ignou MSWE-002

THE PEOPLE’S
UNIVERSITY
Women and Child
Indira Gandhi Development
National Open University
School of Social Work

Block

4
CARE AND SAFEGUARDS OF CHILDREN
UNIT 1
Global Initiatives and UN Safeguards for Children 5
UNIT 2
Policies and Programmes for Children in India 18
UNIT 3
Positive Parenting 30
UNIT 4
Role of Social Worker in Child Care Settings 47
Expert Committee
Prof. Surendra Singh Prof. Sanjai Bhatt Prof. Anjali Gandhi
Former Vice Chancellor University of Delhi Jamia Millia Islamia
Kashi Vidhyapeeth New Delhi New Delhi
Varanasi
Dr. Joseph Xavier Dr. Leena Mehta
Prof. Thomas Kalam Indian Social Institute M.S. University
St. John's Medical College Bangalore Vadodara
Bangalore
Dr. Usha John Dr. Archana Dassi
Dr. Mukul Srivastava Loyala College Jamia Millia Islamia
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Trivandrum New Delhi
University, Agra
Dr. Ranjana Sehgal Dr. Beena Antony
Dr. Jyoti Kakkar Indore School of Social University of Delhi
Jamia Millia Islamia Work, Indore New Delhi
New Delhi
Prof. Neil Abell Prof. Patricia Lager
Prof. Gracious Thomas Florida State University Florida State University
IGNOU USA USA
New Delhi

Block Preparation Team

Unit 1 Mr. Chinmoy Biswal, Unit 3 Dr. Sonny Jose,
New Delhi Loyola College, Trivandrum

Unit 2 Dr. Tripti Bassi, Unit 4 Ms. Rafat Ara,

Assistant Professor, School of Social Work, IGNOU
Lady Shri Ram College for Women,
University of Delhi

Course Editor Course Coordinator

Prof. Anu J. Thomas Dr. Sayantani Guin
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

Print Production
Mr. Kulwant Singh
Section Officer (Publication)
School of Social Work
IGNOU, New Delhi-110 068

January, 2012
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2012
ISBN-978-81-266-5792-6
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any
other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information about the School of Social Works and the Indira Gandhi National Open
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Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by
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BLOCK INTRODUCTION
The Block on “Care and Safeguards of Children” is the last block in MSWE-002.
It has four units.
The first unit on ‘Global Initiatives and UN Safeguards for Children’ discusses
the international declarations, conventions and covenants that focus on child rights.
The Unit gives the learner a comprehensive understanding about the role of agencies
like UNICEF, ICDC in advocating rights of children.
In the second unit on ‘Policies and Programmes for Children in India’ the
constitutional safeguards and legislation for children is discussed. An elaborate
discussion is also presented in this unit on the policies advocating child rights in
India and the programmes for children in India.
The third unit namely, ‘Positive Parenting’ deliberates on family as a sociological
concept. It also throws light on parenting both as a concept as well as its challenges
during the various life stages of the family lifecycle. After reading this Unit, you
will be able to explain various parenting styles and proactive strategies in child
rearing.
In the fourth unit on “Role of Social Worker in Child Care Settings” you will
learn about the various child care settings and the need of child care. You will also
learn about the roles of social worker in different child care settings.
After going through this block you will have an understanding about the care and
safeguards of children.
 Global Initiatives and UN
UNIT 1 GLOBAL INITIATIVES AND Safeguards for Children

UN SAFEGUARDS FOR
CHILDREN
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 International Commitments
1.3 Development Goals for Children
1.4 Global Agencies
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to introduce you to global initiatives and UN safeguards for
children. These international commitments have played a significant role in
enhancing the status of children. After studying this unit, you should be able to:
l discuss international declarations, conventions and covenants that focus on
child rights;
l discuss child-related development goals comprising the Education For All
(EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs); and
l describe the role of agencies like UNICEF, ICDC in advocating rights of
children.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The state of children is an index of a nation's level of development. Child rights
are an integral part of human rights. A safe and secure childhood with provision
for education, adequate nutrition and health are integral for survival, protection
and development of children. Every child irrespective of caste, class, birth, race or
gender should have access to these entitlements. Children also need to participate
in decisions that affect their lives. However, the report on ‘The State of the World’s
Children 2008’ shows that every day on an average more than 26,000 children
under the age of five years die around the world mostly from preventable causes.
Recognizing the situation of children, various initiatives have been taken to better
their lives.

