INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KHARAGPUR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MECHANICS OF HUMAN BODY

A report on

INVERSE DYNAMICS AND GAIT ANALYSIS

OF REACTION FORCES AT HIP JOINT

SUBMITTED BY

LOPAMUDRA MOHAPATRA (18ME92R06)

ASHWIN SUBRAMANIAN (18ME63D02)

AMIT VINAYAK KULKARNI (18ME63D01)

SHIVAM SINGHAL (18ME63R27)

1. Introduction

To optimise the design and materials of a hip implant, different experiments are
performed on the strength, wear, fixation and friction of that implant. For this reason, one
must calculate the contact forces in the hip joint. Such information is also needed for giving
guidelines to physiotherapists how to treat a patient after treatment. The movement in the hip
joint has to be known when implant wear is tested or the load directions relative to the pelvis
are calculated from the forces acting at the femur. The experiment was performed on four
patients during the most frequent and day to day activities and an average was calculated. The
related data is taken from the HIP 98 disc.

2. Procedure

Measurements were taken in four patients during frequent activities of daily living.
The measured hip contact forces served to check the validity of calculated results from
inverse dynamics approach. The in vivo data was collected using instrumented hip implants
featuring telemetric sensors and the kinematic data was acquired through marker tracking.

3. Co-ordinate Systems

Two kinds of instrumented total hip implants with telemetric data transmission were
used to measure the hip contact forces with an accuracy of 1% at a rate of approximately 200
Hz. The hip contact force with the magnitude F and the components −𝐹𝑥 , −𝐹𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝐹𝑧 were
measured in the ‘femur coordinate system’ X, Y and Z (Fig. 1). It is transmitted by the
acetabular cup to the implant head. The angles of inclination of F in three planes are denoted
as 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑧 . The force F causes an ‘implant moment’ M around the intersection point
NS of shaft and neck axes of the implant. The moment components 𝑀𝑥 , 𝑀𝑦 ′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑧 ′ act
clockwise around the axes X, Y’ and Z’ of the ‘implant system’ which is rotated by the angle
S relative to the femur coordinate system. Important for the implant fixation is the torsional
moment 𝑀𝑡 = −𝑀𝑧 ′ in the transverse plane which rotates the implant inwards around the
shaft axis. The other two components of M are of minor importance; they depend on the
definition of the point NS around which M is calculated.
 Figure 1: Coordinate system for measured hip contact forces.

Figure 2: Joint centres, reference points and coordinate systems for gait

4. Activities

The experiments were conducted during different daily activities which were thought
to be most strenuous for the hip joint. These include slow walking, normal walking, fast
walking, and climbing upstairs, down stairs, standing up, sitting down, standing on 2-1-2 legs
and bending the knee.
Table (1): Investigated activities:-

During all activities, time dependent kinematic and kinetic data were gathered:

(a) Two Kistler force plates measured ground reaction forces.

(b) The in vivo hip contact force with the magnitude F and the components
𝐹𝑥 , 𝐹𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑧 was measured in the femur system.
(c) Movement of lower limb was captured using
(i) 6 Infrared Cameras (sampling rate of 50Hz)
(ii) 24 Reflective Markers attached to the patients’ skin.

5. Data Presentation

The primary objective of this study is to find out the actual forces encountered by the
femur head to use them in design of implants. Thus, the data obtained for each patient was
averaged by a new method to get the representative curves for a fictional average patient
which can then be used in design.

6. Kinematic and Dynamic Analysis

Gait analysis can be described as a field of biomechanical engineering dealing with

the subject of human locomotion. By means of different measuring techniques available (for
example video recording), human gait data are captured (i.e. the gait pattern is recorded as a
function of time) and further analysis and calculations are done in order to obtain all the data
required for evaluating the quality of the subject's gait, including basic gait parameters (stride
length, cadence, velocity, etc.) joint angle during each gait cycle. Walking is one of the most
common and most important forms of human movement. Gait analysis entails measurement,
analysis and assessment of the biomechanical features that are associated with the walking
task. Since the measuring and recording techniques for capturing gait patterns have
developed very much in the last decades, gait analysis is now frequently used in every-day
practice of those involved in the rehabilitation of human movement.
7. Kinematics:

Describes the spatial and temporal components of motion (position, velocity, and
acceleration) with no consideration of the forces causing the motion.

