh cpcrnktn mn irckh mn

jc prhdntc, ehlh sn v`h nk nj culnkth, L, nk juicr mn c 3R, pcrc cjeckzcr nj vnrmcmnrh
kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn lcerhirckh CU]L. Nk nstcs ehkmè`hkns, pcrc uk culnkth mn 4R, nj
vnrmcmnrh kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn lcerhirckh CU]L ns mhs eàrcs lãs cjth (S < +4), y pcrc =R
nj kúlnrh
mahnth ltc`lerchñihrc amìcn e hlrrcnesrphhikrcmk`nhk tnC.U]L ns euctrh eàrcs lãs cjth
(S < +=) mn cqunj mn jc
36.35 Nj prhenm`l`nkth mn ehlpcrce`õk mndnrã snr cpjècdjn pcrc ecjeujcr nj tclcñh mn irckh
custnkìtèh nk cenrh aérrèh mnspués mn ukc prundc LeSuc`m-Nbk (Qnr Cknxh C5, C5.4),
>
]rckspcrnke`cs mn jhs vcr`hs tclcñhs mn irckh nk jc Vjcec @ nstãk m`sphk`djns phr pcrtn mn jc Haè`kc
Inknrcj mn CU]L. Hrmnkn VEK 34->63344-42 pcrc jc snr`n. ]rckspcrnke`cs mn iruphs mn tclcñh mn
irckh `km`v`mucjns nstãk m`sphk`djns pcrc rnqunr`l`nkth. Hrmnkn VEK 34->63343-33 (]clcñh mn Irckh
66), 34->63343-34 (]clcñh mn Irckh 6), 34->63343-35 (]clcñh mn Irckh 6.>), 34->63343-3= (]clcñh
mn Irckh 3.6), 34->63343-3> (]clcñh mn Irckh 3.>), 34->63343-31 (]clcñh mn Irckh 4.6), 34->63343-
39 (]clcñh mn Irckh 4.>), 34->63343-32 (]clcñh mn Irckh 5.6, 5.> y =.6), 34->63343-30 (]clcñh mn
Irckh =.>, >.6 y >.>), 34->63343-43 (]clcñh mn Irckh 1.6, 1.> y 9.6), 34->63343-44 (]clcñh mn Irckh
9.>, 2.6, 2.>), 34->63343-45 (]clcñh mn Irckh 0.6, 0.>, 36.6). Jhs irãaèhs `justrckmh kúlnrhs
mn tclcñh mn irckh 66 cj 36 nstãk nk jãl`kcs mn 2¼ phr 33 puji. (43>.0 phr 490.= ll).
]rckspcrnke`cs pcrc jcs Vjcecs @@, @@@ y @Q kh nstãk m`sphk`djns.
1
Jhs Kúlnrhs nk knir`tcs nktrn pcréktns`s sn rna`nrnk c jc j`stc mn rnanrnke`cs cknxc c nsths léthmhs mn
prundc.
N
h mnspués mn qun jhs irckhs custnkìtèhs bck s`mh rnvnjcmhs phr eucjqu`nr htrh lnm`h
(Qnr Cknxh C5, C5.5). Bcenr jc lnmè`õk mn tclcñh mn irckh ehlpcrckmh jc `lcink
lèrhseõpèc, c uk culnkth mn 366R, ehk jc `justrce`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh nstãkmcr nk
jc Vjcec @Q, pcrc irckh shlnt`mhs c ukc prundc LeSuc`m-Nbk (Qnr Cknxh C5)7 pcrc jc
lnmè`õk mn irckhs custnkìtèhs trctcmhs phr htrhs lnm`hs (Qnr Cknxh C5),
lnm`r ehlpcrckmh jc `lcink lèrhseõpèc ehk jc pjcec qun tnkick jc nstrueturc
jh lãs ehlpcrcdjn hdsnrvcmc nk jcs Vjcecs @, @@ h @Q.
36.3= Nj mnkhl`kcmh ‚Léthmh mn ]clcñh mn Irckh mn Arceturc Ubnpbnrm“ mn
juzicr nj tclcñh mnj irckh c pcrt`r mn jc cpcr`nke`c mn jc arceturc mn cenrh
nkmurne`mh (4), ehlprnkmn jc ehlpcrce`õk mn jc prhdntc dcjh `kvnstìce`õk ehk uk
ehkjukth mn arceturcs nstãkmcr.9 Un bc mnseud`nrth qun jcs snr`ns mn tclcñh mn irckh
mn arceturc kulnrcmcs crd`trcr`clnktn ehkeunrmck ehk jhs tclcñhs mn
irckh CU]L kulnrcmhs ehrrnsphkm`nktn nk jc ]cdjc =. Nstc eh`ke`mnke`c bcen
jhs tclcñhs mn irckh mn arceturc
`ktnrecld`cdjns ehk jhs tclcñhs mn irckh custnkìtèhs
mntnrl`kcmhs lèrhseõpèclnktn.
]CDJC 5 Tnjce`hkns mn ]clcñh mn Irckh Lcerhseõpèh Ehlputcmcs

pcrc Irckhs Nqu`cx`cjns, ^kàhrlns, Hr`nktcmhs Cjncthr`clnktn
K C Irckhs/^k`mcm mn ãrnc ãrnc mn Irckh Vrhlnm`h m M`ãlntrh Vrhlnm`h @ktnrsnee`õk Lnm`c KJ K
Kh. mn ]clcñh mn Lcerhirckh
KH]C ― Jhs kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn irckh mntnrl`kcmhs lcerhseõpèclnktn L-34.5, L-35.5,

L-35.2 y L-3=.5 ehrrnsphkmnk, rnspnet`vclnktn, ehk jhs kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn irckh
mntnrl`kcmhs lèrhseõpèclnktn (I) 66, 6, 6.> y 3.6.
33. Vrhenm`l`nkth Vjck`létrèh (h Onaar`ns) (5)
Un punmn hdtnknr ukc ahthircaìc mn jcs Arceturcs Nstãkmcr Ubnpbnrm phr lnm`h mn jcs Haè`kcs
9
Inknrcjns mn CU]L. Hrmnkn VEK 34->6334=-45

N
33.3 Nk uk prhenm`l`nkth pjck`létrèh `kser`d`r uk eìreujh 2 h rnetãkiujh mnj ãrnc ehkhe`mc
(usucjlnktn >666 ll4 pcrc s`lpjàècr jhs eãjeujhs) nk ukc lèrhircaìcs h nk jc pcktcjjc
mn v`mr`h mnsjustrcmh mnj lntcjõircah. Unjnee`hkcr uk culnkth qun prhphre`hkcrã cj
lnkhs >6 irckhs nk nj eclph c snr ehktcmh. Euckmh jc `lcink ns
nkahecmc cprhp`cmclnktn, eunktn nj kúlnrh mn irckhs mnktrh mn nstc ãrnc. Jc sulc mn
thmhs jhs irckhs `keju`mhs ehlpjntclnktn mnktrh mnj ãrnc ehkhe`mc lãs ukc l`tcm mnj
kúlnrh mn irckhs `ktnrenptcmhs phr jc e`reukanrnke`c mnj ãrnc mc nj kúlnrh mn thmhs
jhs irckhs nqu`vcjnktns, lnm`mhs cj culnkth ut`j`zcmh mnktrh mnj ãrnc. U` nstn kúlnrh
sn lujt`pjèc phr nj lujt`pjècmhr Onaar`ns, a , nk jc sniukmc ehjulkc mn jc ]cdjc >
hpunsth cj culnkth cprhp`cmh, nj prhmueth snrã nj kúlnrh mn irckhs phr l`jìlntrh
eucmrcmh K C. Eunktn uk lìk`lh mn trns eclphs pcrc csniurcr uk prhlnm`h rczhkcdjn.
Nj kúlnrh mn irckhs phr l`jìlntrh eucmrcmh c 3R, K C, ns ecjeujcmh?
K
K C < a Km nktrh @ktnrenptcm
h
(=)
+
4
Mhkmn a ns nj lujt`pjècmhr Onaar`ns (Qnr ]cdjc >), K mnktrh ns nj kúlnrh mn

irckhs ehlpjntclnktn cmnktrh mnj eìreujh mn prundc y K @ktnrenptcmh ns nj kúlnrh mn
irckhs qun
`ktnrenptck nj eìreujh mn prundc. Nj ãrnc mn irckh prhlnm`h, C, ns nj rneìprheh mn K C, qun
ns, 3/K C , l`nktrcs nj m`ãlntrh mn irckh prhlnm`h, m, ehlh sn j`stc nk jc Vjcec @@@ (Qnr 36.4.5),
ns jc rcìz eucmrcmc mn C. Nstn m`ãlntrh mn irckh kh t`nkn sìkàècmh aìsèh phrqun rnprnsnktc
nj jcmh
mn uk irckh eucmrcmh mn ãrnc C, y jcs snee`hkns mn eruen mn irckh kh shk eucmrcmcs.
]CDJC = Tnjce`hkns mn ]clcñh mn Irckh Ehlputcmcs pcrc Irckhs Nqu`cx`cjns,^kàhrlns,
Kh. mn ]clcñh mn Lcerhirckh

K C IC Irckhs/^k`mcm mn ãrnc ãrnc mn Irckh Vrhlnm`h m M`ãlntrh Vrhlnm`h @ktnrsnee`õk Lnm`cK J K
Kh./puji c 366R Kh./ll4 c 3R
2
^kc rnj`jjc trckspcrnktn pcrc nj léthmh pjck`létrèh nstã m`sphk`djn nk jc haè`kc inknrcj mn CU]L. Jc
trckspcrnke`c ehks`stn nk mhs eìreujhs mn prundc, ukh ehk uk m`ãlntrh mn 90.2 ll (ãrnc mn >666 ll 4)
y nj htrh ehk uk m`ãlntrh mn 3>0.1 ll (ãrnc mn 46 666 ll 4). Hrmnkn VEK 34->63345-03.
N
]CDJC > Tnjce`õk nktrn nj Culnkth ut`j`zcmh y nj Lujt`pjècmhr Onaar`ns, a, pcrc uk Ãrnc mn
>666 ll4 (uk eìreujh ehk uk m`ãlntrh mn 90.2-ll) ( a < 6.6664 L 4)
Culnkth ^t`j`zcmh Lujt`pjècmhr Onaar`ns, a , pcrc hdtnknr irckhs/ll 4
3 6.6664
36 6.64
4> 6.34>
>6 6.>
ª
396>6 34.3.64
3>6 >
466 =.>
4>6 2.6
566 34.>
>66 32.6
9>6 >6.6
3666 334.>
466.6
C
C uk culnkth mn 9> m`ãlntrhs, lujt`pjècmhr Onaar`ns, a, sn ehkv`nrtn nk uk`mcm s` nj
ãrnc ut`j`zcmc ns >14> ll4 (uk eìreujh mn m`ãlntrh mn 2=.>-ll).

33.4 Vcrc hdtnknr uk ehktnh nxcetc mnj kúlnrh mn irckhs qun nstãk ehlpjntclnktn
mnktrh mnj eìreujh mn prundc y nj kúlnrh mn irckhs qun `ktnrenptck nj eìreujh, ns
knenscr`h
ppluckrtec rm njh sa` nijtrchk. hJsc sphrdnren`s n`õj kn smencj klt`jéjõthkm, hp hprj
cnkjn`lléptrjhè,h e hnks nuk ajãupkèz` õmkn cnj kiúrlcsnr h mpnju ilrck mhns
ehktcmhs (Qnr snee`õk 30). Nj kúlnrh mn irckhs mnktrh mnj eìreujh mn prundcs, s`k
nldcrih, kh mndnrìc nxenmnr cprhx`lcmclnktn 366 phrqun sn vhjvnrìc tnm`hsh
n
`lprne`sh. Jc nxpnr`nke`c sui`nrn qun uk culnkth qun prhmuen >6 irckhs mnktrh mnj
eìreujh mn prundc nstã enrec mn snr õpt`lh nk euckth c prne`s`õk mn ehktnh phr eclph.
Mnd`mh c jc knens`mcm mn lcrecr jhs irckhs pcrc hdtnknr uk ehktnh prne`sh, nj léthmh
pjck`létrèh ns lnkhs naè`nktn qun nj léthmh mn `ktnrsnee`õk (Qnr snee`õk 34).
33.5 Jhs eclphs mndnrìck snr nsehi`mhs cjncthr`clnktn, s`k mnsv`ce`hkns, ehlh sn mnser`dn
nk nj pukth >.4. Kh `ktnktcr nsehinr eclphs qun pcrnzeck snr tìpèhs. Nsehinr jhs
eclphs cj czcr y snjnee`hkcrjhs mn mànrnktns juicrns mn jc supnraè`n mn puj`mh.
33. = Vhr mna`kè`õk hrì`kcj, uk tclcñh mn irckh mntnrl`kcmh lèrhseõpèclnktn mn
Kúlnrh 3 t`nkn 3.666 irckhs/puji4 c 3R. Vcrc ãrncs aunrc mnj eìreujh nstãkmcr,
mntnrl`kcr nj kúlnrh cetucj mn irckhs phr l`jìlntrh eucmrcmh, K C , y nkehktrcr nj
tclcñh lãs enreckh
Km nC (jcK ú]lcdnjrch =m.n N Ij krcúklhnsr phh mrn l tlcl4 cñ 3hR m) nu

ti`jr`zcckkhm Ch UN]qL (3, )I n,k p jucn ]mcnd sjcn r1 e. cjeujcmh c pcrt`r mn
34. Vrhenm`l`nkths Inknrcjns mn @ktnrenpe`õk

34.3 Jhs prhenm`l`nkths mn `ktnrenpe`õk shk lãs ehkvnk`nktns mn uscr qun nj prhenm`l`nkth
pjck`létrèh. Nsths prhenm`l`nkths shk trctcdjns pcrc snr uscmhs ehk vcr`hs t`phs mn
lãqu`kcs cux`j`crns. Ns aunrtnlnktn rnehlnkmcdjn qun snc ut`j`zcmh cj lnkhs
uk thtcj`zcmhr ehk thmhs jhs prhenm`l`nkths mn `ktnrenpe`õk pcrc prnvnk`r nrrhrns
khrlcjns nk nj ehktnh y pcrc nj`l`kcr mnsv`ce`hkns qun punmnk heurr`r euckmh
jcs eunktcs pcrnenk `r lãs cjth h lãs dcjh mn jh cktè`pcmh.
34.4 Jhs prhenm`l`nkths mn `ktnrenpe`õk shk rnehlnkmcmhs pcrc thmcs jcs nstrueturcs
qun pcrtnk mn jc ahrlc nqu`cx`cj ukàhrln. Vcrc nstrueturcs
ck`shtrõpècs, bcy prhenm`l`nkths m`sphk`djns yc snc pcrc bcenr eãjeujhs mn tclcñh
N
snpcrcmhs nk ecmc
ukc mnsnc
sniúk jcs cprhp`cmh.
trns m`rnee`hkns pr`ke`pcjns h pcrc ecjeujcr rce`hkcjlnktn nj tclcñh prhlnm`h
N
]CDJC 1 NE^CE@HKNU MN ]CLCÑH MN ITCKH

TNJCE@HKCKMH VCTÃLN]THU LNM@MHU EHK NJ
]CLCÑH MN ITCKH
CU]L MN]NTL@KCMH L@ETHUEÕV@ECLNK]N, I
KH]C 3 ― Mntnrl`kcr nj tclcñh mn irckh CU]L, ut`j`zckmh jcs sìu`nktns neuce`hkns?
KH]C 4 ― Jcs neuce`hkns mhs y trns shk pcrc nstrueturcs mn irckh mn ukc acsn.
KH]C 5 ― Vcrc ehkvnrt`r mn lèrõlntrhs c l`jìlntrhs, m`v`m`r nktrn 366.
KH]C = ― ^kc vcjhr ecjeuNjcemuhc em`õnkI mn ―3 ehrrnsphkmn cj CU]L I<^6k6`m.cmns

I < (5.543042 jhi36K C) ― K C nk
4.0>= I < (1.1=52>1 jhi36K J) ll-4
― 5.422 I < (1.1=52>1 K J nk ll-
jhi36V J) ― 5.422 I < (- 3
V J J nk
1.1=52>1 jhi36 ) ― 5.422 ll -3
 nk ll
34.5 Kh bcy ukc rnjce`õk lctnlãtèclnktn m`rnetc nktrn nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh
CU]L, I, y jc `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj lnm`c, c mànrnke`c mn jc rnjce`õk nxcetc nktrn I,
K CN, K C y C (Nq (3)) pcrc nj léthmh pjck`létrèh. Jc rnjce`õk
3/4
 < φ C (>)
=
nktrn jc `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj lnm`c, , y nj ãrnc mn irckh prhlnm`h, C, ns nxcetc pcrc
Ceì4re.4u.j4h)s. Epnhrkhs nkehu tnckktn nlxncketnc, pjcc rrcn jcuek`cõ kn sntkrutrent

unrjcc k úmln nirrhc kmhns t cnlquc`ñchx `cmnjn si ruckk`hah CrlUn]sL (QIn yr jc
`ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj lnm`c bc s`mh mna`k`mc mn lcknrc qun nj Kh. 6 CU]L t`nkn uk
tclcñh mn `ktnrenpe`õk lnm`c mn prne`sclnktn 54.66 ll pcrc jc nsecjc mn tclcñh mn
irckh mntnrl`kcmc lcerhseõpèclnktn y mn 54.66 ll nk uk eclph mn v`s`õk mn uk
culnkth mn 366R pcrc jc nsecjc mn tclcñh mn irckh mntnrl`kcmc lèrhseõpèclnktn.
Mn nstn lhmh?
6
I < 4 jhi4  (1)
I < 36.66 ― 4jhi4 (9)
I < 36.66 + 4jhi4K J (2)
mhkmn
phr ll ns
6
pcrc54jhsll y  y K
kúlnrhs mn nstãk
J
tclcñhnkmnl`jìlntrhs c 3R h kúlnrh
irckh mntnrl`kcmhs mn `ktnrsnee`hknsy
lcerhseõpèclnktn
nk
l`jìlntrhs h kúlnrh phr ll shdrn uk eclph mn 366R pcrc jhs kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn
irckh lèrhseõpèclnktn. ^t`j`zckmh nstc nsecjc jhs kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn irckh
lnm`mhs nstãk mnktrh mn enrec mn 6.63 uk`mcmns I mn kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn irckh
mntnrl`kcmcs phr léthmh pjck`létrèh, qun ns, dunkh mnktrh mn jc prne`s`õk mn jhs
léthmhs mn prundc. Mntcjjns cmè`hkcjns ehkenrk`nktns c jcs rnjce`hkns mn tclcñh mn
irckh shk prhphre`hkcmcs nk nj Cknxh C3 y C4.
34. = Jc m`stcke`c mn `ktnrenpe`õk lnm`c, , lnm`mc nk ukc snee`õk pjckc ns uk eãjeujh

s`k vcr`ce`õk mn jc m`stcke`c mn `ktnrenpe`õk lnm`c nktrn nj lctnr`cj sõj`mh nk jc
m`rnee`õk, h phr nke`lc mnj rckih mn m`rnee`hkns, lnm`mhs. Nj rcm`h mn jc supnraè`n mn
ehkthrkh mn irckh ãrnc phr vhjulnk ns prhphre`hkcmc nxcetclnktn phr UQ < 4
KJ mhkmn K J ns prhlnm`cmh shdrn trns m`lnks`hkns. Nstcs rnjce`hkns shk
`kmnpnkm`nktns mn jc ahrlc
N
mnj irckh.
N
35. Vrhenm`l`nkth mn @ktnrenpe`õk J`kncj Bnyk (=)