1.2 INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS

Many international commitments emphasize the importance of the rights of children
for their overall development. In this section, we will discuss the Geneva
Declaration of the Rights of the Child 1924, Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1948, Declaration of the Rights of the Child 1959, Convention Against
Discrimination in Education 1960, International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights 1966, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
1966, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against 5
Care and Safeguards Women (CEDAW) 1979, Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 1989 and
of Children World Summit for Children 1990, Convention concerning the Prohibition and
Immediate Action for the Elimination of Worst Forms of Child Labour 1999, and
the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2006.
Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child 1924
This is the first international initiative for children’s rights. The League of Nations
had instituted this declaration that states ‘mankind owes to the Child the best that
it has to give’. Irrespective of the differences of race, nationality or creed, the
following should be made available to children:
l The child must be given the means requisite for its normal development, both
materially and spiritually;
l The child that is hungry must be fed; the child that is sick must be nursed; the
child that is backward must be helped; the delinquent child must be reclaimed;
and the orphan and the waif must be sheltered and succored;
l The child must be the first to receive relief in times of distress;
l The child must be put in a position to earn a livelihood, and must be protected
against every form of exploitation;
l The child must be brought up in the consciousness that its talents must be
devoted to the service of fellow men.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948
This is a significant document that contains the rights we are entitled to. According
to Article 1 ‘all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights’. This
declaration is relevant for children also. Two Articles that refer to them specifically
are Article 25 (2) and Article 26. Article 25(2) states that ‘motherhood and childhood
are entitled to special care and assistance. All children born, whether in or out of
wedlock, shall enjoy the same protection. Article 26 states that, (1) Everyone has
the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and
fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and
professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall
be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (2) Education shall be directed to
the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect
for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding,
tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall
further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. (3) Parents
have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their
children.
Declaration of the Rights of the Child 1959
The Preamble states that the United Nations Charter and Universal Declaration of
Human Rights are the guiding principles. They proclaim that the fundamental rights
of human persons are crucial for social progress and everybody should have these
rights irrespective of any distinction. It also states that governments should formulate
legislative and other measures in adopting the principles listed here. Principle 2
states that a child is entitled to ‘special protection’ so as ‘to enable him to develop
physically, mentally, morally, spiritually and socially in a healthy and normal manner
and in conditions of freedom and dignity’. This will be done giving ‘the best
interests of the child…paramount consideration’. According to the declaration, the
child is entitled to ‘a name and a nationality’ (Principle 3), ‘to the benefits of
social security’ and ‘to adequate nutrition, housing, recreation and medical services’
(Principle 4). The declaration also heeds to children who are physically, mentally
6 or socially handicapped’ (read challenged) (Principle 5) and ‘to children without a
family and to those without adequate means of support’ (Principle 6). Principle 7 Global Initiatives and UN
entitles children to free and compulsory education at least till the elementary level Safeguards for Children
and includes their right to play and recreation. Unlike the Geneva declaration, it
states that the ‘the child shall in all circumstances be among the first to receive
protection and relief’ (Principle 8). Principle 9 is important in opposing child
trafficking, child labour and other such practices. It observes that ‘a child shall be
protected against all forms of neglect, cruelty and exploitation’ and ‘shall not be
admitted to employment before an appropriate minimum age; in no case be caused
or permitted to engage in any occupation or employment which would prejudice
his health or education, or interfere with his physical, mental or moral development’.
Finally, Principle 10 holds significance in promoting a secular, composite, multi-
cultural environment for the development of a child’s personality. According to
this, a ‘child shall be protected from practices which may foster racial, religious
and any other form of discrimination’ and ‘be brought up in a spirit of
understanding, tolerance, friendship among peoples, peace and universal
brotherhood, and in full consciousness that his energy and talents should be devoted
to the service of his fellow men’.
Convention against Discrimination in Education 1960
This convention advocates for free and compulsory primary education and highlights
the need to make secondary and higher education accessible. The governments
shall formulate and develop a national policy to promote equality of opportunity
and treatment. There should be no discrimination in access or quality of education.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966
This Covenant has implications for child rights. Article 10 (1) states that family is
‘the natural and fundamental group unit of society’ and ‘the widest possible
protection and assistance should be accorded to the family’ since it is responsible
for the care and education of dependent children. (2) Special protection should be
accorded to mothers during a reasonable period before and after childbirth. During
such period working mothers should be accorded paid leave or leave with adequate
social security benefits. (3) Special measures of protection and assistance should
be taken on behalf of all children and young persons without any discrimination
for reasons of parentage or other conditions. Children and young persons should
be protected from economic and social exploitation. Their employment in work
harmful to their morals or health or dangerous to life or likely to hamper their
normal development should be punishable by law. States should also set age limits
below which the paid employment of child labour should be prohibited and
punishable by law. Article 12 [2(a)] observes that the State should ensure provision
for the reduction of the stillbirth-rate and of infant mortality and for the healthy
development of the child. According to Article 13(1) the States should recognize
the right of everyone to education. Education directed to the full development of
the human personality and the sense of its dignity, shall strengthen the respect for
human rights and fundamental freedoms. Education shall enable all persons to
participate effectively in a free society, promote understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups, and further
the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966
This Covenant complements the International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights (Bajpai 2003). There are references to children in certain Articles
and some specific children-centred Articles. Some of these include Article 10 [2(b)],
accused juvenile persons shall be separated from adults and brought as speedily as
possible for adjudication and accorded treatment appropriate to their age and legal
status; Article 14(1) provides an exception to the right of hearing in public when it
is in the interest of the juvenile or where it concerns the guardianship of children; 7
Care and Safeguards Article 14 (4) In the case of juvenile persons, the procedure shall be such as will
of Children take account of their age and the desirability of promoting their rehabilitation;
Article 18 (4) The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have respect
for the liberty of parents and, when applicable, legal guardians to ensure the
religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own
convictions; Article 23 (1) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of
society and is entitled to protection by society and the State; Article 24 (1) Every
child shall have, without any discrimination as to race, colour, sex, language,
religion, national or social origin, property or birth, the right to such measures of
protection as are required by his status as a minor, on the part of his family, society
and the State; (2) Every child shall be registered immediately after birth and shall
have a name; (3) Every child has the right to acquire a nationality.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW) 1979
This Convention is referred to as ‘women’s bill of rights’. With reference to children,
it has a few Articles. Article 5 (b) observes that States should ‘ensure that family
education includes a proper understanding of maternity as a social function and
the recognition of the common responsibility of men and women in the upbringing
and development of their children, it being understood that the interest of the
children is the primordial consideration in all cases’. It affirms women’s rights to
acquire, change or retain their nationality and the nationality of their children
(Article 9). Article 16 (d) states that in all matters concerning marriage and family
relations 'the interests of the children shall be paramount’.
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 1989
This convention is a comprehensive set of children’s rights. There are four general
principles enshrined in the Convention. These are meant to help with the
interpretation of the Convention as a whole and thereby guide national programmes
of implementation. The four principles are formulated, in particular, in Articles 2,
3, 6 and 12.
l Non-discrimination (Article 2): State parties must ensure that all children
within their jurisdiction enjoy their rights. No child should suffer
discrimination. This applies to every child, “irrespective of the child’s or his
or her parent’s or legal guardian’s race, colour, sex, language, religion, political
or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth or
other status”. The essential message is equality of opportunity. Girls should
be given the same opportunities as boys. Refugee children, children of foreign
origin, children of indigenous or minority groups should have the same rights
as all others. Children with disabilities should be given the same opportunity
to enjoy an adequate standard of living.
l Best interests of the child (Article 3): When the authorities of a State take
decisions which affect children, the best interests of children must be a primary
consideration. This principle relates to decisions by courts of law, administrative
authorities, legislative bodies and both public and private social welfare
institutions.
l The right to life, survival and development (Article 6): The right-to-life
Article includes formulations about the right to survival and to development,
which should be ensured “to the maximum extent possible”. The term
“development” in this context should be interpreted in a broad sense, adding
a qualitative dimension: not only physical health is intended, but also mental,
emotional, cognitive, social and cultural development.
l The views of the child (Article 12): Children should be free to have opinions
8 in all matters affecting them, and those views should be given due weight “in
 accordance with the age and maturity of the child”. The underlying idea is Global Initiatives and UN
that children have the right to be heard and to have their views taken seriously, Safeguards for Children
including in any judicial or administrative proceedings affecting them.
The provisions of the Convention have been grouped under different sections
according to Fact sheet No 10 (Rev.1) on ‘the Rights of the Child’. Equal importance
has been attached to all the rights recognized by the convention:
l General Measures of Implementation are in Articles 4, 42 and 44 of the
CRC. For this States have to harmonize national law and policy with the
provisions of the Convention, plan mechanisms to coordinate policies for
children monitoring the implementation of the Convention. States have to
ensure that provisions of the convention are known to the public at large that
is both adults and children.
l Definition of the Child: Article 1 states that a child means every human
being below the age of eighteen years.
l General Principles include Non-discrimination (Article 2); Best interests of
the child (Article 3); the right to life, survival and development (Article 6);
and respect for the views of the child (Article 12).
l Civil Rights and Freedoms include the right to a name and nationality (Article
7); preservation of identity (Article 8); freedom of expression (Article 13);
access to appropriate information (Article 17); freedom of thought, conscience
and religion (Article 14); freedom of association and of peaceful assembly
(Article 15); protection of privacy (Article 16); the right not to be subjected
to torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (Article
37 (a)).
l Family Environment and Alternative Care includes Parental guidance
(Article 5); parental responsibilities (Article 18, paras. I and 2); separation
from parents (Article 9); family reunification (Article 10); recovery of
maintenance for the child (Article 27, para. 4); children deprived of a family
environment (Article 20); adoption (Article 21); illicit transfer of children
abroad (Article 11); abuse and neglect (Article 19), including physical and
psychological recovery and social reintegration (Article 39); periodic review
of treatment provided to children (Article 25).
l Basic Health and Welfare comprises survival and development (Article 6,
para. 2); disabled children (Article 23); health and health services (Article
24); social security and child care services and facilities (Article 26 and Article
18, para. 3); standard of living (Article 27, paras. 1-3).
l Education, Leisure and Cultural Activities include right of the child to
education, also higher education and vocational training and guidance (Article
28); aims of education (Article 29); right of the child to rest and leisure and to
enable the child to participate fully in cultural and artistic life (Article 31).
l Special Protection Measures focus on children in situations of emergency
including refugee children (Article 22); children in armed conflicts (Article
38), and ensure their physical and psychological recovery and social
reintegration (Article 39); children in conflict with the law which comprises
the administration of juvenile justice (Article 40); children deprived of their
liberty, facing any form of detention, imprisonment or placement in custodial
settings (Article 37 (b), (c)and (d)); the sentencing of juveniles, in particular
the prohibition of capital punishment and life imprisonment (Article 37 (a));
children in situations of exploitation, economic exploitation, including child
labour (Article 32); drug abuse (Article 33); sexual exploitation and sexual
abuse (Article 34); other forms of exploitation (Article 36); sale, trafficking 9
Care and Safeguards and abduction (Article 35); children belonging to a minority or an indigenous
of Children group (Article 30).
The United Nations General Assembly in 2000 adopted two Optional Protocols to
the Convention to safeguard children from involvement in armed conflicts and
from sexual exploitation. The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights
of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict states that members
of armed forces who have not attained the age of 18 years do not take a direct part
in hostilities (Article 1) and should not be compulsorily recruited into armed forces
(Article 2).
The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of
children, child prostitution and child pornography prohibits such serious violation
of children’s rights (Article 1). Article 2 states that ‘sale of children’ means any
act or transaction whereby a child is transferred by any person or group of persons
to another for remuneration or any other consideration; ‘child prostitution’ means
the use of a child in sexual activities for remuneration or any other form of
consideration; ‘child pornography’ means any representation, by whatever means,
of a child engaged in real or simulated explicit sexual activities or any representation
of the sexual parts of a child for primarily sexual purposes. The protocol emphasizes
the significance of international cooperation and public awareness in combating
these heinous crimes.
World Summit for Children 1990
This summit was held on 29-30 September 1990 at the United Nations where it
adopted a Declaration on the Survival, Protection and Development of Children
and a Plan of Action for implementing the Declaration in the 1990s. This declaration
was committed to ensure a better future for children and asked governments to
ratify and implement the CRC (1989). Recognizing the challenges of extreme
poverty, armed conflict, apartheid, among others that impede children’s growth
and development, it decided to improve the state of the world’s children. This
declaration highlights that political will, national action and international
cooperation are important for ensuring children's rights. The Plan of Action for
implementing this declaration emphasizes specific actions in the areas of health
and nutrition, education and literacy, maternal health etc. for the well-being of
children.
Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the
Elimination of Worst Forms of Child Labour 1999
This International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention was adopted on June
17, 1999. It defines the ‘worst forms of child labour’ (Article 3) as: all forms of
slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children,
debt bondage and serfdom and forced or compulsory labour, including forced or
compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict; the use, procuring
or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography or for
pornographic performances; the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit
activities, in particular for the production and trafficking of drugs as defined in the
relevant international treaties; and work which, by its nature or the circumstances
in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children.
The Convention also recognizes ‘the importance of education in eliminating child
labour’ (Article 7). The ratifying states are required to design and implement
programmes to eliminate the worst forms of child labour.
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2006
The aim of this convention is to ensure human rights and fundamental freedoms to
people with disabilities. The ratifying States should ensure that children with
10 disabilities are not excluded from free and compulsory primary education, or from
secondary education, on the basis of disability. Also, persons with disabilities can Global Initiatives and UN
access an inclusive, quality and free primary education and secondary education Safeguards for Children
on an equal basis with others in the communities in which they live.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Discuss in brief the provisions of the Convention of the Rights of the
Child with its optional Protocols.
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1.3 DEVELOPMENT GOALS FOR CHILDREN