Instrument and equipment:

(a) Video:

(i) Taking a lot of photographs very quickly (i.e. video) allows you to
better see how posture varies throughout a movement. 60 frames per second is
adequate for most movements. To quantify movement, we need to identify
landmarks on the body.
(ii) We can measure movement of body segments and landmarks from
frames of the video after it is recorded.
(iii) A more accurate way to quantify movement is to record the movement
of body landmarks directly. This is commonly called motion capture. Motion
capture systems detect special dots of light, and record motion of the dots as a
measure of body motion.

(b) Motion Capture Systems:

Passive marker systems, such as the Vicon system, emit light from LEDs
placed in rings around cameras; the cameras detect light reflected from markers
placed on the subject. The markers cannot be individually identified the subject does
not have to wear wires etc. A schematic is shown below.

Figure 3: Arrangement of Vicon system

(c) Motion Capture Analysis:

Software quantifies the location of the markers. This position data can then be
used to calculate various kinematic parameters.
 Figure 3: As example of software analysis through motion capture system.

(d) Kinematic Variables:

We define an object’s location in space by its position. Distance and

displacement describe the total change in position of an object over a given period of
time. We also need to know the temporal changes that occur to an object’s location in
space. Speed and velocity describe how the position of an object changes throughout a
period of time.

(i) Speed is a scalar.

(ii) Velocity is a vector.
(iii) Acceleration describes how the velocity of an object changes
throughout a period of time. Acceleration can be a vector or a scalar.

Figure 4: Schematic flow of Kinematic variables

 (e) Linear kinematics of gait:

One stride lasts from heel contact of one limb to the subsequent heel contact of
the same limb. As running speed increases, the fraction of stride time taken up by
stance phase decreases. Stride length and stride frequency do not contribute equally to
increases in running speed.

Below 7 m/s:

(i) Stride length and stride frequency increase approximately linearly with
speed
(ii) Increases in speed are mainly achieved by increasing stride length

Above 7 m/s:

(i) Stride length remains relatively constant

(ii) Increases in speed are mainly achieved by increasing stride
frequency.

(f) Angular Velocity and Acceleration gait:

Angular velocity of a particle is the time rate of change of its angular

displacement relative to the origin.

(i) Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity.

(ii) Usually, our movements are a combination of linear and angular
translations.
(iii) Express the angles of body segments and joints with respect to
multiple frames of reference and in multiple units of measurement.
(iv) Calculate the angles of body segments and joints, as well as angular
displacement, velocity, and acceleration using data collected from motion
capture.
(v) Describe how the angles of various joints change during the gait cycle.
(vi) Relate angular velocity and acceleration measures to linear velocity
and acceleration.

8. Inverse Dynamics:

Inverse dynamics is an inverse problem it commonly refers to either inverse rigid

body. Dynamic or inverse structural dynamics, inverse rigid body dynamics is a method for
computing forces or moment of force or torque based on the kinematic motion of body, and
the body inertia properties mass and moment of inertia typically abuses link segment models
to represent the mechanical behaviour of interconnected segment such as the limbs of animal,
human and gives the kinematic of the various parts. Inverse dynamics derives the minimum
forces and moment responsible for the individual movement. In practice inverse dynamics
compute these internal moments and force from measurement of the motion of limbs and
external forces such as ground reaction forces under a special sets of assumption, the field of
robotics and biomechanics constitute the major application area for inverse dynamics.
 Figure 5: Inverse dynamics approach to find forces

The inverse dynamics approach was used to calculate the reaction forces and
moments on joints (ankle, knee and hip) using the velocity and acceleration (linear and
angular) found from gait analysis. The reaction at ankle was found first followed by knee and
hip joint.