35.3 Nst`lcr nj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h ehktckmh ( nk jc pcktcjjc mn v`mr`h mnsjustrcmh, nk
ukc ahthlèrhircaìc mn uk eclph rnprnsnktct`vh mn jc prhdntc, h nk jc l`slc prhdntc) nj
kúlnrh mn irckhs `ktnrenptcmhs phr ukh h lãs jìkncs rnetcs jh suaè`nktnlnktn jcrics
pcrc shphrtcr cj lnkhs >6 `ktnrenpe`hkns. Ns mnsncdjn snjnee`hkcr ukc ehld`kce`õk mn
jhki`tum mn jìknc mn prundc y culnkth tcj qun uk eclph `km`v`mucj shphrtn nj kúlnrh mn
`ktnrenpe`hkns rnqunr`mcs. ^kc prundc tcj pnrl`t`rã khl`kcjlnktn nj eãjeujh mnj tclcñh
mcc èi`rhckchjn csj, knúkl unkrch rnkmt nprhn mnt ntcrl`cckñchm cC, Um]ndnL
rlìcãks senr echkthc, mncks jcpc prc hrtnd tnvkcnjur cjcm pr.c nJeì`ksn`õcks
rnqunr`mc. Jc prne`s`õk mnj eãjeujh mn tclcñh mn irckh phr nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk ns
nk auke`õk mnj kúlnrh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns mn irckh ehktcmcs (Qnr Unee`õk 30). Mnd`mh c
qun jhs nxtrnlhs mn jìkncs mn prundc rnetcs usucjlnktn ecnrãk mnktrh mn jhs irckhs
(Qnr pukth 3=.5), jc prne`s`õk snrã rnmue`mc s` nj ehktnh prhlnm`h phr jìknc mn prundc ns
dcjh. U` ns phs`djn, ut`j`zcr yc snc ukc jìknc mn prundc lãs jcric h uk culnkth lnkhr.
35.4 Bcenr eunktcs pr`lnrh nk mn 5 c > eclphs snjnee`hkcmhs cj czcr y
snpcrcmhs clpj`clnktn pcrc hdtnknr uk prhlnm`h rczhkcdjn pcrc jc prhdntc.
U` jc prne`s`õk cpcrnktn mn nstn prhlnm`h (ecjeujcmc ehlh sn `kmèc nk jc Unee`õk 3>)
kh ns cmneucmc, bcenr eunktcs nk suaè`nktns eclphs cmè`hkcjns pcrc hdtnknr jc
prne`s`õk rnqunr`mc pcrc nj prhlnm`h mn prhdntcs.
35.5 ^kc `ktnrenpe`õk ns uk snilnkth mn jìknc mn prundc qun pcsc phr nke`lc mn uk irckh.
^kc `ktnrsnee`õk ns uk pukth mhkmn jc jìknc mn prundc ns ehrtcmc phr uk nj ehkthrkh mn
mumnk iukrck shh. jEc uacsjqnu. `nErucc mknm hjh sn m ehusn pkutcnkm n`k
etnhrketncpre, èhhkkn sr,n jshusj tscnmihls n`mkéthkst` echj sn nxtkr nulkh l mcnt
nurk`cj jìknc mn prundc qun pnkntrck mnktrh mn uk irckh shk ckhtcmhs ehlh
lnm`cs
`ktnrenpe`hkns. Euckmh sn eunktck `ktnrsnee`hkns, jhs pukths nxtrnlhs mn ukc jìknc mn
prundc kh shk `ktnrsnee`hkns y kh shk ehktcmhs nxenpth euckmh nj nxtrnlh pcrnen
thecr nxcetclnktn nj ehkthrkh mn uk irckh, euckmh ¼ `ktnrsnee`õk mndnrìc snr ckhtcmc..
^kc `ktnrsnee`õk tckinke`cj ehk uk ehkthrkh mn irckh mndnrìc snr ckhtcmc ehlh ukc
`ktnrsnee`õk. ^kc `ktnrsnee`õk qun cpcrnktnlnktn eh`ke`mn ehk jc uk`õk mn trns irckhs
mndnrìc snr ckhtcmc ehlh 3¼ . Ehk irckhs mn ahrlcs `rrniujcrns, jc jìknc mn prundc
punmn inknrcr mhs `ktnrsnee`hkns ehk mànrnktns pcrtns nk nj l`slh irckh, jukth ehk
ukc tnrenrc snee`õk `ktnrsnee`õk ehk nj irckh qun nstã s`nkmh `ktrhmue`mh.
Jcs mhs `ktnrsnee`hkns cmè`hkcjns snrãk ehktcmcs.
35.= Jhs naneths mn mnsv`ce`õk lhmnrcmc phr pcrtn mn ukc nstrueturc nqu`cx`cj punmnk snr
nj`l`kcmhs bce`nkmh eunktcs mn `ktnrenpe`õk nk ukc rnm mn jìkncs qun ehktnkic jìkncs
0
sqnurn uttn`jk`zicmkc esu. cJtcrh a hr lcã sm nh rt`cnjkntsc ern`hmkns k. hJ cns

eurìcttèrhc ,j ìpkrnhcvs`s rtnhe qtcusn mthnm jcs A j``cisu rpch r>e`h kpnusn mnkj eclph
shk lnm`mcs ehk cprhx`lcmclnktn nj l`slh pnsh. Vhr nsth, ukc rnm mn jìkncs
scj`nkmh mnsmn uk pukth nk ehlúk kh ns cmneucmh. Nj kúlnrh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns snrã
ehktcmh pcrc thmc jc rnm, y vcjhrns `km`v`mucjns mn KJ y  mntnrl`kcmhs pcrc ecmc
rnm ehlh uk thmh.
35.> Vcrc nstrueturcs ejcrclnktn kh nqu`cx`cjns tcjns ehlh lntcjns
lhmnrcmclnktn trcdcjcmhs, sn punmn hdtnknr lcyhr `kahrlce`õk bce`nkmh
mntnrl`kce`hkns mn tclcñh phr snpcrcmh c trcvés mn rnmns mn jìkncs qun
eh`ke`mck ehk jcs trns m`rnee`hkns pr`ke`pcjns mn jc prhdntc. Khrlcjlnktn shk
ut`j`zcmcs snee`hkns jhki`tum`kcjns y trcksvnrscjns mn jc prhdntc, jc snee`õk khrlcj
ns cirnicmc euckmh ns knenscr`h.
Eucjqu`nrc mn jcs jìkncs mn 366ll mn jc Aìurc > punmnk snr cpjècmcs e`keh vnens,
ut`j`zckmh mnspjczcl`nkths pcrcjnjhs, ehjheckmh jcs e`keh lcrecs ‚+“ nk nj l`slh pukth
shdrn jc `lcink. Cjtnrkct`vclnktn, ukc rnj`jjc mn prundcs trckspcrnktn ehk jìkncs mn
N
0
^kc trckspcrnke`c mn tclcñh rncj mn jc Aìurc > nstã m`sphk`djn phr pcrtn mn jc Haè`kc Inknrcj mn
CU]L. Hrmnkn VEK 34->63345-2>
N
prundc pcrcjnjcs nspce`cmcs s`stnlãtèclnktn mn jhki`tum ehkhe`mc punmn snr bnebcs y

ut`j`zcmcs.
3=. Vrhenm`l`nkths mn @ktnrenpe`õk E`reujcr

3=.3 Nj ush mn jìkncs mn prundc e`reujcrns nk juicr mn jìkncs mn prundc rnetcs bc s`mh
mnankm`mh phr ^kmnrwhhm (>), B`jj`crm (1) y Cdrcls (9). Jcs rnmns mn prundc e`reujcrns
ehlpnksck cuthlãtèclnktn jcs mnsv`ce`hkns prhvnk`nktns mn ahrlcs mn
irckh
nqu`cx`cjns, s`k shdrnecricr k`kiukc phre`õk jhecj mnj eclph. Jcs
`ktnrsnee`hkns cldìucs nk jhs nxtrnlhs mn jìkncs mn prundc shk nj`l`kcmcs. Jhs
prhenm`l`nkths mn
`ktnrenpe`õk e`reujcr shk lãs cmneucmhs pcrc su ush ehlh prhenm`l`nkths lckucjns mn
rut`kc a`jc pcrc nst`lcr nj tclcñh mn irckh nk ehktrhj mn ecj`mcm.
3>6 ll
l
l
6
6
3
3>6 ll
366 ll
KH]C ― U` ns rnprhmue`mh pcrc bcenr jìkncs rnetcs ehk jhki`tum lcrecmc

]htcj mn Jìkncs Tnetcs? >66 ll
Eìreujhs s hk? E`reukanrnke`c, l l, M`ãlntrh, l l
4>6.6 90.>2
311.9 >5.6>
25.5 41.>5
]htcj >66.6
KH]C ― Qnr khtc cj p`n kúlnrh 0
A@I^TC >. Nseckt`jjõk mn prundc pcrc ehktnh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns
3=.4 Vrhenm`l`nkth mn ^k Eìreujh mn B`jj`crm

4.3 Euckmh jc ahrlc mnj irckh kh ns nqu`cx`cj pnrh nstc mnahrln phr mnahrlce`õk u htrhs
prhenshs, nj hdtnknr uk vcjhr mn `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj prhlnm`h ut`j`zckmh jìkncs mn prundc
rnetcs rnqu`nrn prhlnm`cr jhs vcjhrns hdtnk`mhs c ukc vcr`nmcm mn hr`nktce`hkns. U` nsth
kh sn bcen eu`mcmhsclnktn, punmnk bcdnr mnsv`ce`hkns. Nj ush mn uk eìreujh ehlh
jìknc mn prundc nj`l`kc nstn prhdjnlc mnsmn nj lhlnkth qun nj eìreujh prhdcrã thmcs
jcs hr`nktce`hkns ìucjlnktn y s`k vcr`ce`hkns.
N
4.4 Kh sn punmn ut`j`zcr k`kiúk tclcñh mn eìreujh mn e`reukanrnke`c nxcetclnktn

ehkhe`mc.
^sucjlnktn jcs e`reukanrnke`cs mn 366, 466 h 4>6 ll shk ehkvnk`nktns. Nj m`ãlntrh mn
eìreujh mn prundc kukec mndnrìc snr lnkhr qun jhs irckhs lãs irckmns hdsnrvcmhs. U`
nj eìreujh mn prundc ns lnkhr qun cprhx`lcmclnktn trns vnens jcs `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj
lnm`c, jc m`str`due`õk mnj kúlnrh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns n `ktnrsnee`hkns phr eclph kh snrã
Iucss`ckc. Cmnlãs, nj ush mn eìreujhs mn prundc pnqunñhs ns lãs d`nk `knaè`nktn
ehlh ukc irck eckt`mcm mn eclphs qun mndnk snr nvcjucmhs pcrc hdtnknr uk
cjth
mimrncj mehì rmenu jphr npec`rrsc`õ `k.m ^èkcr pnnj qjuincñrc mrnhaknmr nk nel`c pnsz
ucsr uyc jtlnrnlk`tknc erh njhj echmkct nhk. jcC jpncrthnr `sculpnkr`tthnr cpj`qun nj
eìreujh snjnee`hkcmh c jc `lcink mnj lèrhsehp`h c uk culnkth ehkhe`mh ehlh
ehkvnk`nktn y eunktn nj kúlnrh mn ehkthrkhs mn irckh qun `ktnrsnetck nj eìreujh pcrc
ecmc cpjèce`õk. Cpj`qun nj eìreujh shjh ukc vnz pcrc ecmc eclph õptèh,
cirnickmh eclphs mn lcknrc rnprnsnktct`vc, bcstc hdtnknr eunktcs suaè`nktns pcrc
cjeckzcr jc prne`s`õk rnqunr`mc. Jc vcr`ce`õk nk eunktcs phr cpjèce`õk mn eìreujh mn
prundc m`sl`kuyn cj lhlnkth qun nj tclcñh mnj eìreujh culnktc y, phr supunsth, ns
canetcmh phr jc ukàhrl`mcm mn jc m`str`due`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh.
4.5 Ehlh thmhs jhs prhenm`l`nkths mn `ktnrenpe`õk, jc prne`s`õk mn jc lnmè`õk culnktc
sniúk culnktc nj kúlnrh mn eunktcs (Qnr Unee`õk 30). Jc prne`s`õk sn dcsc nk jc
mnsv`ce`õk nstãkmcr mn jcs eunktcs mnj kúlnrh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns h `ktnrsnee`hkns
phr eclph. Nk inknrcj, pcrc ukc nstrueturc mn irckh mcmc, jc mnsv`ce`õk nstãkmcr
sn vn culnktcmc cj lhlnkth nk qun jc eunktc phr cpjèce`õk mn eìreujh y jc eunktc
thtcj (nst
pnpsc,r cn jn kj úplrhnernhm m`ln` nckptjhèsc eB`h`jjk`cnrsm) qcunl npkrhtcmku.e

nJkc se nehrekcm `men`h k5n>s e mun kptrcusn dpch rr neeìrhelujnhk emhckm cnsj
eìreujh mn prundc cpjècmh cjncthr`clnktn shdrn uk ãrnc mn jc prhdntc tck irckmn ehlh
snc acet`djn bcstc hdtnknr nj kúlnrh thtcj mn eunktcs mnsncmh.
3=.5 Vrhenm`l`nkth mn ]rns Eìreujhs mn Cdrcls (9)?

5.3 Dcscmh nk uk mnseudr`l`nkth nxpnr`lnktcj qun khrlcjlnktn uk thtcj mn >66 eunktcs
phr prhdntc cjeckzck ukc prne`s`õk cenptcdjn, Cdrcls mnscrrhjjõ uk
prhenm`l`nkth nspneìaèh pcrc nj eãjeujh mn rut`kc mnj tclcñh mn irckh
prhlnm`h pcrc cenrhs ehlnre`cjns. Nj ush mn jc prundc mn j eucmrcmc nk
mcths rncjns mnlhstrõ qun jc vcr`ce`õk mn `ktnrenpe`õk mn eunktcs ns enreckh
c jh khrlcj, pnrl`t`nkmh c jcs hdsnrvce`hkns snr trctcmcs phr jcs nstcmìstècs
mn m`str`due`hkns khrlcjns. Mn nstn lhmh tckth ukc lnmè`õk mn vcr`cd`j`mcm ehlh
nj jìl`tn mn ehka`ckzc mnj rnsujtcmh shk ehlputcmhs pcrc ecmc mntnrl`kce`õk mn
tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h.
5.4 tNNtnjk p`ncktrmõhk umknc per`ruenudkcan ernhkes``cs ttnh tnckj mtrnn >s 6e6ìlreluj,h
se helhhk esénk ltrùehns trnc `niku cjcjl Anìkutnr cn >s.p cCep`jc`qmuhns
nx`thsclnktn nstn pctrõk cj lnkhs c e`keh eclphs snjnee`hkcmhs cjncthr`clnktn
y clpj`clnktn nspce`cmhs, rni`strckmh phr snpcrcmh jc eunktc mn `ktnrsnee`hkns
phr pctrõk pcrc ecmc prundc. Nkthkens, mntnrl`kn jc `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj
lnm`c, su mnsv`ce`õk nstãkmcr, jìl`tn mn ehka`ckzc mn 0>% y prne`s`õk rnjct`vc
phrenktucj. Vcrc jc lcyhrìc mn jhs trcdcjhs, ukc prne`s`õk rnjct`vc mn 36% h lnkhs
rnprnsnktc uk ircmh mn prne`s`õk cenptcdjn. Nj prhenm`l`nkth nspneìaèh ns ehlh sìun?
3=.5.4.3 Nxcl`kcr jc nstrueturc mnj irckh y snjnee`hkcr uk culnkth qun cjeckzcrã mn =6 c 366
eunktcs mn `ktnrenpe`hkns h `ktnrsnee`õk phr ehjhece`õk mn jc rnj`jjc mn prundc mn trns
eìreujhs. Mnd`mh c qun kunstrh hdjnt`vh ns hdtnknr uk thtcj mn =66 c >66 eunktcs, nj
culnkth `mõknh ns cqunj qun jhirn enrec mn 366 eunktcs phr ehjhece`õk. U`k nldcrih,
N
l`nktrcs jc eunktc phr ehjhece`õk culnktc mn =6 c 366, jhs nrrhrns nk ehktnh shk lãs
pmrnhdpnnrkìcskh ss. nMjnnede`m`hhk c rsqnu nc jjc l nnsktrhuse tuer`kce mhn je
icrlcpkhs v ccrl`cprãj`c ulkn pkhtneh n msnp cuek`c emchls.p hC jci uhktrhhs,
N
lntcjõircahs sn s`nktns lãs eõlhmhs ehktckmh 36 eclphs ehk enrec mn =6 c >6

eunktcs phr eclph. Vcrc jc lcyhrìc mn jcs nstrueturcs mn irckh, ukc eunktc thtcj mn
=66 c >66 `ktnrenpe`hkns h `ktnrsnee`hkns shdrn lãs mn > c 36 eclphs prhmuen lãs
mnj 36% mn prne`s`õk rnjct`vc. Jc Aìurc 1 lunstrc jc rnjce`õk nktrn nj ehktnh mn
`ktnrenpe`õk prhlnm`h y nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L mntnrl`kcmh
lèrhseõpèclnktn ehlh ukc auke`õk mn culnkth.
Tck h Vrnanr`mh
L
]
U
C
h
k
rcr
I
n
m
h
ó
c
l
c
]
n
m
rhr
ln
nl
S
K
Aìurc 1 Eunktcs mn @ktnrenpe`õk prhlnm`h nk uk Vctrõk mn Vrundc mn >66ll
3=.5.4.4 Unjnee`hkcr cjncthr`clnktn uk eclph pcrc lnmè`õk y cpjècr nj pctrõk mn prundc c jc

`lcink. Vunmn cpjècrsn ukc trckspcrnke`c mnj pctrõk m`rnetclnktn cj
er`stcj mnsjustrcmh, h c ukc ahthlèrhircaìc euckmh sn mnsnck rni`strhs
pnrlcknktns. Nj ehktnh m`rneth ut`j`zckmh uk rntìeujh mn tclcñh cmneucmh nk nj
heujcr ns pnrl`s`djn, pnrh sn punmn nspnrcr qun cjiukhs hpnrcmhrns tnkick
màèujtcm pcrc ehktcr
ehìrrerunjeht cnlkn tkutnrk ch , jcu tm`jn`zkcsk` mchm u m neh ekhtcktmnhhr rqnuenh

lhnpknmrnc mlc.c kEuucnjklt n kethnl ppcjrnctc clenukltnu jeccr mncj kúlnrh
thtcj mn `ktnrsnee`hkns mn ehkthrkh mn irckh ehk nj pctrõk mn prundc. Nj ehktcmhr
lckucj ns knenscr`h pcrc nv`tcr vcr`ce`hkns bce`c uk ceunrmh `rrncj nktrn
cpjèce`hkns h bce`c uk rnsujtcmh mnsncmh y pcrc l`k`l`zcr nrrhrns mn lnlhr`c. Nj
hpnrcmhr mndnrìc nv`tcr lcktnknr ukc eunktc lnktcj. Euckmh su ut`jèn uk thtcj`zcmhr,
ckhtn eucjqu`nr `ktnrsnee`õk mnj eìreujh ehk jc uk`õk mn trns irckhs ehlh mhs nk juicr
mnj vcjhr ehrrneth mn 3¼7 nj nrrhr `ktrhmue`mh ns luy pnqunñh.
5.5 Vcrc ecmc ehktnh mn eclph, ecjeujcr KJ h V J sniúk?
K`
K J < J / L (0)
V `
V J < J / L (36)
N
mhkmn K` y V ` shk nj kúlnrh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns h `ktnrsnee`hkns ehktcmcs nk nj eclph,

J
ns nj jhki`tum thtcj mn jc jìknc mn prundc (>66ll) y L ns nj culnkth.
5.= Ecjeujcr nj vcjhr mn `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj lnm`c pcrc ecmc eclph, , phr?
 < 3 < 3 (33)