The development goals for children discussed in the Education For All framework
and the Millennium Development Goals highlight the current concerns with regard
to child rights in various fields and determine the future course of action in
achieving them.
Education for All: From the Jomtien Declaration to the Dakar Framework
The World Declaration on Education for All was adopted in March 1990 at the
Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand. The Declaration stated that
‘everybody has a right to education’. Taking an account of the problems faced by
the developing countries since the 1980s, it declared the need to fulfill the basic
learning needs of every citizen in every society. The term ‘Education for All (EFA)’
means reflection on the nature and purpose of education in each society and that
education be based on the actual needs of children, youth and adults, especially
the excluded sections, also promoting culture and empowering citizens. It is much
more than expansion of the existing formal school system to foster economic growth
through the spread of basic cognitive skills. However, the assessment of EFA
suggested that even after many international conferences held following Jomtien,
it was not being prioritized. In the countries of sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia,
Arab States, in the least developed countries and those in conflict or going through
reconstruction, the state of education was worrisome. In April 2000, the World
Education Forum in Dakar reaffirmed the Jomtien perspective on EFA and adopted
a Framework of Action to fulfill the commitments made since 1990 and achieve
the goal of Education for All within a generation and sustain it thereafter (UNESCO
2008).
EFA Goals and Strategies
There are three important features of the Dakar Framework of Action, according
to UNESCO (2008). The first is the set of six goals to be achieved by all countries
by 2015 (see Box 1.1). Part of Goal 5-eliminating gender disparities in primary
and secondary education by 2005- was to be achieved within five years. It was a
challenging goal to be set. Yet it shows the commitment to gender equality in
education.
11
Care and Safeguards
of Children Box 1.1: The Dakar EFA goals
Paragraph 7 of the Dakar Framework of Action defines the EFA goals the governments,
organizations, agencies, groups and associations represented at the World Education
Forum pledged themselves to achieve:
1) Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education,
especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children;
2) Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult
circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete
free and compulsory primary education of good quality;
3) Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through
equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programmes;
4) Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially
for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults;
5) Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and
achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’
full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality;
6) Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so
that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially
in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.

Source: UNESCO (2008): 15

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) approved by world leaders at the

United Nations Millennium Summit in 2000 and reaffirmed at the UN World
Summit in 2005, state an agenda to improve human lives. Two of these reiterate
EFA Goals 2 and 5:
MDG 2: Achieve universal primary education (Target: Ensure that by 2015 children
everywhere, boys and girls, will be able to complete a full course of good quality
primary schooling.)
MDG 5: Promote gender equality and empower women. (Target: Eliminate gender
disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and at all levels
of education no later than 2015).
The second feature of the Dakar Framework for Action is a set of twelve strategies
to be pursued by all the participants in the World Education Forum (see Box 1.2).
The governments have to implement national plan of action for EFA, by integrating
it in poverty-reduction and development programmes, along with civil society. The
third feature of the Dakar Framework constitutes the pledge to alter budget priorities
to achieve these goals.