9. Biomechanical Models:

Transducers have been developed that can be implanted surgically to measure the
force exerted by a muscle at the tendon. However, such techniques have application only in
animal experiments.

10. Link segment Model Development:

The process by which the reaction forces and muscle moments are calculated is called
link segment modelling.

(a) Limb Modelling

The lower limb consists of joints, muscles and bones. Each

of these components were modelled in the experiment. Bones or
segments were designed as straight lines. The geometric variables
related to the segments were measured from individual patients.
The average densities and positions of centre of masses were also
measured from specific patients. Various joints in the body were
modelled according to the degree of freedom they possess. The hip
joint and the ankle joint were modelled as a 3 DOF system, with
all three DOFs being rotational DOFs. The knee contains two
joints which were modelled differently. The tibio-femoral joint
was modelled as a 3 rotational DOF system and the patella could
slide in the sagittal plane in 2 directions (2 translational DOF) and
1 rotational DOF in the medio-lateral axis. Muscles were modelled
as straight lines from origin to insertion along their line of action.
Some muscles which have a large area cannot be reduced to a
single line of action and were thus modelled by multiple lines. The model was made
so that the line of action gives the most accurate possible lever arm at the joint.
 (i) Each segment has a fixed mass located as a point mass at its CoM
(which will be the centre of gravity in the vertical direction).
(ii) The location of each segment’s CoM remains fixed during the
movement.
(iii) The joints are considered to be hinge (or ball-and-socket) joints.
(iv) The mass moment of inertia of each segment about its mass centre (or
about either proximal or distal joints) is constant during the movement.
(v) The length of each segment remains constant during the movement
(e.g., the distance between hinge or ball-and-socket joints remains constant).

(b) Forces Acting on the Link-Segment Model:

(i) Gravitational Forces: The forces of gravity act downward through the
CoMs of each segment and are equal to the magnitude of the mass times
acceleration due to gravity (normally 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 ).
(ii) Ground Reaction or External Forces: Any external forces must be
measured by a force transducer. Such
forces are distributed over an area of
the body (such as the ground reaction
forces under the area of the foot). In
order to represent such forces as
vectors, they must be considered to
act at a point that is usually called the
centre of pressure (COP).
(iii) Muscle and Ligament Forces.
The net effect of muscle activity at a
joint can be calculated in terms of net
muscle moments. If a contraction is
taking place at a given joint, the
analysis yields only the net effect of
both agonist and antagonistic muscles.
Also, any friction effects at the joints
or within the muscle cannot be
separated from this net value. Increased friction merely reduces the effective
“muscle” moment; the muscle contractile elements themselves are actually
creating moments higher than that analysed at the tendon. At the extreme
range of movement of any joint, passive structures such as ligaments come
into play to contain the range. The moments generated by these tissues will
add to or subtract from those generated by the muscles.

11. Basic Link-Segment Equations-The Free-Body Diagram:

Each body segment acts independently under the influence of reaction forces and
muscle moments, which act at either end, plus the forces due to gravity. Consider the planar
movement of a segment in which the kinematics, anthropometrics, and reaction forces at the
distal end are known.

(a) Known
𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 = acceleration of segment COM
θ = angle of segment in plane of movement
 α = angular acceleration of segment in plane of movement
𝑅𝑥𝑑 , 𝑅𝑦𝑑 = reaction forces acting at distal end of segment,
𝑀𝑑 = net muscle moment acting at distal joint, 28

(b) Unknown
𝑅𝑥𝑝 , 𝑅𝑦𝑝 = reaction forces acting at proximal joint
𝑀𝑝 = net muscle moment acting on segment at proximal joint

(c) Equations

 ∑Fx = m 𝑎𝑥
 𝑅𝑥𝑝 − 𝑅𝑥𝑑 = m 𝑎𝑥
 ∑Fy = m 𝑎𝑦
 𝑅𝑦𝑝 − 𝑅𝑦𝑑 − 𝑚𝑔 = m 𝑎𝑦

About the segment CoM

 ∑M = Iα

In a static situation, a person is standing on one foot on a force plate. The ground
reaction force is found to act X cm anterior to the ankle joint. Note that convention has the
ground reaction force 𝑅𝑦1 always acting upward. We also show the horizontal reaction force
𝑅𝑥1 to be acting in the positive direction (to the right). If this force actually acts to the left, it
will be recorded as a negative number. Calculate the joint reaction forces and net muscle
moment at the ankle. 𝑅𝑦1 = body weight. If the foot is in swing phase, the ground reaction is
zero.