KJ V J
Nj vcjhr prhlnm`h mn jcs mntnrl`kce`hkns k mn KJ , V J, h  ns ut`j`zcmh pcrc mntnrl`kcr nj
]tcldcjcñ 1h, mjhns imrcthksh lChUs]trLcm hls nimrã`ma`he cl`nekrhtns enõkp `jeecc
Alìnukrtcn 1u, th`j` zjhcsk mhc thjcss m n ejcu c]ec`hdkjcn s= . mn jc
3>. Ckãj`s`s Nstcmìstèh
3>.3 K`kiukc mntnrl`kce`õk mn tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h punmn snr ukc lnmè`õk nxcetc.
Mn nstn lhmh, k`kiukc mntnrl`kce`õk ns ehlpjntc s`k tcld`ék ecjeujcr jc prne`s`õk
mnktrh ehk jc eucj nj tclcñh mntnrl`kcmh punmn, ehk ukc ehka`ckzc khrlcj,
snr ehks`mnrcmh pcrc rnprnsnktcr nj cetucj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h mn jc
prhdntc nxcl`kcmc. Mn ceunrmh ehk jc prãetèc ehlúk mn `kink`nrìc, nstc snee`õk
ehks`mnrc ehka`ckzc khrlcj pcrc rnprnsnktcr jc nxpnetce`õk mn qun nj cetucj nrrhr snrã
mnktrh mn jc
`kenrt`muldrn 0>% mnj t`nlph.
3.3 Luebcs prhdntcs vcrìck lnsurcmclnktn nk nj tclcñh mnj irckh mn uk eclph mn v`s`õk
c htrh, nstã vcr`ce`õk s`nkmh rnsphkscdjn mn ukc prhphre`õk irckmn mn jc `kenrt`muldrn.
^jukst ànèscau enurznhk tclsì k`k`lm`hv `mnukc jllnsé tehumyhcs

plrncek`su`ccõjkn sn,s pechrcl phcdrtcndkjn r cu nksct cp rvncer`cs`dõ`kkj`m crnmq
uknctrtuùmrc,j (1). Jc cjtc prne`s`õk jhecj qun punmn snr hdtnk`mc phr léthmhs mn
lãqu`kcs qun c lnkumh shjh jhircrã uk pnqunñh `kernlnkth nk jc prne`s`õk ijhdcj c
lnkhs qun tcld`ék luebhs eclphs snck lnm`mhs, pnrh s` cyumc c m`st`kiu`r jc
vcr`cd`j`mcm kcturcj phr pcrtn mn `lprne`s`hkns mn ehktnh.
3.4 Mnspués mn qun nj kúlnrh mn eclphs mnsncmhs bck s`mh lnm`mhs, ecjeujn nj
vcjhr lnm`h mn K C C h  mn jhs vcjhrns `km`v`mucjns mn jhs eclphs mn ceunrmh c?
 R `
R < (34)
k
mhkmn R ` rnprnsnktc uk vcjhr `km`v`mucj, R ns jc lnm`c y k ns nj kúlnrh mn lnmè`hkns.
3.5 Ecjeujcr jc mnsv`ce`õk nstãkmcr mn jcs lnmè`hkns `km`v`mucjns mn ceunrmh c jc neuce`õk
usucj?
s < ( R ` ― R )4 (35)

¼
k-3
mhkmn s ns jc mnsv`ce`õk nstãkmcr.
3.= Ecjeujcr nj `ktnrvcjh mn ehka`ckzc mn 0>%, 0>% E@, mn ecmc lnmè`õk sn ceunrmh c?
.
0>% E@ < t s (3=)

k
mhkmn nj . `kmèc ukc lujt`pjèce`õk. Jc ]cdjc 9 j`stc jhs vcjhrns t ehlh ukc auke`õk mn k.
3. > Ecjeujcr nj phrenktcjn mn prne`s`õk rnjct`vc, %TC, mn jcs lnmè`hkns m`v`m`nkmh nj
vcjhr mn 0>% E@ nktrn jc lnm`c y nxprnsckmh jhs rnsujtcmhs ehlh uk phrenktcjn, qun ns?
%TC < 0>% E@
N
. R .
366 (3>)
3.1 U` nj %TC ns ehks`mnrcmh ehlh luy cjth pcrc jc cpjèce`õk mnst`kcmc, mndnrìck
lnm`rsn lãs eclphs y sn mndnrìck rnpnt`r jhs eãjeujhs mn jhs pukths 3>.3 cj 3>.>.
Ehlh ukc
N
rnijc inknrcj, ukc 36%TC (h lnkhr) ns ehks`mnrcmc ukc prne`s`õk cenptcdjn pcrc jc
lcyhrìc mn jhs prhpõs`ths.
3.9 Ehkvnrt`r nj vcjhr lnm`h mn K C h  cj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L , ut`j`zckmh jc
]cdjc = h jcs neuce`hkns mn jc ]cdjc 1.
31. Vrhdntc ehk Ahrlcs mn Irckh Kh-Nqu`cx`cjns
31.3 UUaah`r jlc cah nrlquc` cmxn`cj ji, rjcksh l aunnm `cej`thnkrcnms cm cnj tpcrlhecnñshc
mr nm ni lrcckkhn mrcn dqnurnìc jkh sb icrecnkrhsns ynck kshu psnrca`ke `mnns
hr`nktcmcs jhki`tum`kcjlnktn (), trcksvnrscjlnktn (t) y pjckcr pcrc lctnr`cj t`ph
mn dcrrc rnetckiujcr, pjcec h jãl`kc. Vcrc dcrrcs rnmhkmcs, shk ut`j`zcmcs jcs
snee`hkns jhki`tum`kcj rcm`cj y trcksvnrsc. U` jc pcrt`mc mn nqu`cx`cj kh ns luy irckmn
(Qnr pukth 31.4.4), punmn mntnrl`kcrsn uk eãjeujh rczhkcdjn mnj tclcñh mn irckh
ut`j`zckmh ukc prhdntc jhki`tum`kcj y ukc rnj`jjc mn prundc e`reujcr. U` sn ut`j`zck jìkncs
rnetcs mn prundc pcrc nj ckãj`s`s, punmn bcenrsn lnmè`hkns nk jcs trns pr`ke`pcjns
m`rnee`hkns ut`j`zckmh shjh mhs mn jhs trns pjckhs mn prundc.
31.4 Léthmh Vjck`létrèh?
31.4.3 Euckmh jc ahrlc mnj irckh kh ns nqu`cx`cj, pnrh s` njhkicmc, bcenr ehktnhs mn irckh
nk ecmc ukh mn jhs trns pjckhs, qun shk, pjckhs mn puj`mh nk supnraè`ns
hr`nktcmcs jhki`tum`kcjlnktn, trcksvnrscjlnktn y pjckcr. Mntnrl`kcr nj kúlnrh mn
irckhs phr ll 4 c 3R nk jcs supnraè`ns hr`nktcmcs jhki`tum`kcjlnktn, trcksvnrscjlnktn
y pjckcr, K C , K C Ct

yjhsK C trpn, srn vs cpjnnhernt`svcKl nmknt njh, sy pejcjkehusjc pr rn`kj ek`úplcjnrsh?
lnm`h mn irckhs phr uk`mcm mn ãrnc, K C, mn
K C < (K C . K C t . K C p) 3/5

 (31)
mhkmn . `kmèc ukc lujt`pjèce`õk y jc tnstc shdrn ecmc eckt`mcm `kmèc uk vcjhr prhlnm`h.
31.4.4 ^k eãjeujh rczhkcdjn mnj tclcñh mn irckh punmn bcenrsn c pcrt`r mn K C sõjh, 
s` jc pcrt`mc mn ukc ahrlc nqu`cx`cj kh ns nxens`vc (:5?3 prhphre`õk m`lnks`hkcj).

31.4.5 Ecjeujcr I c pcrt`r mnj vcjhr lnm`h mn K C mn jhs prhlnm`h bnebhs nk ecmc
eclph. Mnscrrhjjcr nj ckãj`s`s nstcmìstèh (pukths 3>.3 cj 3>.>) shjh nk jcs
lnmè`hkns
`km`v`mucjns shdrn ecmc eclph.
31.5 Léthmh mn @ktnrenpe`õk

31.5.3 Vlcnrmc` em`hnktnsrl pùkcnrm nnkj btclencrñshn umtn`j` zicrkcmkhh rnmjn`jj cnss
tmrnu eptururcnsd cm en` reiurjcckrhn s khh jìnknquc`sc xm`nc jnpsru, njdccs ehjhecmcs
cjncthr`clnktn nk ecmc ukh mn jhs trns pr`ke`pcjns pjckhs mn prundc, h phr jc ut`j`zce`õk
mn jìkncs mn prundc m`rnetcs yc snc nk trns h sn`s mn jcs pr`ke`pcjns
m`rnee`hkns ut`j`zckmh yc snck mhs h trns mn jhs pr`ke`pcjns pjckhs mn prundc., Qn Aìurc
9. Vcrc prhdntcs mhkmn jc pcrt`mc mn ukc ahrlc nqu`cx`cj kh ns snvnrc (:5?3 prhphre`õk
m`lnks`hkcj), uk eãjeujh rczhkcdjn mnj tclcñh mn irckh punmn snr bnebh ut`j`zckmh ukc
rnj`jjc mn prundc e`reujcr shjh nk nj pjckh jhki`tum`kcj.
31.5.4
Nj tclcñh mn irckh punmn snr mntnrl`kcmh c pcrt`r mn lnmè`hkns mnj kúlnrh lnm`h mn
`ktnrsnee`hkns mn ehkthrkh mn irckh phr uk`mcm mn jhki`tum, V J h nj kúlnrh lnm`h
mn irckh `ktnrenptcmhs phr uk`mcm mn jhki`tum KJ J. Cldhs léthmhs cjeckzck jhs
l`slhs rnsujtcmhs pcrc ukc nstrueturc mn ukc acsn. V J h K J punmn snr mntnrl`kcmhs
ut`j`zckmh yc snck eìreujhs mn prundc nk ecmc ukh mn jhs pjckhs pr`ke`pcjns ` jìkncs
m`rnetcs mn
N
prundc
Aìurc yc
9. snc nk trns h sn`s mn jcs pr`ke`pcjns m`rnee`hkns mn prundc lhstrcmcs nk jc
N
31.5.5
Vcrc nj ecsh mn vcjhrns mn VJ h KJ mntnrl`kcmhs cjncthr`clnktn nk jhs trns
pr`ke`pcjns pjckhs, ehlputcr nj vcjhr prhlnm`h mn ceunrmh c?
V J < (V J . VJ Jt . V Jp) 3/5

 (39)
õ
. . 3/5

KJ J < (KJ KJ t KJ p) (32)

Cjtnrkct`vclnktn, ecjeujcr  , t y  p, c pcrt`r mn jhs
 V J J h K J nk ecmc pjckh
vcjhrns
ut`j`zckmh jc Neuce`õk (33). Nkthkens, ecjeujcr nj vcjhr lnm`h thtcj mn  c pcrt`r mn?
( . t .  p) 3/5

 < 
(30)
31.5.= U` sn ut`j`zck jìkncs mn prundc m`rnetcs nk jcs m`rnee`hkns pr`ke`pcjns mn jhs
pjckhs pr`ke`pcjns, sn rnqu`nrnk shjh mhs mn jhs pr`ke`pcjns pjckhs pcrc
rncj`zcr ehktnhs m`rneths nk jcs trns pr`ke`pcjns m`rnee`hkns y hdtnknr ukc
nst`lce`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh.
31.5.> @kahrlce`õk cmè`hkcj cenrec mn jc ahrlc mn irckh punmn hdtnknrsn mntnrl`kckmh nj
 pcrcjnjh (6¶) y pnrpnkmèujcr (06¶) cj njn mn mnahrlce`õk nk ukc supnraè`n
hr`nktcmc jhki`tum`kcjlnktn. Nj rcm`h mn njhkice`õk mnj irckh, h nj ìkmèn mn
ck`shtrhpìc, C@ , punmnk snr mntnrl`kcmhs c pcrt`r mn?
C@ <  (6¶)  (06¶)

  (46)
31.5.>.3 Nj tclcñh lnm`h mn irckh y ahrlc tr`m`lnks`hkcj tcld`ék punmn snr mna`k`mh phr
jhs vcjhrns mn `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj lnm`c m`rì`mc nk jhs trns pjckhs
pr`ke`pcjns. Nsths vcjhrns sn phmrìck nxprnscr ehlh?
(6¶) ? t (06¶) ?  p(06¶) (43)
31.5. >.4 Htrh léthmh qun punmn ut`j`zcrsn ns khrlcj`zcr jhs trns rnsujtcmhs m`v`m`nkmh ecmc
ukh nktrn nj vcjhr mnj lãs pnqunñh ehk jhs rnsujtcmhs nxprnscmhs nk rcm`hs.
31.5.1 Nj vcjhr lnm`h mn  pcrc jcs lnmè`hkns nk jcs trns pr`ke`pcjns m`rnee`hkns ns hdtnk`mh
prhlnm`ckmh jhs vcjhrns K J h V J m`rì`mhs (ehlh sn lunstrc nk jc neuce`õk (44))
y nkthkens ehlputckmh  c pcrt`r mn nstn vcjhr lnm`h7 h ecjeujckmh jhs vcjhrns
 m`rì`mhs
jnck n eecumcce ùuõkc ( 4m5n) ?jcs trns pr`ke`pcjns m`rnee`hkns y mnspués

prhlnm`ãkmhjcs mn ceunrmh c
V J < ( VJ ( 6¶) . V Jt(06¶) . VJ p(06¶ ))3/5

 (44)
N 334
c. Hr`nktce`hkns pr`ke`pcjns mn jìkncs mn prundc m`rì`mcs
d. Hr`nktce`hkns cjtnrkcs pcrc jìkncs mn prundc m`rì`mcs
e. ]hmcs jcs sn`s hr`nktce`hkns pcrc mn jìkncs mn prundc m`rì`mcs

KH]C ― Lnmè`hkns nk prhdntcs mn t`ph mn dcrrc rnetckiujcr, pjcec, jãl`kc u bhjc
ehk nstrueturcs mn irckh kh nqu`cx`cjns.
Aìurc 9 Nsqunlc qun lunstrc jcs Un`s Hr`nktce`hkns phs`djns mn jc

Jìknc mn Vrundc M`rì`mc pcrc jc Lnmè`õk mnj ]clcñh mn Irckh
N 334
Nsth sn bcen mn snlnjcktn lcknrc pcrc KJ . Vcrc ehlputcr jc lnm`c thtcj mn  c pcrt`r
mn jhs vcjhrns lnm`hs m`rì`mhs, ut`j`zcr?
 < ((6¶)  p(06¶)) (45)

. . 3/5
t(06
mhkmn . `kmèc ukc lujt`pjèce`õk.

31.5.9 N juu tc`jl`zckñmhh l jcn m]`hc dmjcn =i rhc kjchs n nsetãu cmen`htnkrnls` kmcnm jhc
c] cpdcjrct` r1 m. n@k jahsr lprchel`õnkm c`hmsè t`htkcjnj sc emnr eVcJ ,m KnJ j ch
lnmè`õk mn tclcñh mn irckh pcrc nstrueturcs kh nqu`cx`cjns punmn nkehktrcrsn nk nj
Cknxh C3 mn Léthmhs mn Vrundc N 3524.
31.= Ckãj`s`s nstcmìstèhs mndnrìck rncj`zcrsn nk jhs mcths mn ecmc pjckh h ecmc m`rnee`õk
mn prundc pr`ke`pcj mn ceunrmh cj prhenm`l`nkth mn jhs pukths 3>.3 cj 3>.>.
39. Vrhdntcs qun t`nknk mhs h lãs acsns h ehlphknktns
39.3 Eckt`mcmns lnkhrns mn pcrtìeujcs mn sniukmc acsn, yc snck cspneths mnsncdjn h

`kmnsncdjns, punmnk snr ìkhrcmcs cj mntnrl`kcr nj tclcñh mn irckh, nsth ns. Jc
nstrueturc ns trctcmc ehlh uk lctnr`cj mn ukc acsn y jhs léthmhs pjck`létrèh h mn
`ktnrenpe`õk yc mnser`ths cktnr`hrlnktn shk ut`j`zcmhs pcrc mntnrl`kcr nj tclcñh mn
minrcdknhrã. Cp rlnsnuklhs`r qun nssn njss tcldjcnñzhe cm nh tjrc aechssnc l, ncjt

rt`zc.lcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h nanet`vh sn
39.4 Jc `mnkt`mcm mn ecmc acsn lnm`mc y nj phrenktcjn mn ãrnc heupcmc nk nj eclph phr
ecmc acsn mndnrã snr mntnrl`kcmh y rnphrtcmh. Nj phrenktcjn mn ecmc acsn
punmn snr mntnrl`kcmh mn ceunrmh c jc Vrãetèc N >14.
39.5 Léthmh mn Ehlpcrce`õk ― Nj prhenm`l`nkth mn eãjeujh mn jc irãaèc mn ehlpcrce`õk
punmn prhphre`hkcr ukc prne`s`õk cenptcdjn pcrc jc lcyhrìc mn jcs
cpjèce`hkns ehlnre`cjns s` jc sniukmc acsn (ehlphknktn) ehks`stn nk
`sjhtns h pcrebns nsnke`cjlnktn mnj l`slh tclcñh mn jhs irckhs lctr`z7 h, jc
eckt`mcm y tclcñh mn jcs pcrtìeujcs mn jc sniukmc acsn shk cldcs pnqunñcs y jcs
pcrtìeujcs nstãk jhecj`zcmcs pr`lcr`clnktn c jh jcrih mn jhs ehkthrkhs mn irckh.
39.= Léthmh Vjck`létrèh ― Nj léthmh pjck`létrèh punmn snr cpjècmh s` jhs ehkthrkhs
mn irckh lctr`z shk ejcrclnktn v`s`djns y jcs pcrtìeujcs mn jc sniukmc acsn
(ehlphknktn) nstãk prnsnktns pr`ke`pcjlnktn nktrn jhs irckhs lctr`z nk juicr mn mnktrh
mn jhs irckhs.
Mpphnrt nrjlc `kVcrrã netj èpch reNn kt>c1jn4 .m nU ã`nrnlcp mrnn pmrnutnndrlc
`hkecurp cjcm c epchkrt `jmcc smn imunk mjcc acascns,n p hmrn n jnllnpkjhs,
ehkenktrce`õk, usucjlnktn ns jc sniukmc acsn h ehlphknktn. Nkthkens, mntnrl`kcr
jc acsn lctr`z phr mànrnke`c. C ehkt`kuce`õk, ehktcr nj kúlnrh mn irckhs lctr`z qun
sn nkeunktrnk ehlpjntclnktn mnktrh mn jcs ãrncs mn prundc y nj kúlnrh mn irckhs
lctr`z
`ktnrsnetckmh nj ehkthrkh mnj ãrnc mn prundc, ehlh sn mnser`dn nk jc Unee`õk 33. Nj
ãrnc mn prundc mndn snr rnmue`mc c cqunjjc shjh eud`nrtc phr jhs irckhs mn jc acsn
lctr`z. Nj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h nanet`vh, nkthkens, sn mntnrl`kc c pcrt`r
mnj kúlnrh mn irckhs phr uk`mcm mn ãrnc rnm mn jc acsn lctr`z. Ckcj`zcr
nstcmìstèclnktn nj kúlnrh mn irckhs phr uk`mcm mn ãrnc mn jc acsn lctr`z , K C,
mn ecmc lnmè`õk mn
eclph ut`j`zckmh nj léthmh mnser`th nk jc Unee`õk 3>. Nkthkens, mnj prhlnm`h thtcj, K C ,
mntnrl`kcr nj tclcñh mn irckh nanet`vh mn jc lctr`z ut`j`zckmh jc ]cdjc = h jc neuce`õk
cmneucmc mn jc ]cdjc 1.
N
39. > Léthmh mn @ktnrenpe`õk ― Jcs l`slcs rnstrèe`hkns t`nknk cpjècd`j`mcm,

ehlh sn lunstrc nk nj pukth 39.=, pnrtnknenk c nstn léthmh. Kunvclnktn, jc eckt`mcm
mn jc acsn lctr`z mndn snr mntnrl`kcmc, ehlh sn mnser`dn nk nj pukth 39.=.3 Un ut`j`zc
ukc rnj`jjc mn prundc ehks`stnktn mn ukh h lãs eìreujhs mn prundc, ehlh jc lhstrcmc
nk jc Aìurc
>. Vcrc nstc cpjèce`õk, ehktcr nj kúlnrh mn irckhs lctr`z, K , `ktnrenptcmhs phr jc
jìknc mn prundc. Mntnrl`kcr jc jhki`tum lnm`c mn `ktnrenpe`õk mn jc acsn lctr`z mn
ceunrmh c?
(Q Q )(J/L)
 <