Box 1.2: The Dakar EFA strategies

Paragraph 8 of the Dakar Framework list to twelve strategies:
1) mobilize strong national and international political commitment for education for
all, develop national action plans and enhance significantly investment in basic
education;
2) promote EFA policies within a sustainable and well-integrated sector framework
clearly linked to poverty elimination and development strategies;
3) ensure the engagement and participation of civil society in the formulation,
implementation and monitoring of strategies for educational development;
4) develop responsive, participatory and accountable systems of educational
governance and management;
12
 Global Initiatives and UN
5) meet the needs of education systems affected by conflict, national calamities and Safeguards for Children
instability and conduct educational programmes in ways that promote mutual
understanding, peace and tolerance, and help to prevent violence and conflict;

6) implement integrated strategies for gender equality in education which recognize

the need for changes in attitudes, values and practices;

7) implement as a matter of urgency education programmes and actions to combat

the HIV/AIDS pandemic;

8) create safe, healthy, inclusive and equitably resourced educational environments

conducive to excellence in learning with clearly defined levels of achievement for
all;

9) enhance the status, morale and professionalism of teachers;

10) harness new information and communication technologies to help achieve EFA
goals;

11) systematically monitor progress towards EFA goals and strategies at the national,
regional and international levels; and

12) build on existing mechanisms to accelerate progress towards education for all.

Source: UNESCO (2008): 15

Millennium Development Goals

As discussed earlier, these goals are important for child survival and development.
Goal 1 to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger is important in alleviating child
malnutrition. According to the MDG Report 2008, the proportion of children under
five who are undernourished declined from 33 per cent in 1990 to 26 per cent in
2006. However, by 2006, the number of children in developing countries who
were underweight still exceeded 140 million. Undernourishment among children
of this age shows the extent of hunger in the population as a whole. Goal 2 to
achieve universal primary education marks some progress, due to political will
and investment in primary education, with an increase in enrollment. The number
of children of primary school age who were out of school fell from 103 million in
1999 to 73 million in 2006, despite an overall increase in the number of children
in this age group. Goal 3 seeks to promote gender equality and empower women
for which various countries as part of enrolment drives are encouraging girls’
education. Girls’ primary enrollment increased more than boys’ in all developing
regions between 2000 and 2006. As a result, two out of three countries have
achieved gender parity at the primary level. Despite impressive gains, girls account
for 55 per cent of the out-of-school population.
Goal 4 is to reduce child mortality. According to the report ‘the State of the World’s
Children 2008’ on ‘Child Survival’ this goal aims to reduce the global under-five
mortality rate by two thirds between 1990 and 2015. Reaching the target means
reducing the number of child deaths from 9.7 million in 2006 to around 4 million
by 2015. The MDGs 2008 report states that a child born in a developing country
is over 13 times more likely to die within the first five years of life than a child
born in an industrialized country. Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for about half the
deaths of children under-five in the developing world. Between 1990 and 2006,
about 27 countries – the large majority in sub-Saharan Africa - made no progress
in reducing childhood deaths. The next goal, to reduce maternal mortality is a
challenge. Maternal mortality remains unacceptably high across much of the
developing world. In 2005, more than 500,000 women died during pregnancy,
childbirth or in the six weeks after delivery. Ninety-nine per cent of these deaths
occurred in the developing regions. At the global level, maternal mortality decreased
by less than 1 per cent per year between 1990 and 2005 - far below the 5.5 per
13
Care and Safeguards cent annual improvement needed to reach the target. Ante-natal care is being
of Children promoted for the well-being of the expectant mother and her offspring.
Goal 6 is to combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. By the end of 2007,
specific national plans of action for children orphaned by AIDS and other vulnerable
children had been developed by 24 countries, including 21 in sub-Saharan Africa.
To ensure environmental sustainability is goal 7 and it advocates the inclusion of
the principle of sustainable development in the policies and programmes. Lack of
sanitation and drinking water facilities adversely impact human lives. Since 1990,
the number of people in developing regions using improved sanitation facilities
has increased by 1.1 billion, with significant improvements in South-Eastern and
Eastern Asia. Nevertheless, in order to meet the target, the number of people using
improved sanitation facilities must increase by about 1.6 billion in the next seven
years. Though access to water has improved; yet nearly one billion have to do
without it. Moreover, MDG 8 ‘to develop a global partnership for development’
also targets special needs of the least developed countries. This is to be done
through ‘more generous official development assistance for countries committed
to poverty reduction’. In order to accomplish reduction in child mortality, it will
require accelerated action on multiple fronts: reducing poverty and hunger (MDG
1), improving maternal health (MDG 5), combating HIV and AIDS, malaria and
other major diseases (MDG 6), increasing the usage of improved water and
sanitation (MDG 7) and providing affordable essential drugs on a sustainable basis
(MDG 8). A re-examination of strategies to reach the poorest, most marginalized
communities is also needed.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) ‘Right to education is important for a child’s development’. Comment
stating reasons.
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2) Summarize the progress on child-related Millennium Development Goals.
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1.4 GLOBAL AGENCIES