 ∑Fx = m 𝑎𝑥
 𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑥1 = m 𝑎𝑥 = 0

Note that this is a redundant calculation in static

conditions.

 ∑Fy = m 𝑎𝑦
 𝑅𝑦2 + 𝑅𝑦1 − 𝑚𝑔 = m 𝑎𝑦
→ 𝑅𝑦2 = −𝑅𝑦1 + 𝑚𝑔 + m 𝑎𝑦

About the CoM,

𝑀𝑧 − 𝑅𝑦1 𝑏 − 𝑅𝑦2 𝑎 = 0
Once we have analysed the foot, we can use the joint force and net
moment to calculate joint force and moment at knee.
 ∑Fx = m 𝑎𝑥
 𝑅𝑥1 = m 𝑎𝑥
 ∑Fy = m 𝑎𝑦
 𝑅𝑦1 − 𝑊𝑔 = m 𝑎𝑦 Figure 5: - Reaction at ankle
About the COM
➢ 𝑀 = 𝐼𝛼
➢ 𝑀1 − 𝑅𝑦1 𝑏 − 𝑅𝑦2 𝑒 = 𝐼
For the same instant in time, calculate the muscle moments and reaction forces at the knee
joint. The leg segment was Z cm long. Free-body diagram of leg at the same instant in time as
the foot Linear and angular accelerations are as shown. Distances are in centimetres. The
distal end and reaction forces and moments have been reversed, recognizing Newton’s third
law. Again, the three unknowns, 𝑅𝑥2 , 𝑅𝑦2 , and 𝑀2 , are assumed to be positive with direction
as indicated.
 ∑Fx = m 𝑎𝑥
 𝑅𝑥2 − 𝑅𝑥1 = m 𝑎𝑥
 ∑Fy = m 𝑎𝑦
 𝑅𝑦2 − 𝑅𝑦1 − 𝑚𝑔 = m 𝑎𝑦
About the COM of the leg,
 ∑𝑀 = 𝐼 𝛼
 𝑀2 − 𝑀1 − 𝑒𝑅𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑅𝑦1 − 𝑎𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑅𝑦2 = 𝐼𝛼

(iv) Force transducer:

In order to measure the force exerted by the body on

an external body or load, we need a suitable force-
measuring device. Such a device, called a force
transducer, gives an electrical signal proportional to the
applied force. There are many kinds available: strain gauge, piezoelectric, piezoresistive,
capacitive, and others. All these work on the principle that the applied force causes a certain
amount of strain within the transducer.

Multidirectional Force Transducers- In order to measure forces in two or more directions, it

is necessary to use a bi- or tri-directional force transducer. Such a device is nothing more than
two or more force transducers mounted at right angles to each other.
(v) Force plate:
The most common force acting on the body is the ground reaction force, which is a
three dimensional and consists of a vertical component plus two shear components acting
along the force plate surface. The fourth variable needed is the location of the centre of
pressure of this ground reaction vector.
Two common types of force plates are:
• The first is a flat plate supported by four triaxial transducers.
• A second type of force plate has one centrally instrumented pillar that supports an upper flat
plate.