K  (4=)
mhkmn jc arcee`õk mn vhjulnk mn jc lctr`z , Q Q  , nstc nxprnscmh ehlh ukc arcee`õk, J
ns jc jhki`tum mn jc jìknc mn prundc y L ns nj culnkth. Nj tclcñh mn irckh mn jhs
irckhs  sn mntnrl`kc ut`j`zckmh jc ]cdjc = h jc neuce`õk nk jc ]cdjc 1. Nk prãetèc, ns
ehkvnk`nktn mntnrl`kcr lckucjlnktn jc arcee`õk mnj vhjulnk mn jc acsn  y nj kúlnrh
mn irckhs  `ktnrenptckmh jc jìknc mn prundc pcrc ecmc eclph. U` sn bcen nsth, jc
jhki`tum mn `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj lnm`c mn jc acsn  pcrc ecmc eclph punmn
snr mntnrl`kcmc y nsths mcths punmnk snr ckcj`zcmhs nstcmìstèclnktn pcrc ecmc eclph
mn ceunrmh cj prhenm`l`nkth mnser`th nk jc Unee`õk 3>. U` Q Q y K  kh shk
lnm`mhs s`lujtãknclnktn pcrc jhs l`slh eclphs, nkthkens nj ckãj`s`s nstcmìstèh
shjh punmn snr rncj`zcmh nk jhs mcths mn Q Q  y K .
39.1 ]cld`ék ns phs`djn mntnrl`kcr  phr lnmè`õk mn jhki`tumns mn
`ktnrenpe`õk
`km`v`mucjns ut`j`zckmh jìkncs rnetcs mn prundc cpjècmcs cjncthr`clnktn c jc nstrueturc.
Kh lnm`r jcs `ktnrenpe`hkns pcre`cjns nk jhs nxtrnlhs mn jcs jìkncs mn prundc. Nstn
léthmh ns uk tckth tnm`hsh c lnkhs qun punmn snr cuthlct`zcmh mn cjiukc lcknrc.
Jcs `ktnrenpe`hkns `km`v`mucjns shk prhlnm`cmcs y nstn vcjhr ns ut`j`zcmh
pcrc mntnrl`kcr I mn jc ]cdjc = h jc neuce`õk nk jc ]cdjc 1. Jcs `ktnrenpe`hkns
`km`v`mucjns punmnk snr trczcmcs nk uk b`sthirclc, pnrh nsth nstã aunrc mnj
cjecken mn nsths léthmhs mn prundc.
32. Tnphrtn
32.3 Nj rnphrtn mn prundc mndnrìc mheulnktcr thmc jc `kahrlce`õk pnrt`knktn mn `mnktàèce`õk

ehkenrk`nktn c jc prhdntc, su ehlphsè`õk, lcrec h mnsìkce`õk mn
nspneàèce`õk, ej`nktn h rnqunr`mhr mn mcths, anebc mn prundc, trctcl`nkth térlèh h
b`sthr`c mn prhensh,
jcchkeãcj`js`z`sc em`nõ ktc ly chñr`hn kmntc ier`õckh m, ny tjhcm phr jhd mnntcl, ãls
éqtuhnm shn m rn qcut`cnqrcu.n h ctcecktn, léthmh mn 32.4 J`stcr nj kúlnrh mn eclphs
lnm`mhs, nj culnkth y nj ãrnc mnj eclph. ]cld`ék punmn rni`strcrsn nj kúlnrh mn
irckhs ehktcmhs h nj kúlnrh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns h
`ktnrsnee`hkns ehktcmcs. Vcrc ukc nstrueturc mn mhs acsns, j`stcr jc arcee`õk mn ãrnc mn
jc acsn lctr`z.
32.5 Vunmn prhphre`hkcrsn ukc ahthlèrhircaìc qun `justrn jc cpcr`nke`c tìpèc mn jc nstrueturc
mn irckh, s` sn rnqu`nrn h sn mnsnc.
32.= J`stcr nj vcjhr lnm`h mn lnmè`õk, su mnsv`ce`õk nstãkmcr, `ktnrvcjh mn ehka`ckzc mn
0>%, phrenktcjn mn prne`s`õk rnjct`vc y nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L.
32. > Vcrc ukc nstrueturc mn irckh Kh nqu`cx`cj , j`stcr nj léthmh mn ckãj`s`s,
pjckhs nxcl`kcmhs, m`rnee`hkns nvcjucmcs (s` cpjèc), nj eãjeujh mn tclcñh mn irckh
phr pjckh h m`rnee`õk, nj thtcj mn lnm`cs mn jcs lnmè`hkns pjckcrns y nj kúlnrh mn
tclcñh mn irckh CU]L ehlputcmh h nst`lcmh.
N
32.1 Vcrc ukc nstrueturc mn mhs acsns, j`stcr nj léthmh mn ckãj`s`s, jc eckt`mcm mn jc
acsn lctr`z (s` ns mntnrl`kcmc), jc lnmè`õk mn tclcñh mn irckh mn jc acsn lctr`z
(y jc mnsv`ce`õk nstãkmcr, `ktnrvcjh mn ehka`ckzc mn 0>%, y phrenktcjn mn prne`s`õk
rnjct`vc) y nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L ehlputcmh h nst`lcmh.
32.9 U` sn mnsnc nxprnscr nj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h mn uk iruph mn prhdntcs mn uk jhtn,
s`lpjnlnktn kh prhlnm`cr jhs kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L. C ecld`h, ehlputcr
uk prhlnm`h cr`tlétèh mn jcs lnmè`hkns cetucjns, tcjns ehlh jhs vcjhrns K C h
 phr
prchrdcn ntcj . jNhtknt.h kJehnss vmcnjjh rpnrhs lmnm `jhc mpnrjh jdhntntc,
emcnjeuKj cC r h ns t`clcdr `énkj tcpluncmñnhk m nsn ir r ckhc jC`zUc]mhLs
nstcmìstèclnktn, mn ceunrmh cj léthmh mn jc Unee`õk 3>, pcrc nvcjucr jc vcr`cd`j`mcm
mnj tclcñh mn irckh mnktrh mnj jhtn.
30. Vrne`s`õk y Qcr`ce`õk
30.3 Jc prne`s`õk y vcr`ce`õk mn jcs lnmè`hkns mn tclcñh mn irckh mnpnkmnk mn

jc rnprnsnktct`v`mcm mn jcs prhdntcs snjnee`hkcmcs y mn jcs ãrncs nsehi`mcs
nk jc supnraè`n mn puj`mh pcrc lnmè`õk. U` nj tclcñh mn irckh vcrìc mnktrh mn uk
prhmueth, jc prhdntc y jc snjnee`õk mnj eclph mndnk lunstrncr cmneucmclnktn nstc
vcr`ce`õk.
30.4 Jc nxcet`tum rnjct`vc mn jc lnmè`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh mnj prhmueth lnjhrc sniúk
nj culnktc nj kúlnrh mn prhdntcs thlcmcs mnj prhmueth. Jc nxcet`tum rnjct`vc
mn jc
leecnlmpèh`õs kl munjs tcrnlccmñhhs ym n j ikrúclkhn rmhn m enc imrc kphrsh dhn
`ttkct nlrenjpherc`h ksnsi úekh kctuclmcnsk.tn nj kúlnrh mn
30.5 Heurr`rãk vcr`ce`hkns nk jcs lnmè`hkns s` jc prnpcrce`õk mn jc prhdntc ns `kcmneucmc.
Jc nstrueturc vnrmcmnrc mndnrã snr rnvnjcmc y jhs ehkthrkhs mnj irckh mndnrãk
snr mnj`kncmhs ehlpjntclnktn pcrc tnknr lcyhr prne`s`õk nk jcs lnmè`hkns y j`dnrtcm
mn vcr`ce`hkns. Uniúk culnktn nj phrenktcjn mn ehkthrkhs mn irckh kh
mnj`kncmhs, culnktck jcs vcr`ce`hkns y, jc prne`s`õk, rnpnt`d`j`mcm y rnprhmue`d`j`mcm sn
vhjvnrãk lãs phdrns.
30.= Jc mntnrl`kce`õk kh nxcetc mnj culnkth mn jc nstrueturc mn irckh prhmue`rã vcr`ce`hkns.
30.> U` jc nstrueturc mn irckh kh ns nqu`cx`cj nk su ahrlc, phr njnlpjh, s` jc ahrlc mnj irckh
ns njhkicmc h pjckc phr mnahrlce`õk, jc lnmè`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh nk uk shjh pjckh,
pcrtèujcrlnktn nj pjckh pnrpnkmèujcr c jc m`rnee`õk mn jc mnahrlce`õk, bcrã vcr`cr jhs
rnsujtcmhs mn jc prundc. Jc m`sthrs`õk mn jc ahrlc mn irckh ns mntnetcmc mn lnjhr
lcknrc ut`j`zckmh uk pjckh mn prundc pcrcjnjh c jc m`rnee`õk mn jc mnahrlce`õk. Nj
trcnls cmñnh j hmsn pjhr`sk ei`rpcckjhhns mpnjcakhhrls cqmuhns s mhnkd pnrrhìcl
nsmt`crm dhcs sechmlhh n skn l mnnmsèer`h`dknn nsk b jnce Ubcnse en`õkk m 3h1s. h 30.1
Jcs prhdntcs ehk ukc m`str`due`õk mn tclcñh mn irckh uk`lhmcj shk lnm`mcs
pcrc tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h ut`j`zckmh jhs léthmhs mnser`ths nk nsths léthmhs
mn prundc. Jcs prhdntcs ehk m`str`due`hkns mn tclcñh mn irckh d`lhmcjns (h lãs
ehlpjnjcs) kh mndnrìck snr prhdcmcs ut`j`zckmh uk léthmh qun cjecken uk shjh vcjhr mn
tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h7 mndnrìck snr ecrcetnr`zcmhs ut`j`zckmh jhs léthmhs mnser`ths
nk jhs Léthmhs mn Vrundc N 3323 y lnm`mhs ut`j`zckmh jhs léthmhs mnser`ths nk jhs
Léthmhs mn Vrundc N 334. Nj tclcñh mn irckh `km`v`mucjns luy irckmns nk uk lctr`z
mn irckh a`kh mndnrìc snr mntnrl`kcmh ut`j`zckmh jhs Léthmhs mn Vrundc N 056.
30.9 Euckmh sn ut`j`zc nj léthmh mn ehlpcrce`õk mn irãaècs, jc irãaèc snjnee`hkcmc mndnrìc
snr ehks`stnktn ehk jc kcturcjnzc mn jhs irckhs (nsth ns, inlnjhs h kh inlnjhs, h
ecrdur`zcmhs y nkar`cmhs jnktclnktn) y ehk nj ctcqun (nsth ns, ctcqun pjckh h ctcqun mn
N
ehktrcstn mn irckh) pcrc ukc lcyhr prne`s`õk.
30.2 Jhs eãjeujhs
lnm`h mn ukmnlntcjõircah
tclcñh mn irckh ut`j`zckmh
`km`v`mucj nj léthmh
vcr`crã mnktrh mn
mn ehlpcrce`õk mn irãaècs
+/-6.> uk`mcmns phr
I. Euckmh
uk
N
iruph mn pnrshkcs ecjàèc jc l`slc prhdntc, jc m`str`due`õk punmn snr tck irckmn ehlh
3.> c 4.> uk`mcmns I.
30.0 Nj léthmh mn tclcñh mn irckh mn Arceturc shjh ns cpjècdjn pcrc cenrhs
pcrc bnrrcl`nktcs tnlpjcmhs, rnjct`vclnktn arãi`jns. Jcs prhdntcs mndnrìck
nstcr nk ehkmè`hkns pcrne`mcs c tnlpjcmcs h jìnrclnktn rnvnk`mcs mn lcknrc qun jc
supnraè`n mn jc arceturc snc dcstcktn pjckc. ^k lntcjõircah nxpnr`lnktcmh punmn
ecjeujcr ehk cktnr`hr`mcm nj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh c ukc bnrrcl`nktc mn cenrh
mnktrh mn +/-6.>
30.36 ûk` mpcrmhnisrc mlncI m pnh pr rnujnn ldcét hmmnh e m`rne utc`tlh cmñnh t rmcnk
silrc`ksh`õ mkn e ahrcke rtnutrhcr kUhb ncpj bpnurkmt.h mn hrìnk (Qnr
Cpékmèn R3), ckcj`zcmh mn ceunrmh c jc Vrãetèc N 103, rnvnjõ ukc vcr`ce`õk
ehks`stnktn nktrn jhs nvcjuce`hkns mn jc irãaèc mn ehlpcrce`õk ut`j`zckmh jc Vjcec @ y
jcs lnmè`hkns mn tclcñh mn irckh ut`j`zckmh jhs léthmhs pjck`létrèh y
mn
`ktnrenpe`õk. Jhs `kmècmhrns mn jc irãaèc aunrhk mn 6.> c 3 uk`mcm mn I irunsh, nsth
ns, kúlnrhs mn I lnkhrns, qun jhs vcjhrns lnm`mhs.
30.33 Jhs tclcñhs mn irckh mntnrl`kcmhs phr jhs léthmhs pjck`létrèh h mn `ktnrenpe`õk
prhmujnrhk rnsujtcmhs s`l`jcrns s`k hdsnrvcrsn vcr`ce`hkns.
30.34 Jc nxcet`tum rnjct`vc mn jcs lnmè`hkns mn tclcñh mn irckh lnjhrcrhk,
euckmh culnktcrhk nj kúlnrh mn irckhs h `ktnrenpe`hkns ehktcmhs. Vcrc uk kúlnrh
s`l`jcr mn ehktnhs, jc nxcet`tum rnjct`vc mn jcs lnmè`hkns mn `ktnrenpe`hkns nrc lnjhr
qun jc mn jcs lnmè`hkns pjck`létrècs mn tclcñh mn irckh. Vcrc nj léthmh mn
`ktnrenpe`õk, aun hdtnk`mh 36% mn TC (h lnkhs) ehk enrec mn =66
`ktnrenpe`hkns h eunktcs mn
l`lktnkrhssn,e et`õuvk` nlrh`nkk trqcusn qusn rp cerhc kntcj mlhést hmenhr epcjc
km`ln ét9r`6e6h , picrcrckh hsd. tnJkcn r r3n6p%nt `mdn`j` mTcCm , hy rnprhmue`d`j`mcm
mn jcs lnmè`hkns lnjhrcrhk euckmh culnktõ nj kúlnrh mn irckhs h
`ktnrenpe`hkns ehktcmcs y aun lnjhr pcrc nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk qun pcrc
nj pjck`létrèh pcrc jc l`slc eunktc.
30.35 Nj léthmh pjck`létrèh rnqu`nrn ukc lcrece`õk mn jhs irckhs murcktn nj ehktnh pcrc
hdtnknr ukc eunktc nxcetc. Nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk kh rnqu`nrn lcrece`õk pcrc
hdtnknr ukc eunktc nxcetc. Vhr nsth, nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk ns lãs aãe`j mn ut`j`zcr y
ns lãs rãp`mh. Cmnlãs, jc prundc mn e`reu`th mn trcksl`s`õk ehk rnthrkh cj pukth mn
hrìnk lhstrõ qun nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk prhphre`hkc lnjhr prne`s`õk nstcmìstèc
pcrc nj l`slh kúlnrh mn eunktcs y ns, phr nsth, nj léthmh mn lnmè`õk prnanr`mh.
30.3= ^k lntcjõircah `km`v`mucj usucjlnktn punmn rnpnt`r lnmè`hkns mn tclcñh mn irckh mn
pjck`létrècs h mn `ktnrenpe`õk mnktrh mn +/-6.3 uk`mcmns mn I. Euckmh uk iruph mn
lntcjõircahs l`mnk jc l`slc prhdntc, jc m`str`due`õk mn jhs tclcñhs mn
irckh
usucjlnktn ns lnjhr mnktrh mn +/-6.> uk`mcmns mn I.
46. Vcjcdrcs Ejcvn
46.3 ]clcñh mn irckh CJC7 ìkmèn mn ck`shtrhpìc7 arcee`õk mn ãrnc7 kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn
irckh CU]L7 ecj`drce`õk7 irckhs nqu`cx`cjns7 ctcecktn7 ehkthrkh mn irckh7
irckhs7 tclcñh mn irckh7 ehktnh mn `ktnrenpe`õk7 jhki`tum mn `ktnrenpe`õk7
ehktnh mn
`ktnrsnee`õk7 irckhs kh nqu`cx`cjns7 ehkthrkhs inlnjhs.
N
CKNRHU
N
(@kahrlce`õk Lckmcthr`c)
C.3 DCUNU MN KßLNTHU MN ]CLCÑHU MN ITCKH CU]L
C.3.3 Mnser`pe`õk mn ]érl`khs y Uìldhjhs
C3.3.3 Nj térl`kh inknrcj tclcñh mn irckh ehlúklnktn ns ut`j`zcmh pcrc mnsìkcr eãjeujhs h
lnmè`hkns mn tclcñh bnebcs nk m`vnrscs lcknrcs, nlpjnckmh vcr`cs uk`mcmns mn jhki`tum,
ãrnc h vhjulnk. Mn jhs vcr`hs s`stnlcs, shjh nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L,
I, ns nsnke`cjlnktn `kmnpnkm`nktn mnj s`stnlc mn nst`lce`õk y uk`mcmns mn lnmè`õk
ut`j`zcmcs. Jcs
neuce`hkns ut`j`zcmcs pcrc mntnrl`kcr I c pcrt`r mn jcs lnmè`hkns rnehlnkmcmcs, ehlh jh
`justrc jc Aìurc 1 y jcs ]cdjcs 4 y =, shk prhphre`hkcmcs nk jhs cknxhs C3.4 y C3.5. Jcs
rnjce`hkns khl`kcjns nktrn jcs lnmè`hkns ut`j`zcmcs ehlúklnktn shk prhphre`hkcmcs nk nj
cknxh C4. Jcs lnmè`hkns qun cpcrnenk nk nstcs neuce`hkns, h nk neuce`hkns nk nj tnxth, shk
ehlh sìun?
C3.3.3.3 K < Kúlnrh mn snee`hkns mn irckh ehktcmcs nk uk ãrnc mn prundc ehkhe`mc, C, h
kúlnrh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns ehktcmcs nk ukc rnm mn prundc mn jhki`tum ehkhe`mc < J, c cjiúk
culnkth nstcdjne`mh, L. Nj prhlnm`h mn eunktcs nk vcr`hs eclphs ns mnsìkcmh ehlh K .
C3.3.3.4 Mnspués mn ehrrnee`õk pcrc culnkth, K C ns nj kúlnrh mn snee`hkns mn irckh
phr uk`mcm mn ãrnc mn prundc (ll4) c 3R7 K J ns nj kúlnrh mn irckhs `ktnrenptcmhs phr uk`mcm
mn jhki`tum mn jìkncs mn prundc (ll) c 3R7 y V J ns nj kúlnrh mn `ktnrsnee`hkns mn ehkthrkh
mn irckh phr uk`mcm mn jhki`tum mn jìknc mn prundc (ll) c 3R.
C3.3.3.5  < 3/KJ < 3/V J mhkmn  ns jc jhki`tum mn `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj lnm`c nk ll c 3R.
C3.3.3.= C < 3/K C mhkmn C ns nj ãrnc lnm`c mn jcs snee`hkns mn irckh (ll 4) c 3R. Nj
m`ãlntrh lnm`h mn irckh, m , ns jc rcìz eucmrcmc mn C. Jhs vcjhrns mn tclcñh mn irckh nk jc
Vjcec @@@ nstãk nxprnscmhs nk térl`khs mn m . Kõtnsn qun jc ]cdjc 4 j`stc nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh
mn irckh
CU]L nqu`vcjnktn pcrc ecmc ahthircaìc y pcrc m`vnrshs culnkths.
C3.3.3.> Jcs jntrcs ,t y p shk ut`j`zcmcs ehlh sudìkmèn euckmh sn mntnrl`kc nj tclcñh mn
irckh mn prhdntcs ehk nstrueturcs mn irckh kh nqu`cx`cjns. Jhs trns sudìkmèns rnprnsnktck jhs
pr`ke`pcjns pjckhs pcrc prhdntcs mn dcrrc rnetckiujcr, pjcec, bhjc h jãl`kc, nsth ns,
jcs supnraè`ns jhki`tum`kcj (), trcksvnrsc (t) y pjckcr. Nstcs shk lutuclnktn pnrpnkmèujcrns
nktrn njjcs. Nk ecmc pjckh, bcy mhs m`rnee`hkns pr`ke`pcjns qun shk pnrpnkmèujcrns nktrn njjcs
(ehlh sn lunstrc nk jc Aìurc 9).
C3.3.3.1 Nj kúlnrh mn eclphs lnm`mhs ns mnsìkcmh phr k.
eCh3k.3t`..k3u.9c eH`õtkrcs mnsìkce`hkns nspneìaècs shk mna`k`mcs phr neuce`hkns qun sn
lunstrck c
C3.4 Léthmhs mn @ktnrenpe`õk?
C3.4.3 ^k`mcmns létrècs,  nk l`jìlntrhs c 366R pcrc tclcñhs mn irckh
mntnrl`kcmhs lèrhseõpèclnktn y l c 3R pcrc tclcñhs mn irckh mntnrl`kcmhs
lcerhseõpèclnktn, shk ut`j`zcmcs ehk jc sìu`nktn neuce`õk rnjce`hkckmh  h l ehk
I. Vcrc tclcñhs mn irckh mntnrl`kcmhs lcerhseõpèclnktn, l ns nk ll c 366R?
6
I < 4jhi4 l (C3.3)
Vcrc I < 6, 6 ns nstcdjne`mh ehlh 54.66 y jhi4 6 < >.
I < + 36.6666 ― 4 jhi4l (C3.3c)