Various global agencies such as United Nations Children’s Fund, International
Child Development Centre and Children’s Rights Information Network emphasize
the rights of children so that they become a part of policy and planning. We will
discuss, in brief, the role and functions of these agencies that strive to improve
14 children’s lives.
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) Global Initiatives and UN
Safeguards for Children
UNICEF, created by the United Nations in 1946, was formerly known as United
Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund. It came into existence to provide
aid to children in countries, particularly in Europe and Asia, ravaged by the Second
World War. In 1953, this agency became United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
with the aim of improving the state of the world’s children. UNICEF advocates
for the protection of children's rights, helps meet their basic needs and expands
opportunities for them to reach their full potential. It is guided by the Convention
on the Rights of the Child and strives to establish children’s rights as enduring
ethical principles and international standards of behaviour towards children.
UNICEF insists that the survival, protection and development of children are
universal development imperatives that are integral to human progress. It mobilizes
political will and material resources to help countries, particularly developing
countries, ensure a “first call for children” and to build their capacity to form
appropriate policies and deliver services for children and their families. UNICEF
is committed to ensuring special protection for the most disadvantaged children -
victims of war, disasters, extreme poverty, all forms of violence and exploitation
and those with disabilities. It responds in emergencies to protect the rights of
children. In coordination with United Nations partners and humanitarian agencies,
UNICEF makes its unique facilities for rapid response available to its partners to
relieve the suffering of children. In everything it does, the most disadvantaged
children and the countries in greatest need have priority.
UNICEF aims to promote the equal rights of women and girls and to support their
full participation in the political, social, and economic development of their
communities. UNICEF works towards the attainment of the sustainable human
development goals adopted by the world community and the realization of the
vision of peace and social progress enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations.
UNICEF was created to overcome the obstacles that poverty, violence, disease
and discrimination place in a child’s path. Advocating measures to give children
the best start in life, it believes that proper care at the youngest age forms the
strongest foundation for a person’s future.
International Child Development Centre (ICDC)
ICDC or the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre in Florence, Italy, was established
in 1988 to strengthen the research capability of the United Nations Children’s
Fund and to support its advocacy for children worldwide. The Centre helps to
identify and research current and future areas of UNICEF’s work. Its prime
objectives are to improve international understanding of issues relating to children’s
rights and to help facilitate the full implementation of the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child in developing and industrialized countries.
Children's Rights Information Network (CRIN)
CRIN is a global network coordinating and promoting information and action on
child rights. It strives to make it a global agenda by addressing root causes and
promoting systematic change. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
is its guiding framework. CRIN's activities are based on the belief that information
is a powerful tool for realizing children's rights. It distributes news, events and
reports, lobbies, enables advocacy and promotes knowledge sharing and
coordination. CRIN participates in international child rights coalitions and advocacy
groups, supports campaigns and makes the UN and regional mechanisms more
accessible to those lobbying for social change. The network is supported, and
receives funding from Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
(SIDA), Save the Children Sweden, UNICEF, Save the Children UK, among others.
15
Care and Safeguards
of Children Check Your Progress III
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What is the role of UNICEF and ICDC in promoting child rights?
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1.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed the international declarations, conventions and
covenants advocating rights of children. Their ratification binds member States to
introduce policies and programmes for children and ensure their implementation.
Beginning from 1952 the Geneva Declaration to the Convention related to Persons
with Disabilities 2006, various efforts are being made to ensure a safe childhood
for children so that they can develop their maximum potential. The Education for
All and the Millennium Development Goals establish the importance of education,
adequate nutrition and health, water and sanitation etc. for children. Finally, agencies
like UNICEF, ICDC and CRIN highlight child rights as a global issue.

1.6 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

UNESCO (2008) Education for All by 2015: Will we make it? EFA Global
Monitoring Report, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Bajpai, Asha (2003) Child Rights in India: Law, Policy and Practice, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
United Nations (2008) The Millennium Development Goals Report 2008, New
York.
‘Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child’ http://www.un-documents.net/
gdrc1924.htm accessed on 29/12/08.
Children’s Rights Information Network (CRIN) http://www.crin.org/about/index.asp
‘Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1959)’.
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/25.htm accessed on 29/12/08.
‘UNICEF’ http://www.unicef.org/about/who/index_introduction.html, http://
www.unicef.org/about/who/index_mission.html accessed on 29/12/08.
‘Convention on the Rights of Children’.
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/pdf/crc.pdf.
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/k2crc.htm#top accessed on 29/12/08.
‘Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women1979’
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm#article16
accessed on 29/12/08.
‘Fact Sheet No.10 (Rev.1), The Rights of the Child’ http://www.unhchr.ch/html/
16 menu6/2/fs10.htm accessed on 29/12/08 accessed on 30/12/08.
‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948’. Global Initiatives and UN
Safeguards for Children
http://www.unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/eng.htm accessed on 30/12/08.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966.
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_cescr.htm accessed on 30/12/08.
International Covenant on Civil and Political rights 1966.
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_ccpr.htm accessed on 30/12/08.
Convention against Discrimination in Education 1960
www.unesco.org/education/pdf/DISCRI_E.PDF accessed on 27/12/08
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement
of children in armed conflict 2000 http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc-
conflict.htm accessed on 30/12/08
The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of
children, child prostitution and child pornography 2000 http://www2.ohchr.org/
english/law/crc-sale.htm accessed on 30/12/08.
World Summit for Children 1990.
http://www.unicef.org/wsc/ accessed on 29/12/08., Convention concerning the
Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of Worst Forms of Child
Labour 1999.
http://www.ilocarib.org.tt/childlabour/c182.htm accessed on 30/12/08.
International Child Development Centre (ICDC).
http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/digest13-disability.pdf accessed on 30/
12/08
UNICEF, ‘Promoting the Rights of Children with Disabilities’ Innocenti Digest
no.13 http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/digest13-disability.pdf accessed on
30/12/08
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2006.
http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/rights/convtexte.htm accessed on 30/12/08.
UNICEF 2007 The State of World’s Children 2008: Child Survival, www.unicef.org/
sowc08 accessed on 30/12/08.

17
Care and Safeguards
of Children UNIT 2 POLICIES AND
PROGRAMMES FOR
CHILDREN IN INDIA
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Constitutional Safeguards
2.3 Legislation for Children
2.4 Policies for Children
2.5 Programmes for Children
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES
Child rights are a component of human rights. Many countries formulated policies
and programmes for children responding to the growing concern for the world’s
children. In India, the commitment to these goals took the shape of policies and
programmes for the development of children.
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
l discuss the constitutional safeguards and legislation for children;
l explain the policies advocating child rights in India; and
l describe the programmes for children in India.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Child rights are integral for the development of children. In order to ensure these
entitlements to children and to fulfill international commitments, the Government
of India along with civil society has made efforts by introducing various policies
and programmes. These initiatives aim to nurture the childhood of children,
providing them basic rights of survival, protection, development and participation.
India is a signatory to the Convention on the Rights of the Child and its two
Optional Protocols on sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography
and on children involved in armed conflict. It strives to protect children from the
vagaries of poverty, destitution, exploitation, and any such harm. Since the adoption
of our Constitution we have affirmed the importance of child rights through various
initiatives.

2.2 CONSTITUTIONAL SAFEGUARDS

The Constitution of India which came into force on 26th January 1950, protects
the rights of children. The Fundamental Rights incorporated in Part III of the Indian
Constitution, Directive Principles in Part IV and Fundamental Duties in Part IVA
play a significant role in affirming child rights. The Fundamental Rights being
18 enforceable in court create justiciable rights in favour of the individuals whereas
as the Directive Principles require legislation for implementation and are basically Policies and Programmes
important guidelines for the governance of the country. The Fundamental rights for Children in India
related to children are as follows- the right to equality including equality before
law and the equal protection of laws (Article 14), prohibition of discrimination on
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth (Article 15) and its subsection
that states ‘Nothing in this Article shall prevent the state from making any special
provision for women and children’, and abolition of untouchability (Article 17);
the right to freedom including the right to freedom of speech and expression
(Article 19 (1)(a)), the right to protection of life and personal liberty (Article 21)
and that right to education flows from right to life (Article 21 A), the right against
exploitation, prohibiting all forms of forced labour, child labour and traffic in
human beings (Articles 23 and 24), the right to freedom of conscience and free
profession, practice and propagation of religion (Article 25 to 28), the rights of
minorities to conserve their culture, language and script and to establish and
administer educational institutions of their choice (Articles 29 and 30), and the
right to constitutional remedies for the enforcement of all fundamental rights
(Article 32). These rights have either direct or indirect bearing for children.
The Directive Principles ensure care for children. Some Articles relate directly to
children such as Article 39 ‘The State shall, in particular, direct its policy towards
securing (e) that the health and strength of workers, men and women, and the
tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic
necessity to enter avocations unsuited to their age or strength; (f) that children are
given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions
of freedom and dignity and that childhood and youth are protected against
exploitation and against moral and material abandonment’. Article 243G with
Schedule 11 - provides for institutionalization of child care by seeking to entrust
programmes of Women and Child Development to Panchayat (Item 25 of Schedule
11), apart from education (Item 17), family welfare (Item 25), health and sanitation
(Item 23) and other items with a bearing on the welfare of children.
The Constitution (86th Amendment) Act was notified on 13th December 2002,
making free and compulsory education a Fundamental Right for all children in the
age group of 6-14 years. By this, Article 21 A reads as follows- ‘The State shall
provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen
years in such a manner as the State may, by law, determine’. Article 45 ‘The State
shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children
until they complete the age of six years’ and Article 51 A (k) who is a parent or
guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be,
ward between the age of six to fourteen years’. It introduced amendments in
fundamental rights, directive principles and fundamental duties. The Right to
Education Bill seeks to give effect to this Amendment.