(vi) Synchronization of Force Plate and Kinematic Data:

Because kinematic data are coming from a completely separate system, there may be
problems in time synchronization with the ground reaction data. Most opto-electric systems
have synchronizing pulses that must be recorded simultaneously with the force records.
Similarly, TV systems must generate a pulse for each TV field that can be used to
synchronize with the force signals.
(vii) Determination of Muscle Forces
The distribution of muscle forces was required to fulfil the resultant intersegmental
moments at
 Ankle (flexion-extension moment),
 Knee (flexion-extension and abduction moments), and
 Hip joint (all moments).
From the inverse dynamics approach, we get 3 force balance equations and 1 moment
equation. Thus 4 variables can be solved for. But in each segment free body diagram, we
have a greater number of variables than equations due to the inclusion of muscle forces.
Thus, the system cannot be solved. Most joints in the human body are over actuated, meaning
there are many muscles which help in same motion. Usually there is one muscle which takes
main moment and has the most favourable moment arm to execute that motion. To solve for
the muscle and joint reaction forces, we need more equations. The additional equations are
obtained from optimization assumptions. Two fairly reasonable assumptions are involved
 The sum of all muscle forces must be minimum.
 The maximum value of each muscle force is limited.
The maximum value of muscle force was fixed at 85% of the maximum muscle force since
maximum muscle activation is not observed in normal daily activities. The maximum muscle
force was computed by considering a common maximum muscle stress of 1 MPa and the
physiological cross-sectional area of each muscle taken from CT scan measurements and
scaled to individual patient weights. With the inequality condition from the second
assumption, a linear optimization was performed to find out the muscle forces and joint
reaction force.

HIP 98 Database
Hip joint loading: Contact forces + Muscles forces + Gait data + Activities
Patients included:
 H. Sonke (HSR)
 P. Fichtner (PFL)
 K. Walker (KWR)
 Boehme (IBL)

Activities performed:
 Walking
 Slow
 Normal
 Fast
 Climbing
 Up stairs
 Down stairs
 Standing up (one leg)
 Standing up (both leg)
 Sitting down
 Knee bend
Measuring data can be seen in HIP 98 database e.g. Normal walking.
In force window, three forces Fx , Fy and Fz and also resultant force F.
These forces are shown by different colour e.g. in graph between force (%BW) and gait
cycle.

Fx = green, Fy = blue, Fz = red and F = black.

Besides force graph, you can also see force magnitude and force direction in three
different planes (sagittal, frontal and transverse) and also its numerical data. Gait pattern can
also be analysed in these three planes with the help of animation command and you can also
vary (increase or decrease) frame time interval.
Scales for graphs:
 Time and vector diagrams
 Automatic [Scaling range define automatically]
 Fixed standard [Scaling range as per standard data]
 Choose [We give scaling arbitrary]
 Activities performed:
Walking
• Slow
• Normal
• Fast
Climbing
• Upstairs
• Down stairs
 Standing up (one leg)
 Standing up (both leg)
 Sitting down
 Knee bend
Data available:
 Measured load components
Measurement of 6 load components are reported here in the coordinates system of the femur.
Implant is rotated about 3 axes.

 Force F, Femur system (%BW)

 Force FP, Pelvis system (%BW)
 Force FC, cup system (%BW)
 Reaction force, GL (%BW)
 Implant moment Mz (%BW)
 Angle Az (Anteversion) OFF (degree)
 Flexion and Abduction angle (degree)
Muscles forces details:
 Components of walking + upstairs
 Calculated contact & muscles forces during a cycle of normal walking
(avg patients NPA) [frame 37 causes largest HIP contact force]
 Calculated contact & muscles forces during a cycle of upstairs (avg
patients NPA) [frame 40 causes largest torsional moment]
 Comparison measured………calculated
 Comparison of measured hip contact force, normal walking, average
patients NPA [frame 37 is the frame with the highest measured contact
force , magnitude (measured)]
 Basics loading conditions
 Simplified loading configurations with highest contact force (normal
walking) and torsional moment (stair up)
 The contact forces in the tables are measured and the muscles forces
are calculated.
 Muscles attachment at bones
 Attachment points of muscles at pelvis and femur.
Results

Ground reaction forces

The general pattern and the magnitudes of the ground reaction forces were similar for all
trials. The ground reaction forces were characterized by a dominant, vertically directed
component. The relative variability of the vertical peak forces for a single patient

a) For walking: ranged from 2% to 5% with an average of 4% for all patients.

b) For stair climbing: ranged from 1% to 6% with an average of 4% for all patients.