N
334
I < + 36.6666 ― 1.1=50 jhi 36l (C3.3d)
Vcrc tclcñhs mn irckh mntnrl`kcmhs lèrhseõpèclnktn ,  ns nk l`jìlntrhs c 3R y?
I < 5.4299 ― 1.1=50 jhi 36 (C3.4)
I < 5.4299 + 4 jhi 4 KJ (C3.4c)

I < 5.4299 + 1.1=50 (C3.4d)
jhi 36 KJ
U` V J ns mntnrl`kcmh c mànrnke`c mn K J, sust`tuyn V J c KJ nk jcs neuce`hkns C3.4c y C3.4d.
C3.5 Léthmh Vjck`létrèh?

C3.5.3 ^k`mcmns `kijnscs, K C CN nk kúlnrh phr pujicmcs eucmrcmcs c 366R pcrc tclcñhs
mn irckh mntnrl`kcmhs lèrhseõpèclnktn y c 3R pcrc tclcñhs mn irckh
mntnrl`kcmhs lcerhseõpèclnktn, shk ut`j`zcmcs ehk jcs sìu`nktns neuce`hkns rnjce`hkckmh
K CN ehk I?
I < 3.666 + jhi4 K C CN (C3.5)
I < 3.666 + 5.5430 jhi36 K C N (C3.5c)

U` K C nstã nxprnscmh nk térl`khs mnj kúlnrh mn irckhs phr l`jìlntrhs eucmrcmhs c 3R,
pcrc tclcñhs mn irckh mntnrl`kcmhs lèrhseõpèclnktn, nkthkens?
I < 4.0>=4 + 5.5430 jhi36 K C (C3.5d)
C4. NE^CE@HKNU VCTC EHKQNTU@HKNU NK]TN QCT@CU

LNM@E@HKNU MN ]CLCÑH MN ITCKH
C4.3 Ecld`h mn Culnkth ― U` nj cpcrnktn tclcñh mn irckh bc s`mh hdsnrvcmh c culnkth L,
pnrh mntnrl`kcmh ehlh s` nk nj culnkth dãsèh Ld (366R 3R), nkthkens nj vcjhr mn tclcñh
cj culnkth dãsèh ns ehlh sìun?
C4.3.3 Ehktnh Vjck`létrèh?

K C < K C 6 (L / L d )4 (C4.3)
mhkmn K C 6 ns nj kúlnrh mn irckhs phr uk`mcm mn ãrnc c uk culnkth mn L d .
C4.3.4 Ehktnh mn @ktnrenpe`õk?
K ` < K `6 (L/ Ld )4 (C4.4)
Mhkmn K `6 ns nj kúlnrh mn irckhs `ktnrenptcmhs phr jc jìknc mn prundc (Jc neuce`õk V ` y
pcrc V `h ns jc l`slc) c culnkth L d .
C4.3.5 Eucjqu`nr jhki`tum ?

N
 < 6L d / L (C4.4c)
mhkmn 6 ns jc `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj lnm`c c uk culnkth L d .
C4.3.= Kúlnrh mn ]clcñh mn Irckh CU]L?
I < I6 + S (C4.5)
SmSh <k m4n j?
hi4 (L / Ld )
< 4 (jhi4 L - jhi4 L d )
< 1.1=50 (jhi36 L ― jhi36 L d )
mhkmn I6 ns nj cpcrnktn kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L c uk culnkth mn L d .
C4.3.> Irckhs phr ll4 c 3R c pcrt`r mn irckhs phr puji 4 c 366R.
K C < K C N (366/4>.=)4 (C4.=)
K C < 3>.> (C4.=c)

K CN
mhkmn K C ns nj kúlnrh mn irckhs phr ll 4 c 3R y K CN ns nj kúlnrh mn irckhs phr puji 4 c
366R.
C4.4 sHìtruc`ssn kltnns mnèu`hcken`hsk nlsh? strcmcs nk jcs tcdjcs punmnk snr
ehlputcmcs c pcrt`r mn jcs
C4.4.3 Árnc mn Irckh Vrhlnm`h?
C < 3/K C (C4.>)
Mhkmn C ns nj ãrnc snee`hkcj prhlnm`h mnj irckh.
C4.4.4 Nxtnks`õk mn @ktnrenpe`õk mn ukc Unee`õk mn Irckh E`reujcr?

¼

 < = C (C4.1)
Jc m`stcke`c lnm`c mn `ktnrenpe`õk pcrc irckhs phjìhkcjns vcrìc cenrec mn nstn vcjhr tnõrèh,
s`nkmh m`sl`ku`mc phr ck`shtrhpìc pnrh culnktcmh phr uk rckih mn tclcñhs mn snee`õk. Jc
nxtnks`õk ehlputcmc phr jc neuce`õk (C4.1) ns 6.>4% lãs pnqunñc qun jc nxtnks`õk csìkcmc
c I phr jc neuce`õk (C3.4) nk C3.4.3 ( Ν < +6.63> Kh. CU]L).
C4.5 Htrcs `kmèce`hkns út`jns nk euckth c tclcñh shk prhphre`hkcmcs phr jcs
sìu`nktns neuce`hkns?
C4.5.3 Nj m`ãlntrh vhjulétrèh (nspce`cj), M, mn nsanrcs mn tclcñh s`l`jcr nk nj nspce`h ns?
M < 3.> (C4.9)

Tnjce`hkns s`l`jcrns nktrn , mntnrl`kcmcs nk jcs mhs supnraè`ns mn puj`mh m`lnks`hkcjns, y nj
m`ãlntrh nspce`cj, M, bck s`mh mnr`vcmcs pcrc ukc vcr`nmcm mn ahrlcs mn irckh phtnke`cjns, y
N
vcr`hs supunsths cenrec mn jc m`str`due`õk mn su tclcñh. ^k kúlnrh mn aõrlujcs, tcjns ehlh jc
neuce`õk (C4.9), bck s`mh prhpunstcs ehk mànrnktns acethrns lujt`pjècmhrns. ^k c nst`lce`õk
N
rczhkcdjn mnj m`ãlntrh nspce`cj, M, dcscmc nk nj lhmnjh mn ahrlc tntrcec`mnecnmrh y ukc

auke`õk mn m`str`due`õk mn tclcñh mn irckh (2), ns?
M < 3.>93  (C4.9c)
C4.5.4 Vcrc ukc lèrhnstrueturc mn ukc acsn, nj ãrnc mn jc supnraè`n mnj ehkthrkh mnj irckh phr
uk`mcm mn vhjulnk, UQ, bc mnlhstrcmh snr ukc auke`õk nxcetc mn V J J h K J?
UQ < 4V J < 4K J (C4.2)
L`nktrcs pcrc ukc lèrhnstrueturc mn mhs acsns, nj ãrnc mn jc supnraè`n mnj ehkthrkh mn jc acsn
phr uk`mcm mn vhjulnk mn jc acsn , UQ , ns?
UQ < 4V J < =K J (C4.2c)
C5. ]CLCÑH MN ITCKH CÛ]NKÌ]@EH, CENTHU AÉTT@EHU P CÛ]NKÌ]@EHU
C5.3 Cjecken
C5.3.3 Mnd`mh c qun cjiukcs vnens ns knenscr`h shlntnr nj lctnr`cj c trctcl`nkths nspne`cjns
h té e k ` e c s pc rc m n s c r r h j jc r e `n r t c s e c
i ir c k h , j h s m n t c j jn s n s n k e ` c jn s m n n s t h s
r c e tn rì ss t è c s m n i r c k h c k tn s m n n s t` l c r j
t r c tc l ` n k th s s h k m n tc j jc m h s n k jc s s ì u `n k tns
t c l c ññ h m n
s n ee ` h k n s . C5.4 Nstcdjnenr nj ]clcñh mn Irckh Custnkìtèh
C5.4.3 Cenrhs Aérrèhs ― Clnkhs qun htrc ehsc sn nspneà`qun, nj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh
mndnrã snr nstcdjne`mh phr ukh mn jhs sìu`nktns prhenm`l`nkths?
KH]C C5.3 ― Jc `kmèce`hkns mn ehktnk`mh mn ecrdõk nk jhs nkecdnzcmhs mnj prhenm`l`nkth

shjh shk mn cmvnrtnke`c. Kulnrhshs léthmhs nstãk nk ush pcrc nstcdjnenr nj tclcñh mn irckh
custnkìtèh, y uk ehkhe`l`nkth mn jc ehkmuetc mn erne`l`nkth y nkirhscl`nkth mnj irckh ns mn
cyumc pcrc mne`m`r qué léthmh ut`j`zcr. Nj tclcñh mn jhs irckhs custnkìtèhs, nk eucjqu`nr cenrh
pcrtèujcr, mnpnkmn pr`lcr`clnktn mn jc tnlpnrcturc c jc eucj nstn cenrh ns ecjnktcmh y nj
t`nlph qun sn lckt`nkn c nstc tnlpnrcturc. Bcy qun rnehrmcr qun jc ctlõsanrc nk
nj
ecjnktcl`nkth punmn canetcr nj erne`l`nkth mnj irckh y nj nxtnr`hr mn jc p`nzc. Nj tclcñh mn
irckh custnkìtèh ns tcld`ék `kajunke`cmh phr jc lcyhrìc mn jhs trctcl`nkths prnv`hs
c jhs
eucjns nj cenrh punmn bcdnr s`mh sujnth, phr njnlpjh, tnlpnrcturc mn custnk`t`zcmh, tnlpjcmh,
khrlcj`zcmh, trcdcjh nk ecj`nktn y trcdcjh nk arìh. Vhr nsth ns rnehlnkmcdjn, euckmh sn prundc
nj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh, ehks`mnrcr jhs naneths cktnr`hrns h phstnr`hrns cj trctcl`nkth, h
cldhs, nk jc p`nzc prne`sc (h p`nzc tìpèc) qun nstc dcjh ehks`mnrce`õk.
C5.4.3.3 Vrhenm`l`nkth mn Ehrrnjce`õk (Cenrhs cjncmhs y cj Ecrdõk) ― Jcs ehkmè`hkns mn jc

prundc mndnrìck ehrrnjce`hkcrsn ehk nj cetucj eèjh mn trctcl`nkth térlèh ut`j`zcmh
pcrc mnscrrhjjcr jcs prhp`nmcmns mnj snrvè`h cetucj. Ecjnktcr jcs prhdntcs c ukc
tnlpnrcturc kh lcyhr c >6¶A (42¶E) phr nke`lc mn jc tnlpnrcturc khrlcj mnj trctcl`nkth
térlèh y phr kh lãs mn >6% lãs mnj t`nlph khrlcj pcrc trctcl`nkth térlèh y dcjh ukc
ctlõsanrc khrlcj mn trctcl`nkth térlèh, jhs vcjhrns khrlcjns s`nkmh cqunjjhs
lutuclnktn cehrmcmhs. Jc prhphre`õk mn nkar`cl`nkth mnpnkmn mnj léthmh mn
trctcl`nkth. Bcenr jc nvcjuce`õk
lèrhseõpèc mn ceunrmh ehk jc ]cdjc 3.
N
C5.4.3.4 Vrhenm`l`nkth mn Ecrdur`zce`õk (Cenrhs cjncmhs y cj ecrdõk7 Ecrdõk inknrcjlnktn

phr mndcjh mn 6.4>%) ― C nstn prhenm`l`nkth inknrcjlnktn sn jn ehkhen ehlh
Vrundc LeSuc`m-Nbk. C lnkhs qun htrc ehsc sn nspneà`qun, ecrdur`zcr jcs prhdntcs c 3966
+/-4>¶A (049 +/-3=¶E) phr 2 bhrcs h bcstc qun sn hdtnkic uk nspnshr mn cprhx`lcmclnktn
6.6>6 puji. (3.49ll). Nj ehlpunsth ecrdur`zcmhr mndn snr ecpcz mn prhmue`r ukc ecpc
b`pnrnutneth`mn nk nj t`nlph y jc tnlpnrcturc nspneàècmhs. Nkar`cr ehk nj bhrkh jc prhdntc c
ukc tnlpnrcturc phr mndcjh mnj erìtèh lãs dcjh c ukc prhphre`õk jh suaè`nktnlnktn
jnktc pcrc prne`p`tcr jc
nennklar`nckr,t `stcn enek`h jkhcsr ejch kptrhrdknhtsc mpncjr ci rpcrkhhp hcrues`htnkkcìrt

ùekhc m snu pjcn rza`hek`nc mbn`p enhrnrtunt narentshe`mhn, pmunj `mjc eyc cptc.e cCrj
cmneucmclnktn pcrc rnvnjcr nj tclcñh mn irckh mn jc zhkc b`pnrnutneth`mn mn jc ecpc. Bcenr
ukc nvcjuce`õk lèrhseõpèc mn ceunrmh ehk jc ]cdjc 3. L`nktrcs jc prundc LeSuc`m-Nbk aun
mnsìkcmc pcrc nvcjucr jcs ecrcetnrìstècs mn erne`l`nkth mnj irckh mn lntcjns mnst`kcmhs pcrc
cpjèce`hkns ecrdur`zcmhrcs, usucjlnktn cenrhs ehk :6.4>% mn ecrdõk, arneunktnlnktn ns
ut`j`zcmc pcrc nvcjucr cenrhs ehk lcyhr ehktnk`mh mn ecrdõk qun kh vck c snr ecrdur`zcmhs.
Mndn rnehkhenrsn qun nj tclcñh mn irckh mn tcjns cenrhs euckmh shk trctcmhs térlèclnktn c
tnlpnrcturcs custnkìtècs phr mndcjh mn jhs 3966¶A punmn snr lãs a`kh nk tclcñh qun cqunj
hdtnk`mh phr jc prundc LeSuc`m-Nbk.
C5.4.3.5 Vrhenm`l`nkth mn Vrãetèc Ecrdur`zcktn ― Nj trctcl`nkth térlèh mnser`th nk nj pukth
C5.4.3.4 ns mnscrrhjjcmh pnrh kh ns ut`j`zcmc ukc ctlõsanrc ecrdur`zcmhrc y jc prhdntc
mndn nstcr tnlpjcmc c pcrt`r mn jc tnlpnrcturc mn prãetèc ecrdur`zcktn c ukc
vnjhe`mcm jh suaè`nktnlnktn rãp`mc pcrc ahrlcr lcrtnks`tc, nk vnz snr nkar`cmh jnktclnktn
mnspués mn jc
echrdtnu r`czdcrec`õsk`v.h J),c pruhj`dmnct cy n sc stcneecem`hck cemhck (puckr cr