2.3 LEGISLATION FOR CHILDREN

Legislation is an important instrument to empower children. It shows the
commitment of the State to child rights in acting for the well-being of children.
According to Bajpai (2003), some chief legislations that relate to children are as
follows:
The Guardian and Wards Act 1890 elaborates the qualifications, appointment, and
removal of guardians of children by the courts and is applicable to all children
irrespective of their religion.
The Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 (Sarda Act) amended in 1979 restrains the
solemnization of child marriages by laying down the minimum age of marriage for
both boys and girls. This law is applicable to all communities irrespective of their
religion. 19
Care and Safeguards Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act 1956 codifies the law relating to adoption
of Children and Maintenance among Hindus.
The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act 1956 provides for the appointment of
guardians of minors among Hindus.
Young Persons Harmful Publications Act 1956 checks the dissemination of certain
publications that are harmful for young persons.
Probation of Offenders Act 1958 restricts imprisonment of offenders under twenty-
one years of age.
The Orphanages and Other Charitable Homes (Supervision and Control) Act 1960
provides for the supervision and control of orphanages and homes for children.
Apprentice Act 1961 states qualifications for persons above fourteen years of age
to undergo apprenticeship training in any designated trade.
The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act 1971 stipulates when pregnancies may
be terminated by registered medical practitioners.
The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation Act 1986 prohibits employment of
children in 13 occupations and 57 processes contained in Part A & B of the Schedule
to the Act (Section 3). It regulates the condition of employment in all occupations
and processes not prohibited under the Act (Part III). According to this Act, ‘child’
means a person who has not completed fourteen years of age.
The Child Labour Prohibition Act, 2006 is imposed under the Child Labour
(Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 and is effective from 10th October, 2006.
It bans domestic child labour. This Act prohibits employment of children as domestic
servants or servants or in dhabas (roadside eateries), restaurants, hotels, motels,
teashops, resorts, spas or in other recreational centres. The Ministry of Labour
warns that anyone employing children in these categories would be liable to
prosecution and other panel action under the Act, that is, fine up to Rs. 20,000/- or
imprisonment up to two years.
The Children (Pledging of Labour) Act 1933 prohibits pledging the labour of
children.
The Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Foods (Regulation of
Production, Supply and Distribution) Act 1992 regulates the production, supply,
and distribution of infant milk substitutes, feeding bottles, and infant feeds with a
view to the protection and promotion of breastfeeding and ensuring the proper use
of infant feeds and other incidental matters.
The Pre-Natal Diagnostic Technique (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act
1994 regulates the use of pre-natal diagnostic techniques in order to detect genetic
or metabolic disorders or chromosomal abnormalities or certain congenital
malformations or sex-linked disorders and prevents the misuse of such technique
for pre-natal sex determination leading to female foeticide.
The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2000 deals with juveniles
in conflict with law and children in need of care and protection, by providing for
proper care, protection, and treatment fulfilling their developmental needs, and by
adopting a child-friendly approach in the adjudication and disposition of matters
in the best interest of children, and for the ultimate rehabilitation through various
institutions established under the Act.
In many general statutes also there are many provisions related to children. The
areas of criminal law, family law, employment law have child-specific references.
Criminal law plays an important role in protecting the rights of children. The Indian
20 Penal Code (IPC) 1860 categorizes various offences and the punishment for these
offences. It also has special provisions that deal with causes of miscarriages and Policies and Programmes
injuries caused to the unborn child (IPC Secs.312-318). In the event of child rape, for Children in India
consent cannot be a defense where a child is below sixteen years of age. Marital
rape is recognized only if the wife is below fifteen years of age (IPC Secs. 375,
376). Punishment becomes much harsher in the case of rape by public servants
and custodial rape [IPC Secs. 376 (a), (b), (c), (d)], this includes rape of children
in institutions. There are provisions related to kidnapping, abduction and buying
of minors for prostitution, slavery and forced labour (IPC 358-374). The Immoral
Traffic Prevention Act 1956, amended in 1987 curbs trafficking of both boys and
girls. Prevention of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substance
Act 1988 and Cable Television Network Regulation Act 1995 also have provisions
related to children.
Family law has personal laws that differ according to the religion of the child. The
rights of children born to Hindus are governed by the Hindu Marriage Act 1955
and the Hindu Succession Act 1956. Christian children are governed by the Indian
Divorce Act 1860 and the Indian Succession Act 1925. Muslim personal law governs
Muslim children in issues of marriage, maintenance, custody, guardianship,
adoption, succession and inheritance. Parsi children are governed by the Parsi
Marriage and Divorce Act 1936 and the Indian Succession Act 1925. Section 125
of the Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC) is for the maintenance of children avoiding
destitution.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Discuss the constitutional safeguards for children in detail.
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2) How does legislation protect children? Explain
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2.4 POLICIES FOR CHILDREN