Resultant inter-segmental moments at the hip

For both walking and stair climbing, the general characteristics of the resultant inter-
segmental moments at the hip were similar for the different trials for each patient. The largest
moment was always the flexion–extension moment.The average relative variability in the
flexion extension moment for all patients was
a. 19% during walking, and
b. 11% during stair climbing
Observations

 Ground reaction forces : used to indicate the reproducibility of the gait pattern.
 Large deviations in the pattern and magnitude would have shown variations in the
patients’ performance of activities, e.g. in different trials of walking.
 The small variations (observed) suggest that the patients walked in a quite similar and
reproducible way.
 Skin movement errors : affect the location of bony landmarks derived from the
marker positions
 Longitudinal scaling of the bones was unaffected by errors in the spatial position of
the landmarks.
 Thigh revealed erroneous axial rotation data, as the femoral condyles did not match
the tibia.
To remove this, the 3-D model allowed correction of the rotation of the affected limb by
controlling the congruency of the femoral condyles and the tibial plateau.
 Since the participants of this study underwent THA, it may not be expected that the
loading conditions in these patients are identical to those in healthy subjects. Nevertheless,
the approach presented here represents the only methodology to achieve a validation with
respect to hip contact forces.
 Inverse dynamics calculation is an iterative process starting from the ankle joint, the
largest errors due to error propagation and error accumulation were most likely to occur at the
most proximal joint in the model, the hip joint.
 Ground reaction forces showed an intra-individual variation of 4%,
 The flexion-extension moments at the hip varied by as much as 19%.
 The actual three-dimensional volumetric structures and curved pathways of the
muscles had to be simplified and modeled as straight lines.
 This explain why the correlation between hip contact forces measured in vivo and
calculated hip contact force components in the transverse plane was not as good as for the
axial component.

Conclusions

 The musculo-skeletal model of the lower extremity presented in this study allowed
prediction of proximal femoral loading for walking and stair climbing in four THA patients
 The calculated hip contact forces and those measured in vivo during these every day
activities were similar. However, a varying degree of conformity between the individual force
components was found.
 The component acting along an idealized femoral midline showed best agreement,
 While the results for the significantly smaller forces in the transverse plane were less
accurate.
 The cycle-to-cycle validation revealed that absolute peak loads differed by an average
of only 12% during walking and 14% during stair climbing.
 In order to predict musculo-skeletal loading conditions, two issues seem to be
important.
 Availability of a suitable measuring procedure to validate the prediction
o the in vivo measured hip contact forces
 Patient individual models should be used to approximate the loading conditions in
each individual case.
o The biomechanical model used in the present study was adapted to the individual
anatomy and prosthesis configuration.
 Model presented here can be considered to be a means to :
 to determine mechanical boundary conditions for
o implant loading,
o bone remodeling, and
o Fracture healing.
 Investigating the implant–bone load sharing and primary stability of implants under
loading conditions.
 Analysis of exercises usually carried out during rehabilitation can be of help in
identifying activities with possibly hazardous musculo-skeletal loading and thus improve the
outcome of rehabilitation.
REFERENCE

[1] Bergmann, G., Deuretzbacher, G., Heller, M., Graichen, F., Rohlmann, A., Strauss, J.,
& Duda, G. N. (2001). Hip contact forces and gait patterns from routine
activities. Journal of biomechanics, 34(7), 859-871.
[2] Heller, M. O., Bergmann, G., Deuretzbacher, G., Dürselen, L., Pohl, M., Claes, L., ...
& Duda, G. N. (2001). Musculo-skeletal loading conditions at the hip during walking
and stair climbing. Journal of biomechanics, 34(7), 883-893.
[3] https://orthoload.com