pncrnevt`nvrh q uqnu ns nr qnuvnjlcrnã nsjh srn qeuhnkrt`hhmrhk uhsk emun`m cimrchskh
custnkìtèh (ehlh punmn snr ãe`mh pìerèh ceuhsh scturcmh ehk uk cinktn búlnmh, vnr Vrãetèc
N =69). Jc prãetèc ecrdur`zcktn cjiukcs vnens ns prnanr`mc phrqun jc prhaukm`mcm mn jc ecpc
ecrdur`zcmc prhmue`mc phr jc prundc LeSuc`m-Nbk punmn snr dcstcktn mnjicmc ehk cjiukhs
cenrhs. Ehk ukc prhdntc ecrdur`zcmc, thmhs jhs irckhs mn jc snee`õk punmnk snr nxcl`kcmhs.
Vrhdjnlcs tcjns ehlh tclcñh mn irckh cshe`cmh, jhs irckhs múpjnx h CJC (Qnr Léthmhs mn
Vrundc N 3323) shk mntnetcmhs lãs aãe`jlnktn ehk ukc prhdntc ecrdur`zcmc mnd`mh cj ãrnc
luebh lãs clpj`c qun sn nxcl`kc.
C5.4.3.= Cenrhs B`pnrnutneth`mns (Cenrhs cj ecrdõk y cjncmhs 6.4> c 6.16% Ecrdõk) ― C
lnkhs qun htrc ehsc sn nspneà`qun, ecj`nktn jcs prhdntcs mn cenrhs ehk ehktnk`mh mn
ecrdõk mn 6.5>% h lnkhs c 314> +/- 4>¶A (22> +/- 3=¶E)7 ecj`nktn jcs prhdntcs mn cenrhs ehk
ehktnk`mh mn ecrdõk mn 6.5>% c 3>9> +/- 4>¶A (2>9 +/- 3=¶E) phr uk lìk`lh mn 56 l`kuths y
nkarìnjcs cj c`rn h tnlpjcmc nk ciuc. Jhs cenrhs cj ecrdõk lãs cjths nk nstn rckih y
cjnce`hkns mn cenrh
c p r r h x `l c m c l n k t n p h r c r r `d c m n 6 .= 6 % m n
n n k a r `c l `n k t h p c r c m n j` k n c r e jc rc l n k tn j h s
e c rd õ p u n m n k rn q u n r` r u c ju s tn n k j c p r ã et è c
e h k t h rk h s m n j i r c k h c u s t nk ìt è h e h k an r r `t c . N k t c
m n
j n s ecshs sn rnehl`nkmc qun mnspués mn lcktnknr jc prhdntc phr nj t`nlph rnqunr`mh c
ukc tnlpnrcturc mn nkmurne`l`nkth, jc tnlpnrcturc snc rnmue`mc cprhx`lcmclnktn c 35=6 +/-
4>¶A (949 +/- 3=¶E) phr 36 l`kuths, sniu`mh mn tnlpjcmh ehk ciuc h cen`tn. Euckmh nstn
arnsec, snee`hkn jc prhdntc pcrc prhphre`hkcr ukc supnraè`n mn ehrtn arnseh, puj`mc y
ctcecr cmneucmclnktn pcrc rnvnjcr nj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh ehlh sn mnj`knõ phr jc
anrr`tc prne`p`tcmc nk jhs ehkthrkhs mnj irckh. Bcic nj nxclnk lèrhseõpèh mn ceunrmh c jc
]cdjc 3.
C5.4.3.> Vrhenm`l`nkth mn Hx`mce`õk (Cenrhs cj ecrdõk y cjncmhs c 6.16% Ecrdõk) ― Vuj`r ukc
mn jcs supnraè`ns mn jc prhdntc (uk cdrcs`vh mn cprhx`lcmclnktn irckh =66 h 3> l). Ehjhqun
jc prhdntc ehk nj jcmh puj`mh bce`c crr`dc nk uk bhrkh, y, c lnkhs qun htrc ehsc sn nspneà`qun,
N
ecj`nktn c 3>9> +/- 4>¶A (2>9 +/- 3=¶E) phr ukc bhrc y tnlpjn nk ciuc arìc h scjlunrc. Vuj`r jc
prhdntc tnlpjcmc pcrc rnvnjcr nj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh ehlh sn mnscrrhjjõ nk
jc supnraè`n hx`mcmc. Bcenr nj nxclnk lèrhseõpèh mn ceunrmh c jc ]cdjc 3.
C5.4.3.1 Cenrhs mn Nkmurne`l`nkth M`rneth (Cenrh cj ecrdõk y cjnce`hkns7 Ecrdõk
inknrcjlnktn phr mndcjh mn 3.66%) ― C lnkhs qun htrc ehsc sn nspneà`qun, ecjnktcr jcs
N
prhdntcs mn cenrh ehk uk ehktnk`mh mn ecrdõk mn 6.5>% h lnkhs c 314> +/- 4>¶A (22> +/-
3=¶E)7 ecjnktcr jcs prhdntcs mn cenrh ehk uk ehktnk`mh mn ecrdõk lcyhr c 6.5>% c 3>9> +/-
4>¶A (2>9 +/-3=¶E) phr suaè`nktn t`nlph y tnlpjcmh c ukc prhphre`õk pcrc
prhmue`r nkmurne`l`nkth thtcj. Vuj`r jc prhdntc tnlpjcmc y ctcecrjc pcrc rnvnjcr jc nstrueturc
lcrtnksìtèc. Tnvnk`r phr 3> l`kuths c =>6 +/-4>¶A (454 +/-3=¶E) cktns mnj ctcqun lnjhrc nj
ehktrcstn. Bcenr nj nxclnk lèrhseõpèh mn ceunrmh ehk jc ]cdjc 3.
C5.4.3.9 Cenrhs B`pnrnutneth`mns (Cenrh cj ecrdõk y cjnce`hkns7 Ecrdõk inknrcjlnktn
phr
curkrc`d cp umjni c3m.6c6 e%u)c m―r ^cmt`ccj`z pccr ruck cn sptrch dpnrutcn dmcn. cCp
rlhxn`kklhcsm qclu n khtnrc 3 e phusjcci csmnc n(4s>p.n=elà`lqu) nm n, mec`ãjl`nkntrnh
jch prhdntc c 3>66 +/-4>¶A (231 +/- 3=¶E) phr uk t`nlph lìk`lh mn 56 l`k., y nkar`cr ehk
bhrkh c ukc tnlpnrcturc phr mndcjh mn jc tnlpnrcturc erìtèc lãs dcjc c ukc
prhphre`õk jh suaè`nktnlnktn jnktc pcrc prne`p`tcr jc enlnkt`tc nk jhs ehkthrkhs mnj
irckh custnkìtèh. Euckmh nsté arìh, snee`hkcrjc jc prhdntc pcrc prhvnnr ukc supnraè`n mn
ehrtn arnseh, puj`rjc y ctcecrjc cmneucmclnktn pcrc rnvnjcr nj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh
ehlh sn mnj`knõ phr enlnkt`tc prne`p`tcmc nk jhs ehkthrkhs mnj irckh. Bcenr nj nxclnk
lèrhseõpèh mn ceunrmh c jc ]cdjc 3.
C5.4.4 Cenrhs custnkìtèhs ― Ehk lctnr`cjns custnkìtèhs, nj tclcñh mn irckh cetucj mnj lntcj
bc s`mh nstcdjne`mh phr trctcl`nkth térlèh cktnr`hr.
C5.5 Tnvnjckmh nj ]clcñh mn Irckh
C5.5.3 Cenrhs Aérrèhs ― Vcrc rnvnjcr nj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh inknrcjlnktn sn

ut`j`zck jhs sìu`nktns léthmhs (vnr Khtc C5.3)?
C5.5.3.3 Mnj`kncr jhs irckhs ehk enlnkt`tc ― Nk jc zhkc b`pnrnutneth`mn mn uk prhenm`l`nkth
mn ecrdur`zcmh (Vrundc LeSuc`m-Nbk) h nk cenrhs b`pnrnutneth`mns nkar`cmhs mnsmn
jc ehkmè`õk custnkìtèc, nj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh ns mnj`kncmh phr jc enlnkt`tc qun
ns prne`p`tcmc nk jhs ehkthrkhs mn irckh. Vhr nsh ns phs`djn ecjeujcr nj tclcñh mn
irckh ctceckmh jc prhdntc lèrhirãaèc ehk uk ctcecktn cmneucmh, 36 tcj ehlh k`tcj, pèrcj h
pèrcth mn shm`h cjecj`kh.
C5.5.3.4 Mnj`kncr jhs irckhs ehk anrr`tc ― Nk jc zhkc b`pnrnutneth`mn mn ukc
prhdntc ecrdur`zcmc, nj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh ns mnj`kncmh phr jc anrr`tc
prne`p`tcmc nk jhs ehkthrkhs mnj irckh. Jc anrr`tc mnj`knc s`l`jcrlnktn jhs irckhs
custnkìtèhs ahrlcmhrns nk cenrh cj lnm`h ecrdõk (cprhx`lcmclnktn 6.>6% mn
ecrdõk), euckmh bc s`mh nkar`cmh jnktclnktn mnsmn nj rckih custnkìtèh. Nk cenrhs mn
pheh ecrdõk (cprhx`lcmclnktn 6.46% mn
rd õ k ) , n k a r `c r jn k tc l n k t n m n s m n n j r c k ih c u s t n
eck t` m c m m n a n rr ` tc ns t ck i r c k m n q u n n j tc l c ñ h m n
k ì t è h b c t c j c tn l p n r tu r c mn j e u crt h, j c
i r c k h c us t n k ì t` e h ah r l cm h r n s e u d `n r t h 7 n k nstn ecsh, nj
cenrh punmn snr nkar`cmh jnktclnktn c ukc tnlpnrcturc `ktnrlnm`c, pcrc pnrl`t`r shjclnktn
ukc pnqunñc eckt`mcm mn anrr`tc pcrc prne`p`tcr, sniu`mh mn tnlpjcmh nk ciuc7 uk njnlpjh
snrìc ukc p`nzc prnv`clnktn ecjnktcmc c 319>¶A (035¶E), trcksanr`mh c uk bhrkh c nktrn
35>6 y 3=>6¶A (954 C 922¶E), lcktnk`mh c nstc tnlpnrcturc phr prhdcdjnlnktn 5 c >
l`kuths y nkthkens tnlpjcmh nk ciuc, nj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh snrìc rnvnjcmh phr
pnqunñhs irckhs mn anrr`tc mnj`knckmh jhs irckhs mn lcrtnks`tc mn dcjh ecrdõk.
C5.5.3.5 Mnj`kncr jhs irckhs phr hx`mce`õk ― Nj léthmh mn hx`mce`õk, mnpnkmn mnj bnebh mn
qun euckmh jhs cenrhs shk ecjnktcmhs nk ukc ctlõsanrc hx`mcktn, jc hx`mce`õk
suenmn prnanrnktnlnktn c jh jcrih mn jhs ehkthrkhs mnj irckh. ^k prhenm`l`nkth ehlúk,
nkthkens, ns puj`r jc prhdntc mn prundc c uk puj`mh lntcjhirãaèh, ecj`éktnjc cj c`rn c jc
tnlpnrcturc mnsncmc phr nj pnr`hmh mn t`nlph mnsncmh, y nkthkens vunjvc c puj`r jìnrclnktn
jc prhdntc shjclnktn
N
36
Qnr prãetèc N =69
N
pcrc rnlhvnr nseclcs7 mn nstc lcknrc jhs ehkthrkhs mn irckh custnkìtèh shk v`s`djns cj snr
mnj`kncmhs phr hx`mh.
C5.5.3.= Mnj`knckmh jhs irckhs mn lcrtnks`tc ehk pnrj`tc a`kc ― ^k léthmh
cpjècdjn pcrtèujcrlnktn pcrc cenrhs nutneth`mns, qun kh punmn snr juzicmh tck rãp`mclnktn
phr htrhs léthmhs, ns yc snc pcrc nkmurnenr ukc dcrrc mn tcj tclcñh qun nstã
ehlpjntclnktn nkmurne`mc nk nj nxtnr`hr pnrh kh thtcjlnktn nkmurne`mc nk nj `ktnr`hr, h
pcrc nlpjncr uk tnlpjcmh nk mnej`vn nk nj eucj jc p`nzc ecjnktcmc nstã ehk ukc phre`õk mn
su jhki`tum `klnrsc
t n`kc c minuc t nyl phjrc mnhs thk he hnlstpãj ntkcmlunrnketn`m nck. mNukr neu`mccjq, un`nj
sr hldércthkmtnh mbnc djcrã p u`nkzc pqnuqnu qnuñncm zch ckacu nqrucn m ns jtcé ecs` pnrh
kh thtcjlnktn nkmurne`mc. Nk nstc zhkc, jhs irckhs custnkìtèhs `ktnircmhrns
ehks`st`rãk nk irckhs mn lcrtnks`tc rhmncmhs mn pnqunñcs eckt`mcmns mn pnrj`tc a`kc, nsth
rnvnjcrã nj tclcñh mnj irckh. Nsths léthmhs tcld`ék shk cpjècdjns pcrc cenrhs uk pheh lãs
cjths h lãs dcjhs mn jhs mn ehlphsè`õk nutneth`mn.
C5.5.3.> Ctcqun mn Irckhs mn Lcrtnks`tc ― Nj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh ahrlcmhr punmn snr
rnvnjcmh nk cenrhs ehlpjntclnktn nkmurne`mhs pcrc lcrtnks`tc ut`j`zckmh uk ctcecktn rncet`vh
qun mnscrrhjjc nj ehktrcstn nktrn jhs irckhs mn lcrtnks`tc. Vhknrjh nk rnvnk`mh phr 3> l`kuths
c =>6¶A (454¶E) cktns mn ctcecr, lnjhrc m`st`kt`vclnktn nj ehktrcstn. ^k rncet`vh qun bc s`mh
rnehlnkmcmh ns 3 ir. mn ãe`mh pìerèh, > lJ mn BEj (nspneìaèclnktn ir. 3.30), y 0> lJ mn
cjehbhj ntìjèh. ^k léthmh cjtnrkh ns ut`j`zcr uk ctcecktn qun rnvnjn prnanrnktnlnktn
jhs ehkthrkhs mnj irckh custnkìtèh. Luebhs ctcecktns bck s`mh mnscrrhjjcmhs pcrc nstn
prhpõs`th (vnr prãetèc N =69 y j`drhs mn tnxth nstãkmcr). Nj lãs nx`thsh ehks`stn nk ãe`mh
pìerèh nk
mnmsnt csmhhm `hc e(ujch svhn rssc`õtukr cmmhhm neeh`kkj ttnckl`ndk`émkh turckd ccijcn kdt`nn
kb)u. lJcnse tpcrkhtnd,n utcssu cmjnldnnkrìtcnk s unjsactcthr ntrk`m enhek`jdmnèk`heknnksh
pcrne`mcs cj tnlpjcmh, h rnvnk`mh kh phr nke`lc mn 3666¶A. Nj éx`th ehk nstn ctcecktn mnpnkmn
mn jc prnsnke`c mn aõsahrh nk jc cjnce`õk (;6.66>% mn V rnqunr`mh), Jhs rnsujtcmhs punmnk
rnlcrecrsn rnv`k`nkmh nj cenrh nktrn 2>6 y 066¶A phr hebh bhrcs h lãs pcrc jjnvcr cj aõsahrh c
jhs ehkthrkhs mnj irckh. Vcrc cenrhs ehk cmè`hkns mn cjnce`õk sustcke`cjns, punmn
snr knenscr`h culnktcr ukcs phecs ihtcs mn ãe`mh ejhrbìmrèh cj ctcecktn (phr 366
lJ mn ctcecktn). Nj ctcqun usucjlnktn thlc cj lnkhs > l`kuths. Nj ctcecktn ctcecrã jcs
`kejus`hkns mn sujaurh. Qhjvnr c puj`r jìnrclnktn jc prhdntc shdrn ukc runmc nstce`hkcr`c
pcrc rnlhvnr cjiúk mntcjjn mn ahkmh s`k `lphrtcke`c punmn bcenr lãs aãe`j vnr jhs ehkthrkhs mn
irckh.
C5.5.4 Cenrhs Custnkìtèhs ― Vcrc rnvnjcr nj tclcñh mn irckh nk lctnr`cjns
custnkìtèhs, mndnrìc uscrsn ukc téekèc cmneucmc mn ctcqun pcrc mnscrrhjjcr nj
tclcñh mn irckh. Tnehkhe`nkmh qun jhs inlnjhs t`nkmnk c bcenr ehkausc jc jneturc mn
tclcñh mn irckh, nj ctcqun mndnrìc snr tcj qun snc nv`mnktn shjh uk lìk`lh mn inlnjhs.
C5.5.4.3 Lctnr`cj Nstcd`j`zcmh
ctcecmc njnetrhjìtèclnktn ― Jc mn prhdntc,
nk ukc shjue`õk ehlh phr
ciuc ehlpunstc nj ukãkhmh,
vhjulnkpunmn
mn 16% snr
mn
ãe`mh kìtrèh
ehkenktrcmh c tnlpnrcturc cld`nktn. Vcrc l`k`l`zcr jc cpcrè`õk mn inlnjhs, mndnrìc ut`j`zcrsn
uk vhjtcjn dcjh (3 c 3¼ Q). Nstn ctcecktn tcld`ék ns rnehlnkmcmh pcrc rnvnjcr jhs ehkthrkhs
mn irckh mn anrr`tc nk cenrhs `khx`mcdjns aérrèhs y ns ut`j`zcmh `méktèclnktn.
C5.5.4.4 Lctnr`cjns kh nstcd`j`zcmhs ― Nj ehkthrkh mn irckh punmn snr mnscrrhjjcmh c trcvés mn
prne`p`tce`õk mn ecrdurhs phr ecjnktcl`nkth mnktrh mnj rckih mn tnlpnrcturc
snks`d`j`zcktn,
=24 c 96=¶E (066 ― 3566¶A). Mndnrìc ut`j`zcrsn eucjqu`nr ctcecktn rnvnjcmhr mn ecrdurh.
C5.= Tnphrtckmh nj tclcñh mn irckh

N
C5.=.3 Cenrhs Aérrèhs ― Euckmh sn hdsnrvnk nstrueturcs mn tclcñhs mn irckh lnzejcmhs h
múpjnx (vnr Léthmhs mn Vrundc N 3323), mndnrãk snr rnphrtcmcs ehk mhs
rckihs rnprnsnktct`vhs mn kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn irckh. U`nlprn qun sn nlpjnnk htrhs
trctcl`nkths
N
térlèhs m`st`kths cj prhenm`l`nkth mn ecrdur`zcmh (Vrundc LeSuc`m-Nbk), mndnrã bcenrsn uk