The development of children determines the level of a nation’s advancement. Many
policy initiatives have been undertaken in India to guide programmes to ameliorate
the condition of children in India. Some significant policies for children are as
follows:
National Policy on Children 1974
This policy considers the nation's children as a supremely important asset and
observes that children's programmes should find a prominent place in national 21
Care and Safeguards plans for the development of human resources, so that children grow up to become
of Children robust citizens. The objectives of this policy are to provide adequate services to
children, both before and after birth and through the period of growth; to ensure
their full physical, mental and social development; and to progressively increase
the scope of such services so that, within a reasonable time, all children in the
country enjoy optimum conditions for their balanced growth. In order to achieve
these objectives, certain measures are suggested which includes a comprehensive
health programme for children, free and compulsory education for children till the
age of fourteen years, equality of opportunity for all children, protecting children
from exploitation, cruelty and neglect, constituting National Children’s Board,
among others.
National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 and its Programme of Action (POA)
1992
Education is the birth right of each child. NPE 1986 and its POA 1992 is an
important policy intervention highlighting early childhood care and education
(ECCE) and elementary education with a child-centred approach. Part five on
‘Reorganization of Education at Different Stages’ includes ECCE that states
recognizing the holistic nature of child development, viz. nutrition, health and
social, mental, physical, moral and emotional development. ECCE will receive
high priority and be suitably integrated with the Integrated Child Development
Services (ICDS). Elementary education focuses on universal enrollment and
universal retention of children upto fourteen years of age and a substantial
improvement in the quality of education. This policy led to the launch of the
National Elementary Education Mission ‘Education for All’ in 1993 and the District
Primary Education Programme in 1994. Now, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan seeks to
achieve the goal of Universalization of Elementary Education of satisfactory quality
by 2010.
National Policy on Child Labour 1987
The policy focuses on rehabilitation of children working in hazardous occupations
and processes. The Action Plan outlined in the Policy for tackling this problem is
as follows: legislative action plan for strict enforcement of Child Labour Act and
other labour laws to ensure that children are not employed in hazardous
employments, and that the working conditions of children working in non-hazardous
areas are regulated in accordance with the provisions of the Child Labour Act. It
also entails further identification of additional occupations and processes, which
are detrimental to the health and safety of the children; focusing of general
developmental programmes for benefiting child labour. Since poverty is the main
cause of child labour, the action plan emphasizes the need to cover these children
and their families also under various poverty alleviation and employment generation
schemes of the Government; project based plan of action envisages starting of
projects in areas of high concentration of child labour. As a result, in 1988, the
National Child Labour Project (NCLP) Scheme was launched in nine districts of
high child labour endemicity in the country. The Scheme envisions running of
special schools for child labour withdrawn from work. In the special schools, these
children are provided formal/non-formal education along with vocational training,
a stipend of Rs.100 per month, supplementary nutrition and regular health check
ups so as to prepare them to join regular mainstream schools. Under the Scheme,
funds are given to the District administration for running special schools for child
labour. Most of these schools are run by the NGOs in the district. The coverage of
the NCLP Scheme has increased from 12 districts in 1988 to 100 districts in the
Ninth Plan.
National Plan for SAARC Decade of the Girl Child 1991-2000

22 The member-states of the SAARC Region met at Male in 1990 and declared 1991-
2000 as the ‘SAARC Decade for the Girl Child’. In response, the Government of Policies and Programmes
India launched a National Plan of Action with the central theme ‘Survival, for Children in India
Protection, and Development’. The purpose was to provide equal opportunities to
the girl child acknowledging her low status in society. The main goals of the Plan
were: survival and protection of the girl child and safe motherhood, overall
development of the girl child, and special protection for vulnerable girl children in
difficult circumstances and belonging to special groups.
National Nutrition Policy 1993
The Policy states that widespread poverty resulting in chronic and persistent hunger
is the single biggest bane of the developing world. The physical expression of this
continuously re-enacted tragedy is the condition of under-nutrition which manifests
itself among large sections of the poor, particularly amongst the women and
children. ‘Undernutrition’ is a condition resulting from inadequate intake of food
or more essential nutrient(s) resulting in deterioration of physical growth and health.
Nutrition is a multi-sectoral issue and needs to be dealt with at various levels.
Nutrition affects development as much as development affects nutrition. The
nutrition policy instrument in its strategy states that the problem of nutrition has
to be tackled both through direct nutrition intervention for specially vulnerable
groups as well as through various development policy instruments which will create
conditions for improved nutrition.
National Population Policy 2000
The objectives of the policy are to meet the reproductive and child health needs,
to bring the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to replacement levels by 2010, to achieve a
stable population by 2045 at a level consistent with the requirements of sustainable
economic growth, social development, and environmental protection and to
simultaneously address issues of child survival, maternal health, and contraception.
In order to achieve these objectives, the policy formulated National Socio-
Demographic Goals to be achieved in each case by 2010.
National Health Policy 2002
The National Health Policy was last formulated in 1983. The main objective of
this policy is to achieve an acceptable standard of good health amongst the general
population of the country. The approach would be to increase access to the
decentralized public health system by establishing new infrastructure in deficient
areas, and by upgrading the infrastructure in the existing institutions. It seeks to
ensure a more equitable access to health services across the social and geographical
expanse of the country. The National Health Policy, 2002 endeavours to achieve
the time-bound goals like reducing infant mortality rate to 30 per 1000 live births
and maternal mortality rate to 100 per lakh live births by 2010, increasing health
expenditure by Government as a per cent of GDP from the existing 0.9 per cent to
2.0 per cent by 2010, etc.
National Charter for Children 2003
The Charter, adopted on 9th February 2004, emphasizes Government’s commitment
to children’s rights. It intends to secure for every child its inherent right to be a
child and enjoy a healthy and happy childhood, to address the root causes that
negate the healthy growth and development of children, and to awaken the
conscience of the community in the wider societal context to protect children from
all forms of abuse, while strengthening the family, society and the Nation. The
policy sets forth goals to ensure and protect the survival, life and liberty of all
children, promote high standards of health and nutrition¸ assure basic minimum
needs and security, give importance to play and leisure, early childhood care, free
and compulsory primary education, protection from economic exploitation and all
forms of abuse, protection of the girl child, empowering adolescents, equality, 23
Care and Safeguards freedom of expression, freedom to seek and receive information, freedom of
of Children association and peaceful assembly, strengthening family, responsibilities of both
parents, protection of children with disabilities, care, protection, welfare of children
of marginalized and disadvantaged communities, ensuring child friendly procedures.
National Plan of Action 2005
The plan commits itself to ensure all rights to all children upto the age of 18
years. It emphasizes survival, protection, development and participation of children.
The guiding principles of the Plan of Action are:
l To regard the child as an asset and a person with human rights;
l To address issues of discrimination emanating from biases of gender, class,
caste, race, religion and legal status in order to ensure equality;
l To accord utmost priority to the most disadvantaged, poorest of the poor and
least served child in all policy and programmatic interventions; and
l To recognize the diverse stages and settings of childhood, and address the
needs of each, providing to all children the entitlements that fulfill their rights
and meet their needs in each situation.
The Plan has identified twelve key areas keeping in mind priorities and the intensity
of the challenges that require utmost and sustained attention. These are to reduce
maternal mortality rate, reduce malnutrition among children, achieve 100 per cent
civil registration of births, universalization of early childhood care and development
and quality education for all children, achieving 100 per cent access and retention
in schools, (including pre-schools), complete abolition of female foeticide, female
infanticide and child marriage and ensuring the survival, development and protection
of the girl child, improving water and sanitation coverage both in rural and urban
areas, addressing and upholding the rights of children in difficult circumstances,
securing for all children all legal and social protection from all kinds of abuse,
exploitation and neglect, complete abolition of child labour with the aim of
progressively eliminating all forms of economic exploitation of children, monitoring,
review and reform of policies, programmes and laws to ensure protection of
children’s interests and rights, and ensuring child participation and choice in matters
and decisions affecting their lives.
The Government shall ensure all measures and an enabling environment for survival,
growth, development and protection of all children, so that each child can realize
his or her inherent potential and grow up to be healthy and productive citizens.
This calls for collective commitment and action by all sectors and levels of
governments and partnership with families, communities, voluntary sector, civil
society and children themselves. The Plan will be implemented throughout the
country through national measures and through State Plans of Action for Children.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Discuss the main policies for the development of children in India.
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24
 Policies and Programmes
2.5 PROGRAMMES FOR CHILDREN for Children in India