rnphrtn ehlpjnth qun `kejuyc?
C5.=.3.3 ]nlpnrcturc ut`j`zcmc cj nstcdjnenr nj tclcñh mn irckh
C5.=.3.4 ]`nlph y tnlpnrcturc ut`j`zcmhs nk nstcdjnenr nj tclcñh mn irckh
C5.=.3.5 Léthmh mn rnvnjcmh mn tclcñh mn irckh, y
C5.=.3.= ]clcñh mn irckh
C5.=.4 Cenrhs Custnkìtèhs ― Cj mntnrl`kcr nj tclcñh mn irckhs custnkìtèhs, jhs ehkthrkhs
inlnjhs mnktrh mn uk irckh kh mndnrãk snr ehktcmhs.
C=. LÉ]HMH MN ATCE]^TC VCTC MN]NTL@KCT NJ ]CLCÑH MN ITCKH 33
C=.3 Nj léthmh arceturc pcrc mntnrl`kcr nj tclcñh mn irckh, mnscrrhjjcmh phr Crp` (0) y
Ubnpbnrm (4), nlpjnc snr`ns ircmucmcs mn m`nz prhdntcs arceturcmcs pcrc nst`lcr nj tclcñh mn
irckh custnkìtèh mn prhdntcs mn cenrh (vnr khtc cj p`n 33 pcrc lctnr`cjns cpjècdjns) phr
ehlpcrce`õk. Vcrc ecshs ecrdur`zcmhs mn cenrhs cj ecrdõk h cjncmhs tcld`ék phmrã
snr nvcjucmh nj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh phr nstn léthmh (pnrh kh jhs mn kúejnh dcjh
nk ecrdõk).
C=.4 Jcs m`nz prhdntcs arceturcmcs shk kulnrcmcs mnj ukh cj m`nz mhkmn jhs kúlnrhs
ehrrnsphkmnk c jhs kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L. Jc lunstrc c snr
nvcjucmc ns arceturcmc, usucjlnktn trcksvnrscjlnktn c jc m`rnee`õk mn trcdcjh ecj`nktn,
y jc arceturc ns ehlpcrcmc c jcs m`nz arceturcs mn prundc mn jcs snr`ns Ubnpbnrm. 34 Jc
cpcr`nke`c mn jc arceturc
umunt`j `jzcc rp rlhdnnmt`hcs n ksú elhnlrhpsc.r c]mccl cdj` ékkú lnsn rphh ns`kdtjnnr hm
nmtn ejtcc rk hehrlkmc` el`hãksn se nmrúepcjknhx, epuncrkhm nhs jcp narcle`tu`mrhc nxb`dn
mhs mànrnktns pctrhkns mn arceturc.
C=.5 Jcs prhdntcs punmnk snr arceturcmcs ihjpnckmh nj nxtrnlh j`drn, l`nktrcs sn mnt`nkn
nj htrh nxtrnlh, h phr ajnx`õk mn trns pukths ut`j`zckmh uk prnkscmhr h ukc lãqu`kc
tnkscmhrc (ecricmc nk ehlprns`õk) h eucjqu`nr htrh léthmh cmneucmh. Nj lunsecmh mn jcs
prhdntcs h jc rnarìnrce`õk cktns mn jc arceturc, h cldcs, cyumck c csniurcr ukc arceturc
pjckc. Vcrc lcyhr
`kahrlce`õk vnr Qckmnr Qhhrt (36).
C=.= Jc prhdntc c snr nxcl`kcmc mndn snr prnmhl`kcktnlnktn lcrtnksìtèc cukqun
irckmns eckt`mcmns mn custnk`tc ehktnk`mc kh `kvcj`mck jhs rnsujtcmhs. Eckt`mcmns
cprne`cdjns mn ecrdurh rns`mucj tcld`ék shk pnrl`t`mcs. U`k nldcrih, jc màus`õk ehktrhjcmc
mn prhmueths mn trcksahrlce`õk tcjns ehlh dc`k`tc, pnrj`tc h anrr`tc s` nstã prnsnktn nk
lãs mn uk pnqunñh phrenktcjn, ecld`c jc kcturcjnzc mn jc cpcr`nke`c mn jc arceturc n
`kvcj`mc jhs eãjeujhs mn tclcñh mn irckh phr arceturc. Nj rnvnk`mh nxens`vh nk nstrueturcs
mn cenrh mn bnrrcl`nktc
lcrtnksìtèh tcld`ék
irckh phr arceturc. Jhscjtnrc jc cpcr`nke`c
eãjeujhs mn jc arceturc
shk lãs prne`shs n `kvcj`mcnkjhsehkmè`hkns
pcrc prhdntcs eãjeujhs mnpcrne`mcs
tclcñh mncj
tnlpjcmh h jìnrclnktn rnvnk`mcs. Nstrueturcs arãi`jns y pjckcs shk mnsncmcs pcrc hdtnknr jc
lcyhr prne`s`õk.
C=.> Nstum`hs bck lhstrcmh qun jhs eãjeujhs mn tclcñh mn irckh phr arceturc nk
cenrhs mn bnrrcl`nktc nk ehkmè`hkns pcrne`mcs c tnlpjcmh ehlpjntclnktn nkmurne`mhs sn
ehrrnjce`hkck d`nk ehk eãjeujhs mn tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh lnm`mhs lèrhseõpèclnktn.
Vcrc jc lcyhrìc mn jhs cenrhs mn bnrrcl`nktc, nj eãjeujh mn tclcñh mn irckh phr arceturc
snrã mnktrh mn +/-3 uk`mcm mnj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh mntnrl`kcmh
lèrhseõpèclnktn, I.
33
Nstn léthmh ns cpjècdjn shjh pcrc cenrhs arãi`jns mn cjtc murnzc, ehk
lèrhnstrueturc prnmhl`kcktnlnktn lcrtnksìtèc, tcjns ehlh cenrhs pcrc bnrrcl`nktcs, cenrhs cjths nk
ecrdõk y cenrhs
`khx`mcdjns lcrtnksìtèhs, y mndnrìc rncj`zcrsn ehk jc prhdntc nk ehkmè`õk pcrne`mc cj tnlpjcmh
N
h
j` i Vnrcrlc cnqkutn rjjnhvsn qku`mnc k. h phsnck ukc khrlc mn jcs Unr`ns Ubnpbnrm, nstã m`sphk`djn ukc
3 4
rnprhmuee`õk ahthirãaèc phr pcrtn mn jc haè`kc inknrcj mn CU]L. Hrmnkn 34->63334=-45.

N
C=.1 Nj léthmh mn tclcñh mn irckh phr arceturc kh punmn snr ut`j`zcmh pcrc
mntnrl`kcr tclcñhs mn irckh lãs a`khs mn m`nz. Jcs arceturcs mn prhdntcs ehk
tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh lãs a`kh mn m`nz kh punmnk snr m`ser`l`kcmcs ehk jc v`stc y
snrãk nvcjucmcs ehlh s` aunrck uk tclcñh mn irckh m`nz. Jcs arceturcs lãs irunscs qun uk
kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh mn ukh cpcrnktcrãk snr lãs irunscs mn ukh pnrh kh
phmrãk snr nxcl`kcmcs prne`sclnktn phr nstn léthmh.
C>. TNS^NT@L@NK]HU VCTC CJNCE@HKNU MN EHDTN AHTOCMH P C DCUN MN EHDTN

C>.3Vcrc prhmueths mn cjnce`hkns mn ehdrn ahrjcmh y c dcsn mn ehdrn dcjh jur`smèe`õk mnj
ehl`té D-> nk Ehdrn y cjnce`hkns mn ehdrn, ns lckmcthr`h qun jhs sìu`nktns prhenm`l`nkths
snck sniu`mhs?
C>.3.3 Jc prhdntc mndnrã snr prnpcrcmc mn ceunrmh ehk jc prãetèc N 5.
C>.3.4 Jc prhdntc ut`j`zcmc pcrc nj léthmh mn ehlpcrce`õk mndnrã snr ctcecmc cj ehktrcstn y
ehlpcrcmc ehk jc pjcec @@@, h s` ns ctcqun pjckh, ehk jc pjcec @@.
C>.3.5 Nj tclcñh mn irckh mndnrã snr nxprnscmh ehlh nj m`ãlntrh mn irckh
prhlnm`h nk l`jìlntrhs7 phr njnlpjh, m`ãlntrh mn irckh prhlnm`h 6.64>-ll. Nj
sìkàècmh mn nstc nxprns`õk ns nj m`ãlntrh mn snee`õk mn eruen mn irckhs qun ecnk
mnktrh mnj pjckh mnj lntcj s`nkmh nxcl`kcmh.
C>.3.= Jhs tclcñhs mn irckh lnzejcmhs (vnr léthmhs mn prundc N 3323) shk cjiukcs
vnens nkehktrcmhs, pcrtèujcrlnktn nk lntcj trcdcjcmh nk ecj`nktn. Nsths mndnrãk snr
nxprnscmhs
mVchkr mnhjn jlhsp jphh, r>e6n%ktc mjnns 6m.n6 3ã>r nlcl q7u yn >sn6 %n smt`nl 6c.
6n9st6ã kl hle7u hp,c sm`h nsx p`shtrn jhusk mrchksi rhc,k =i6h%s m mnn t c6l.6c3ñ6h cs.
6.646 ll7 y 16% mn 6.606 c 6.346 ll.
C>.3.> Jc mntnrl`kcr nj eulpj`l`nkth mn jhs rnqunr`l`nkths mn tclcñh mn irckh ehk jhs jìl`tns
nspneàècmhs, nj vcjhr nst`lcmh mndnrã snr rnmhkmncmh mn ceunrmh ehk?
]clcñh mn Irckh Qcjhr ecjeujcmh u hdsnrvcmh cj eucj nj tclcñh mn

irckh mndnrìc snr cprhx`lcmh
Crr`dc mn 6.6>> ll, `kej Cj lújt`pjh lãs enreckh mn 6.66> ll

Nke`lc mn 6.6>> ll Cj lãs enreckh c 6.636
C1. CVJ@ECE@ÕK C U@]^CE@HKNU NUVNE@CJNU
C1.3 Kulnrhscs prãetècs nspneìaècs pcrc jc lnmè`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh sn bck
vnk`mh nstcdjne`nkmh nk vcr`hs snilnkths mn jcs `kmustr`cs mn jhs lntcjns y lctnr`cjns. Nj
prnsnktn j`stcmh mn léthmhs nstãkmcr kh `ktnktc mnkhtcr qun eucjqu`nrc mn tcjns prãetècs
nspneìaècs mndnrìc snr cdckmhkcmc euckmh jc nxpnr`nke`c bc mnlhstrcmh qun nsc prãetèc
ns cmneucmc pcrc jc cpjèce`õk mntnrl`kcmc. Ns. U`k nldcrih, cjtclnktn rnehlnkmcmh qun nj
prhenm`l`nkth nstcmìstèh mn jc snee`õk 3> snc cpjècmh c jhs mcths mn nstcs prãetècs
trcmè`hkcjns nk dusec mn csniurcr qun njjhs cjeckzck uk jìl`tn mn ehka`ckzc qun ns cmneucmh
pcrc jhs rnqunr`l`nkths cetucjns.
C1.4 Ns ecrcetnrìstèh mn luebcs prãetècs nspne`cjns qun rnphrtck uk rnsujtcmh kulérèh qun
kh nstã ehkvnk`nktnlnktn rnjce`hkcmh c jcs nsecjcs ut`j`zcmcs ehlúklnktn tcjns ehlh jcs
lhstrcmcs nk jc ]cdjc =. Nj ush ehkt`kuh mn kúlnrhs bcd`tucjns ns justàècmh nk jhs eclphs
qun yc snc t`nknk uk sìkàècmh `kbnrnktn nk su prhp`c ehluk`mcm, h qun bck cmqu`r`mh
sìkàècmh c jh jcrih mnj ush. Ns, s`k nldcrih, cjtclnktn rnehlnkmcmh qun tcjns lnmè`hkns
snck bnebcs ehlprnks`djns c ukc cum`nke`c lãs clpj`c pr`lnrh phr rnnxprns`õk mn ukc mn jcs
N
nsecjcs létrècs prnanr`mcs (ehlh sn ut`j`zc nk jc ]cdjc =), y mnspués phr ehkvnrs`õk c jhs
kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L ehrrnsphkm`nktns. Euckmh jcs lnmè`hkns
hrì`kcjns rnprnsnktck cjiukc ahrlc mn `ktnrenpe`õk h ehktnh pjck`létrèh punmn mne`rsn qun
nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L bc, mn bnebh, s`mh mntnrl`kcmh. Euckmh jhs mcths
hrì`kcjns shk mn ukc kcturcjnzc mànrnktn, mndnrìc nstcdjnenrsn qun jc lnmè`õk ns
nqu`vcjnktn cj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L ‚R“. Jcs ehkvnrs`hkns punmnk snr bnebcs
yc snc phr jc ]cdjc = h c trcvés mn jcs rnjce`hkns lhstrcmcs nk jhs cknxhs C3 y C4.
C1.5.N3 jnNljnpljhpsjh? 3 ― Nj prhenm`l`nkth Ukymnr y Ircaa (33) ehkt`kuc, nk nj ush

inknrcj, pcrc jc nst`lce`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh custnkìtèh nk cenrhs mn bnrrcl`nktc. Nstc
ns ukc vnrs`õk nspneìaèc mnj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk mn Bnyk (vnr pukth 35.3) nk nj eucj nj
kúlnrh rnphrtcmh ns nj kúlnrh prhlnm`h mn `ktnrenpe`hkns ehk ukc jìknc mn prundc
mn > pujicmcs (349 ll)cpjècmc c ukc `lcink c 3666R. Nstn ehktnh ns lãs út`j
`klnm`ctclnktn qun nj l`slh kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L, yc qun jhs ecld`hs
`lphrtcktns mn ecj`mcm nstãk cshe`cmhs ehk uk ecld`h mn cprhx`lcmclnktn mhs kúlnrhs mn
tclcñh mn irckh CU]L, euyc mànrnke`c kh ns d`nk rnsunjtc shdrn jc nsecjc mn tclcñh
jhicrìtlèc h phr jhs léthmhs mn ehlpcrce`õk y pjck`létrèh. Nj kúlnrh mn ]clcñh
Ukymnr y Ircaa sn vhjvnrã sìkàèct`vh pcrc htrhs lujt`pjèãkmhjh phr nj acethr 9.29=
pcrc prhmue`r KJ phr l`jìlntrh, mnspués mnj eucj jc ]cdjc =
`kmècrã, phr njnlpjh, qun nj Kh. 3> U&I ns nj Kúlnrh mn ]clcñh mn Irckh CU]L 36.>.
Cmnlãs, ehlh jc prne`s`õk mn nstc prãetèc kh cjeckzc 4% mn jc eunktc, jc jìknc mn prundc mn >
pujicmcs (349 ll) phmrìc snr rnlpjczcmc phr ukc jìknc mn prundc mn 34> ll s`k `kvcj`mcr jhs
rhhneib`hhst rjhìksn cckst nmrn`h rpnrsu, nbdcce `nìkumchjc njK l umj``tr`pnjeètclr 2n.k6t,n
J
e. hJkc j hn evuccjuj cnej `õehkk mtnnhj tjìhltc`tj nm nm n`k tenhrkena`pcek`zhck nnsk n jkc
snee`õk 3> punmn snr cpjècmh c jìkncs mn prundc `km`v`mucjns, h c thtcjns nk kúlnrhs a`jhs mn
jìkncs nk ecmc jìknc jhecj.
CKNRHU
(@kahrlce`õk kh Lckmcthr`c)
R3. TNU^J]CMHU MN MN]NTL@KCE@HKNU MN ]CLCÑH MN ITCKH

@K]NTJCDHTC]HT@H 35
R3.3 Nj prhirclc
prne`s`õk mn prundc
y mnsv`ce`õk `ktnrjcdhrcthr`h
pcrc jc aun ehkmue`mh
lnmè`õk mn tclcñh pcrc
mn irckh phrmnscrrhjjcr
nj léthmhjcs
mnnst`lce`õk mn
ehlpcrce`õk
irãaèc, phr nj léthmh pjck`létrèh y phr nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk.
R3.4 Vrhenm`l`nkth
R3.4.3 Ahthlèrhircaìcs (2 phr 36 pujicmcs) mn mhs cenrhs `khx`mcdjns anrrìtèhs mànrnktns,

euctrh mn ukc prhdntc c mànrnktns culnkths y trns mn htrc prhdntc c mànrnktns culnkths,
aunrhk nvcjucmcs pcrc tclcñh mn irckh ut`j`zckmh nj léthmh mn irãaèc ehk jc pjcec @, y ehk nj
léthmh pjck`létrèh y mn `ktnrenpe`õk. ^k m`dujh mn jhs ehkthrkhs mnj irckh mn ukc prhdntc mn
cenrh mn lckicknsh Bcma`njm‐s custnkìtèh, ehk ctcqun mn ehktrcstn mn irckh, tcld`ék aun
Jhs mcths mn cphyh bck s`mh iucrmcmhs nk jcs haè`kcs inknrcjns mn CU]L y punmnk snr hdtnk`mcs phr
35
rnqunr`l`nkth TT?N 6=-366>.

N
nvcjucmh phr jhs trns léthmhs. ^k kúlnrh mn htrcs lèrhircaìcs aunrhk nvcjucmcs shjh phr nj
léthmh mn ehlpcrce`õk. Nk ecmc ecsh, jhs ehkthrkhs mn irckh nstcdck mnj`kncmhs ejcrc y
ehlpjntclnktn.
R3.4.4 Vcrc nj léthmh pjck`létrèh, c ecmc nvcjucmhr sn jn m`h uk nseckt`jjõk mn pjãstèh
trckspcrnktn mn 2 phr 36 pujicmcs ehk e`keh eìreujhs mn prundc mn 92.0 ll mn m`ãlntrh y uk
jãp`z mn ircsc. Vcrc nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk, c ecmc nvcjucmhr sn jn m`h uk nseckt`jjõk mn trns
eìreujhs.
nRnv3`.t4c.r5 n Vj clrch vn`lj l`néktthm.h M pnjcdk`m`lh éct rqèuhn, njcj nrnsje`jcjck tm`jjnõ
ke ìaruenu jehhsj hye jcm hl nèkrh jci rachatìhci nrcrcaìkc eyc csj`ù mstncjm lh `pslcrhc
tclcñh, jc ehjhece`õk mn jc rnj`jjc mndnrìc snr lãs d`nk ehks`stnktn nktrn jhs nvcjucmhrns. Vcr
nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk, jhs nvcjucmhrns ehjhecrhk su rnj`jjc nk jc lèrhircaìc e`keh vnens cj
czcr. Aun csul`mh qun nstc mànrnke`c nk nj léthmh mn ehjhece`õk rnmue`rìc jc vcr`cd`j`mcm mnj
léthmh pjck`létrèh rnjct`vc cj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk.
R3.5 Tnsujtcmhs
R3.5.3 Jcs aìurcs R3.3 y R3.4 lunstrcs jcs nvcjuce`hkns mn tclcñh mn irckh pcrc jhs mhs
cenrhs `khx`mcdjns anrrìtèhs, `mnktàècmcs ehlh Unr`ns C y D, ehlh ukc auke`õk mnj culnkth mn
jhs lèrõircahs, pcrc jhs léthmhs pjck`létrèh y mn `ktnrenpe`õk. ]rns pnrshkcs
tcld`ék bè`nrhk lnmè`hkns mn ckãj`s`s mn `lcink mn jcs `lãinkns. Ehlh punmn
snr v`sth, jc m`spnrs`õk lãs cjustcmc heurr`õ, pcrc cldhs junihs mn lèrhircaìcs, c uk
culnkth mn =66R
mhnk `kmtnn rnejnn ephek`htnkhn sm np rihrlcknhm `pphr ahuln nemn`rhe cp hmrn l =n6m cè
>`õ6k ppcjcrck `jlc éctpr`jeècc eau`õnk e mnnre tcrn msn e 5ìr6e ucjh 5s>. y nj kúlnrh
Culnkth mn Lèrhircaìc
Vjck`létrèh @ktnrenpe`õk  Ckãj`s`s mn @lcink
Aìurc R3.3 Lnmè`hkns mn tclcñh mn irckh pcrc jcs snr`ns C mn Vrhdntcs mn Cenrh
@khx`mcdjn Anrrìtèh.
N 334
Culnkth mn Lèrhircaìc
Vjck`létrèh @ktnrenpe`õk  Ckãj`s`s mn @lcink
Aìurc R3.4 Lnmè`hkns mn tclcñh mn irckh pcrc jcs snr`ns D mn Vrhdntcs mn Cenrh
@khx`mcdjn Anrrìtèh.
% mn Nxcet`tum Tnjct`vc Léthmh Vjck`létrèh
Kh. mn Irckhs Ehktcmhs
KH]C ― Jhs rnsujtcmhs mnj ckãj`s`s mn `lcink pcrc jcs l`slcs lèrhircaìcs
Aìurc R3.5 Tnjce`õk nktrn nj kúlnrh mn irckhs ehktcmhs y nj phrenktcjn mn nxcet`tum

rnjct`vc pcrc nj léthmh pjck`létrèh.
N 334
% Nxcet`tum Tnjct`vc Léthmh mn @ktnrenpe`õk
Kh. mn @ktnrenpe`hkns Ehktcmcs

KH]C? Jhs rnsujtcmhs mnj ckãj`s`s mn `lcink pcrc jcs l`slcs lèrhircaìcs
Aìurc R3.= Tnjce`õk nktrn nj kúlnrh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns h `ktnrsnee`hkns ehktcmcs y nj

phrenktcjn mn nxcet`tum rnjct`vc pcrc nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk.
I
k
õ`
e
p
n
e
rr
tn
k@
k
Vjck`létrèh I
Aìurc R3.> Ehlpcrce`õk mn jcs lnmè`hkns mn tclcñh mn irckh pcrc ecmc lèrhircaìc
phr ecmc hpnrcmhr jhs léthmhs pjck`létrèh y mn `ktnrenpe`õk.
N 334
Culnkth qun sn csuln snr 366R
I
k
`èõeõ
c
r r
c
p
l
h
E
Vjck`létrèh I
KH]C? ]rczhs phr ecmc nvcjucmhr y sn csuln qun jcs lèrhircaìcs shk c uk culnkth mn 366R.
Jmm s vm`ceth`õsk, .inknrcjlnktn, ecnk mn uk jcmh mn jc jìknc mn tnkmnke`c ukh c ukh `kmèckmh ukc
Aìurc R3.1 ]rczh mn jhs vcjhrns mn jc irãaèc mn ehlpcrce`õk pcrc ecmc lèrhircaìc
ehktrc nj vcjhr mnj léthmh pjck`létrèh pcrc ecmc lèrhircaìc.
Culnkth qun sn csuln snr 366R
I
k
õ`
e
rcr
c
p
l
h
E
@ktnrenpe`õk I
Aìurc R3.9 ]rczh mn jhs vcjhrns mn jc irãaèc mn ehlpcrce`õk pcrc ecmc lèrhircaìc
ehktrc nj vcjhr mnj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk ns uk léthmh lãs naè`nktn.
N
R3.5.4 Jcs aìurcs R3.5 y R3.= lunstrck ehlh nj phrenktcjn mn nxcet`tum rnjct`vc
mn jcs lnmè`hkns vcr`õ ehk nj kúlnrh irckhs ehktcmhs, Aìurc R3.5, y ehk nj
kúlnrh mn
`ktnrenpe`hkns h `ktnrsnee`hkns ehktcmcs, Aìurc R3.=. ]hmhs jhs mcths mn lnmè`õk
nstãk
`keju`mhs. Khtn qun uk phrenktcjn mn TC mn 36%, h lnkhs, ns hdtnk`mh euckmh enrec mn 966 h
lãs irckhs shk ehktcmhs phr nj léthmh pjck`létrèh h euckmh enrec mn =66 `ktnrsnee`hkns mn
ehkthrkh mn irckh h `ktnrenpe`hkns mn irckh shk ehktcmcs phr nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk.
Mnd`mh c qun jhs irckhs mndnk snr lcrecmhs nk nj nseckt`jjõk euckmh shk ehktcmhs pcrc
kcksnneinusrccrr`h j cp cprrcn en`sj `lõké tmhnmjh e hmknt n`kht nnrke nnpj el`õékt,h nmsht ãp
jcejkc`rlhé qtruènh ,n jl l`néktthrmcsh qmunn ` kntjn lrecnrpeec`õmkh nksh unks léthmh
lãs naè`nktn.
R3.5.5 Jcs tcdjcs R3.3 y R3.4 j`stck jhs rnsujtcmhs mnj ckãj`s`s mn rnpnt`t`d`j`mcm
y rnprhmue`d`j`mcm mn ceunrmh c jc prãetèc N 103. Nk inknrcj, nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk supnrõ
cj léthmh pjck`létrèh nk nstn nstum`h.
R3.5.= Jc Aìurc R3.> lunstrc uk trczh mnj léthmh pjck`létrèh ehktrc nj vcjhr mn tclcñh mn
irckh `ktnrenptcmh pcrc ecmc lèrhircaìc phr ecmc nvcjucmhr. Khtn qun jhs mcths
nstãk m`spnrshs cjncthr`clnktn cjrnmnmhr mn jc jìknc mn tnkmnke`c ukh c ukh. Nsth `kmèc qun
kh budh mnsv`ce`õk nk jcs lnmè`hkns mn tclcñh mn irckh phr k`kiúk léthmh.
R3.5.> Ecmc lèrhircaìc qun aun nvcjucmc phr tclcñh mn irckh phmrìc snr ehks`mnrcmc nk mhs
ahrlcs, pr`lnrh, ehlh uk vcjhr pcrc nj culnkth vnrmcmnrh mn jc lèrhircaìc, y sniukmh, pcrc
uk vcjhr ehlh s` nj culnkth mn jc lèrhircaìc aunrc 366R. Vcrc nvcjuce`õk mnj léthmh mn
ehlpcrce`õk, sn csul`õ qun ecmc lèrhircaìc nstcdc c 366R. Jhs mcths mn `ktnrenpe`õk y
lpjcukn`sltréctkr` ejhhss tctrlczdh`ésk maunn rjhks evhcljhprnustc mmhns ujct`

jìzrcãkamèhc nmsntc eshulphpsc`rec`õek`õ.k J cesh kAt`ricu rjchss Rv3c.j1h ryn sR 3m.n9
pjck`létrèh y mnj mn `ktnrenpe`õk, csul`nkmh qun thmcs jcs lèrhircaìcs nstcdck c 366R. Khtn
qun jhs mcths kh nstãk m`spnrshs cjncthr`clnktn cjrnmnmhr mn jc jìknc mn tnkmnke`c ukh c ukh.
Nsth lunstrc ejcrclnktn qun jcs mnsv`ce`hkns qun heurrnk nk jhs vcjhrns mn ehlpcrce`õk mn jc
irãaèc, aunrhk tìpèclnktn 6.> c 3 uk`mcm I lãs cdcjh, lãs irunshs, qun jcs lnmè`hkns
pjck`létrècs y mn `ktnrenpe`õk. Nj hrìnk mn nstc mnsv`ce`õk nstã dcjh nstum`h.
]CDJC R3.3 Tnsujtcmhs mnj e`reu`th mn trcksl`s`õk ehk rnthrkh cj pukth mn hrìnk
mn ]clcñh mn Irckh CU]L (Léthmh Vjck`létrèh)
@lcink Kh./ll4 CU]L I Kh. prhlnm`h Tnpnt`d`j`mcm Tnprhmue`d`j`mcm Tnpnt`t`d`j`mcm Tnprhmue`d`j`mcm
0>% EJ 0>% EJ % TC % TC
]CDJC R3.4 Tnsujtcmhs mnj e`reu`th mn trcksl`s`õk ehk rnthrkh cj pukth mn hrìnk
mn ]clcñh mn Irckh CU]L (Léthmh mn @ktnrenpe`õk)
@lcink Kh./ll4 CU]L I Kh. prhlnm`h Tnpnt`d`j`mcm Tnprhmue`d`j`mcm Tnpnt`t`d`j`mcm Tnprhmue`d`j`mcm

N
R4. CMO^K]HU TNANTNKE@CMHU
R4.3 Jc sìu`nktn ns ukc j`stc ehlpjntc y cetucj`zcmc mn cmjukths mn rnanrnke`c pcrc jhs
Léthmhs mn Vrundc N 334. ]hmhs jhs cmjukths nstãk m`sphk`djns nk CU]L.
Cmjukth? Hrmnk VEK

Ehld`kce`õk mn 30 ehlphknktns 34->63346-42
UEhjlh dV`kjcceec`õ @k mn Vjcecs @, @@, 34->63343366-432266

@@@ y @Q Uhjh Vjcec @@ 34->63346-46
Uhjh Vjcec @@@ 34->63346-56
Uhjh Vjcec @Q 34->63346-=6
Ehld`kce`õk mn trckspcrnke`cs (Vjcec @) 66 c 36 34->63344-33
]rckspcrnke`c, ]clcñh mn irckh 66 34->63343-34
]rckspcrnke`c, ]clcñh mn irckh 6 34->63343-35
]rckspcrnke`c, ]clcñh mn irckh 6.> 34->63343-3=
]rckspcrnke`c, ]clcñh mn irckh 3.6 34->63343-3>
]rckspcrnke`c, ]clcñh mn irckh 3.> 34->63343-31
]rckspcrnke`c, ]clcñh mn irckh 4.6 34->63343-39
]rckspcrnke`c, ]clcñh mn irckh 4.> 34->63343-32
]rckspcrnke`c, ]clcñh mn irckh 5.6, 5.> y =.6 34->63343-30
]rckspcrnke`c, ]clcñh mn irckh 6 6
== >> . >y 34->63343-4 3
1 1. 66, > >
9.
]rckspcrnke`c, ]clcñh mn irckh 9.>, 2.6, 2.> 34->63343-44
]rckspcrnke`c, ]clcñh mn irckh 0.6, 0.> y 36.6 34->63343-45
Uhjh Aìurc > 34->63345-2>
Uhjh Aìurc 1 34->63345-21

Tnprhmuee`õk mn jcs Unr`ns Ubnpbnrm 34->6334=-45

TNANTNKE@CU
(3) Bujj, A.E., ]rckscee`hkns, ‚^k kunvh léthmh pcrc bcenr eãjeujhs rãp`mhs y prne`shs mn
tclcñh
pci. =50.mn irckh“, @kst`tuth Clnrèckh mn @kink`nrìc Lntcjúrièc y L`knrìc, Qhj. 394, 30=9,
(4) Ubnpbnrm, D.A., ‚Jc ecrcetnrìstèc mnj cenrh V-A“, ]rckscee`hkns, @kst`tuth Clnrèckh
mn @kink`nrìc Lntcjúrièc y L`knrìc, Qhj. 44, Mè`nldrn mn 305=, pci. 090-3631
(5) Onaar`ns, _., Gj`kn, C.B., y _`llnr, N.D., ‚Jc mntnrl`kce`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h nk
lntcjns“, ]rckscee`hkns, @kst`tuth Clnrèckh mn @kink`nrìc Lntcjúrièc y L`knrìc, Qhj.
>=, 3039, pci. >0=-169
(=) Bnyk, N., ‚Tnphrtns ehrths mnj Jcdhrcthr`h Lntcjúrièh mnj @kst`tuth mn Lneãkèc y Vrundcs
Thycj mn Ebcrjhttnkduri“, Lntcjõircah, Qhj. >, 3065, pci. 59-1=.
(>) ^kmnrwhhm, N.N., y Ehhks, Y.E., ‚Nj rhj mn jc nstnrnhjhiìc nk jc mnahrlce`õk mn inlnjhs“,
Mnahrlce`õk mn inlnjhs, Ihrmhk y Drnceb, Kunvc Phrg, 301>, pci. =6>-=40.
(1) B`jj`crm, O., ‚Nst`lce`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh phr nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk“, Vrhensh mn
lntcj , Qhj. 2>, Lcyh mn 301=.
(9) Cdrcls, B., ‚Lnmè`õk mn tclcñh mn irckh phr nj léthmh mn `ktnrenpe`õk“,
Lntcjhircaìc,
Qhj. =, 3093, pci. >0-92.
N
(2) Lnkmnjshk, L.@., ‚]clcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h nk enrãlècs phjèr`stcj`kcs“,

Uhe`nmcm
Clnrèckc mn Enrãlèc O. , Qhj. >4., Cihsth mn 3010, pci. ==5-==1.
(0) Crp`, T., ‚Jc prundc mn arceturc ehlh sn usc pcrc lntcj mn bnrrcl`nktc nk Uune`c“,
Lntcjuri`c, Qhj. 33, Kh. 1>, Lcrzh mn 305>, pci. 345-349.
(36) Qckmnr Qhhrt, I.A., ‚Lnmè`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh“, Cpjèce`hkns prãetècs
mn lntcjhircaìc euckt`tct`vc, CU]L U]V 250, 302=, pci. 2>.323.
(33) Ukymnr, T.Y., y Ircaa, B.A., ‚Nstum`h mn tclcñh mn irckh nk nkmurne`mh mn cjtc vnjhe`mcm“,
prhirnsh mn lntcj, Qhj. 55, 3052, pci. 599-526.
Jc she`nmcm Clnrèckc pcrc Vrundcs y Lctnr`cjns kh thlc phsè`õk rnspneth c jc vcj`mnz mn eucjqu`nr
mnrnebh mn pctnktn nk ehknx`õk ehk eucjqu`nr tnlc lnke`hkcmh nk nstc khrlc. Jhs usucr`hs mn nstc
khrlc nstãk nktnrcmhs nxprnsclnktn qun jc mntnrl`kce`õk mn vcj`mnz mn tcjns mnrnebhs mn pctnktn, y nj
r`nsih mn jc `karcee`õk mn tcjns mnrnebhs, nstãk dcjh su prhp`c rnsphkscd`j`mcm.
Nstc khrlc nstã sujntc c rnv`s`õk nk eucjqu`nr lhlnkth phr nj ehl`té téekèh rnsphkscdjn y mndn snr
rnv`scmc ecmc e`keh cñhs y s` kh ns rnv`scmc, yc snc cprhdcmc h rnt`rcmc. Un jn `kv`tc c bcenr
ehlnktcr`hs yc snc pcrc rnv`s`õk mn nstc khrlc h pcrc khrlcs cmè`hkcjns y mndnrìck snr nkv`cmcs c jcs
haè`kcs inknrcjns mn CU]L. Uus ehlnktcr`hs rne`d`rãk eu`mcmhsc ctnke`õk nk ukc juktc mnj ehl`té
téekèh rnsphkscdjn, nj eucj jcs ctnkmnrã. U` ustnm s`nktn qun sus ehlnktcr`hs kh bck rne`d`mh ukc
ctnke`õk justc mndnrìc bcenr sus hdsnrvce`hkns mnj ehkhe`l`nkth cj Ehl`té mn Khrlcs CU]L, 366 Dcrr
Bcrdhr Mr`vn, Ynst Ehksbhbhegnk, VC 30=42.

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Éstc ns ukc trcmuee`õk mnj mheulnkth hr`i`kcj qun nstã nk `m`hlc `kijés, phr jh qun nj kúlnrh mn

Nsths léthmhs mn prundc mn mntnrl`kce`õk mnj tclcñh mn irckh prhlnm`h nk lctnr`cjns

Vrhenm`l`nkth ImI nk@ kntrncrej mnpe n @`kõtknrj e`knpcej`õB kn yk 3 45

C3 Neuce`hkns pcrc ehkvnrs`hkns nktrn vcr`cs lnm`e`hkns

]clcñh mn Irckh Custnkìtèh, Cenrhs Custnkìtèhs h Aérrèhs C5

5.3Mna`k`e`hkns ― Vcrc mna`k`e`hkns mn térl`khs ut`j`zcmhs nk nsths léthmhs mn prundc, vnr

 <l `eJrhnksit`rtuemt urlc nmmn` cm hsm nac s`nkstn (rehnlpep`hõkn kjt`nksn)cj

K mnktrh < Kúlnrh mn irckhs ehlpjntclnktn mnktrh mn uk eìreujh mn prundc.

K @ktnrenptcmh < Kúlnrh mn irckhs `ktnrenptcmhs phr nj eìreujh mn prundc.

nl`t`mh pcrc mntnrl`kcr nj kúlnrh mn tclcñh mn irckh CU]L, I. Jc prne`s`õk

pttcjclkc`lñhé trm`enh . iNrjc pkrh epnmrh`l`nmk`th, msnn ` ktpnurnemnnpke` õukt

>. Inknrcj`mcmns mn Cpj`ece`õk

>.4 Nj tclcñh y jhecj`zce`õk mn jhs irckhs nk ukc l`erhnstrueturc shk

9.3 Nk inknrcj, s` jc nstrueturc mnj irckh ns nqu`cx`cj, k`kiukc hr`nktce`õk mn jc prhdntc

36. Vrhenm`l`nkth mn Ehlpcrce`õk

36.3 Nj prhenm`l`nkth mn ehlpcrce`õk mndn cpj`ecr pcrc lctnr`cjns

]CDJC 3 Irãa`ecs mn Ehlpcrce`õk suinr`mcs pcrc Lctnr`cjns Lntãj`ehs

Lctnr`cj Kúlnrh m n V Culnkth D

36. = Nj eãjeujh mnj tclcñh mn irckh mntnrl`kcmh l`erhseõp`eclnktn usucjlnktn mndnrìc

A@I. 4 Njnlpjh A@I.

]CDJC 4 Tnjce`hkns mn ]clcñh mn Irckh mntnrl`kcmcs L`erhseõp`eclnktn

KH]C 4 ― Nj culnkth pcrc jc Vjcec @@@ ns 9>R (snr`n mn trns mcths).

Kúlnrh mn @justrce`õk Vjcec @@@

mhkmn S ns uk acethr mn ehrrnee`õk qun ns cirnicmh cj tclcñh cpcrnktn mnj l`erhirckh mn jc

KH]C 5 ― U` nj tclcñh mn irckh ns rnphrtcmh nk kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn lcerhirckh CU]L, ns

S < 4 jhi4 L (5)

mhkmn S ns uk acethr mn ehrrnee`õk qun ns cirnicmh cj tclcñh cpcrnktn mn irckh mn

]CDJC 5 Tnjce`hkns mn ]clcñh mn Irckh Lcerhseõp`eh Ehlputcmcs

KH]C ― Jhs kúlnrhs mn tclcñh mn irckh mntnrl`kcmhs lcerhseõp`eclnktn L-34.5, L-35.5,

Inknrcjns mn CU]L. Hrmnkn VEK 34->6334=-45

Mhkmn a ns nj lujt`pj`ecmhr Onaar`ns (Qnr ]cdjc >), K mnktrh ns nj kúlnrh mn

Kh. mn ]clcñh mn Lcerhirckh

Km nC (jcK ú]lcdnjrch =m.n N Ij krcúklhnsr phh mrn l tlcl4 cñ 3hR m) nu

34. Vrhenm`l`nkths Inknrcjns mn @ktnrenpe`õk

]CDJC 1 NE^CE@HKNU MN ]CLCÑH MN ITCKH

KH]C = ― ^kc vcjhr ecjeuNjcemuhc em`õnkI mn ―3 ehrrnsphkmn cj CU]L I<^6k6`m.cmns

nktrn jc `ktnrenpe`õk j`kncj lnm`c, , y nj ãrnc mn irckh prhlnm`h, C, ns nxcetc pcrc

Ceì4re.4u.j4h)s. Epnhrkhs nkehu tnckktn nlxncketnc, pjcc rrcn jcuek`cõ kn sntkrutrent

I < 36.66 ― 4jhi4 (9)

I < 36.66 + 4jhi4K J (2)

34. = Jc m`stcke`c mn `ktnrenpe`õk lnm`c, , lnm`mc nk ukc snee`õk pjckc ns uk eãjeujh

35. Vrhenm`l`nkth mn @ktnrenpe`õk J`kncj Bnyk (=)

sqnurn uttn`jk`zicmkc esu. cJtcrh a hr lcã sm nh rt`cnjkntsc ern`hmkns k. hJ cns

prundc pcrcjnjcs nspce`cmcs s`stnlãt`eclnktn mn jhki`tum ehkhe`mc punmn snr bnebcs y

3=. Vrhenm`l`nkths mn @ktnrenpe`õk E`reujcr

KH]C ― U` ns rnprhmue`mh pcrc bcenr jìkncs rnetcs ehk jhki`tum lcrecmc

3=.4 Vrhenm`l`nkth mn ^k Eìreujh mn B`jj`crm

4.4 Kh sn punmn ut`j`zcr k`kiúk tclcñh mn eìreujh mn e`reukanrnke`c nxcetclnktn

pnpsc,r cn jn kj úplrhnernhm m`ln` nckptjh`esc eB`h`jjk`cnrsm) qcunl npkrhtcmku.e

3=.5 Vrhenm`l`nkth mn ]rns Eìreujhs mn Cdrcls (9)?

lntcjõircahs sn s`nktns lãs eõlhmhs ehktckmh 36 eclphs ehk enrec mn =6 c >6

A`iurc 1 Eunktcs mn @ktnrenpe`õk prhlnm`h nk uk Vctrõk mn Vrundc mn >66ll

3=.5.4.4 Unjnee`hkcr cjncthr`clnktn uk eclph pcrc lnm`e`õk y cpj`ecr nj pctrõk mn prundc c jc

ehìrrerunjeht cnlkn tkutnrk ch , jcu tm`jn`zkcsk` mchm u m neh ekhtcktmnhhr rqnuenh

mhkmn K` y V ` shk nj kúlnrh mn `ktnrenpe`hkns h `ktnrsnee`hkns ehktcmcs nk nj eclph,

 < 3 < 3 (33)

3>. Ckãj`s`s Nstcmìst`eh

^jukst `an`escau enurznhk tclsì k`k`lm`hv `mnukc jllnsé tehumyhcs

s < ( R ` ― R )4 (35)

31. Vrhdntc ehk Ahrlcs mn Irckh Kh-Nqu`cx`cjns

K C < (K C . K C t . K C p) 3/5

s` jc pcrt`mc mn ukc ahrlc nqu`cx`cj kh ns nxens`vc (:5?3 prhphre`õk m`lnks`hkcj).

31.5 Léthmh mn @ktnrenpe`õk