The policies discussed earlier led to the formulation of programmes to achieve the
goals declared for the well-being of children. There is also emphasis on child
budgeting to analyze the allocations made by the government for the programmes
related to children and to examine the relevance of these programmes for children's
needs. Some important schemes for children are as follows:
Mid Day Meal Scheme
In 1956, the erstwhile Madras State launched the mid-day meal programme of
providing free meals to elementary school children. In 1995, with a view to enhance
enrollment, retention and attendance and simultaneously improve nutritional levels
among children, the National Programme of Nutritional Support for Primary
Education (i.e. the national “mid-day meal scheme”) was initiated. By 2001, a few
states were providing cooked meals, but most were only giving monthly “dry
rations” of food grain to school children. The number of states providing cooked
meals rose sharply from early 2002 onwards, after a Supreme Court order (dated
28 November 2001) directed all State Governments to introduce cooked mid-day
meals in primary schools. The scheme has been further revised to cover children
in upper primary (classes VI to VIII) also.
Rajiv Gandhi National Crèche Scheme for the Children of Working Mothers
This scheme provides day-care services to children along with facilities of food,
shelter etc. It was revamped in 2006. The present scheme provides assistance to
non-governmental organizations for running crèches for infants (0-6 years) and
ensuring sleeping facilities, healthcare, supplementary nutrition, immunization, etc.
for running a crèche for 25 infants for eight hours.
The Shishu Greh Scheme
This scheme is implemented by the Ministry of Women and Child Development
and seeks to fulfill child development goals. The objectives of this scheme are to
promote adoptions within the country, ensure minimum standards in care of children
and provide institutional support within the country for care and protection of
infants and children up to 6 years of age who are either abandoned or orphaned/
destitute and for their rehabilitation through in-country adoption.
Integrated Child Development Services
The Government of India launched the Integrated Child Development Services -
ICDS Scheme on 2nd October 1975, to commemorate the birth anniversary of the
Father of the Nation, Mahatma Gandhi. The objectives are: (i) to improve the
nutritional and health status of children below the age of six years and pregnant
and lactating mothers; (ii) to lay the foundation for the proper psychological,
physical and social development of the child; (iii) to reduce the incidence of
mortality, morbidity, malnutrition and school drop-outs; to achieve effective
coordination of policy and implementation among various departments to promote
child development; (v) to enhance the capability of the mother to look after the
normal health and nutritional needs of the child through proper health and nutrition
education.
From the small beginnings of 33 blocks in 1975, ICDS has grown to become the
world's largest and most unique early childhood development programme - an
initiative unparalleled in history. Today ICDS has a network of 4200 projects
covering nearly 75 per cent community development blocks and 273 urban slum
pockets. Poised for universal coverage, ICDS reaches out to 4.8 million expectant
and nursing mothers and 22.9 million children (under six years of age) of the
disadvantaged groups. Of these, 12.5 million children (aged three to six years) 25
Care and Safeguards participate in centre-based pre-school activities. The Scheme provides a package
of Children of the following services to children below 6 years and pregnant and lactating
mothers from disadvantaged sections: (i) supplementary nutrition; (ii) immunization;
(iii) health check-up; (iv) referral services; (v) pre-school non-formal education;
and (vi) nutrition and health education.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
SSA is an effort to universalize elementary education by community-ownership of
the school system. It is a response to the demand for quality basic education all
over the country. This programme is also an attempt to provide an opportunity for
improving human capabilities to all children, through provision of community-
owned quality education in a mission mode. The programme aim is to provide
useful and relevant elementary education for all children in the 6 to 14 age group
by 2010. Another goal is to bridge social, regional and gender gaps, with the active
participation of the community in the management of schools.
Scheme on Community Based Production of Nutritious Food
The scheme provides supplementary food of high quality to vulnerable groups
particularly pre-school children, pregnant and lactating mothers attending ICDS or
creches/ balwadis run by the NGOs. The food prepared at these units is the ‘Ready
to Eat’ (RTE) type prepared with roasted cereals and pulses or freshly cooked
food.
Scheme for Working Children in Need of Care and Protection
This scheme is for children working as domestic helps, at roadside dhabas, mechanic
shops, etc. The scheme provides for bridging education and vocational training,
medicine, food, recreation/sports equipments, etc.
Pilot Project to Combat the Trafficking of Women and Children for
Commercial Sexual Exploitation
This scheme is for providing care and protection to trafficked and sexually abused
women and children in source and destination areas. It includes networking with
law enforcement agencies, rescue operations, temporary shelters for the victims,
repatriation to hometown and legal services, etc.
Commission for Protection of Child Rights Act 2005
As envisaged in the Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act 2005 notified
in the Gazette of India on 20th January, 2006 as Act No. 4 of 2006, the Government
has set up a National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) with
effect from 5th March, 2007. The Commission deals with all matters relating to
children, for proper enforcement of children’s rights and for effective
implementation of laws and programmes relating to children.
Report on Convention of the Rights of the Child and Its Two Optional
Protocols
The Ministry of Women and Child Development commissioned a National Study
on Child Abuse titled “Child Abuse: INDIA 2007”. The aim of the study was to
develop a dependable and comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon of
child abuse, with a view to facilitate the formulation of appropriate policies and
programmes meant to effectively curb and control the problem of child abuse in
India. The National Study on Child Abuse is one of the largest empirical in-country
studies of its kind in the world. Some of the major findings of the study are that
the younger children (5-12 years of age) report higher levels of abuse than the
other age groups; boys, as compared to girls, are equally at risk of abuse; persons
26 in trust and authority are major abusers; 70 per cent of abused child respondents
never reported the matter to anyone; two out of every three children are physically Policies and Programmes
abused; two out of three children were victims of corporal punishment; the State for Children in India
of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar and Delhi have almost consistently reported higher
rates of abuse in all forms as compared to other states. Children on the street,
children at work and children in institutional care reported the highest incidence
of sexual assault.
Integrated Programme for Street Children
The scheme is for full and wholesome development of children without homes
and family ties. It aims to prevent destitution and withdrawal of children from a
life on the street and their placement into the national mainstream. The objectives
are provision for shelter, nutrition, health care, sanitation and hygiene, safe drinking
water, education and recreational facilities and protection against abuse and
exploitation to destitute and neglected street children. The strategy is to develop
awareness and providing support to build capacity of the Government (Central,
State and Local), non-governmental organizations and the community at large to
realize the rights of the child enshrined in the Convention on the Rights of the
Child and in the Juvenile Justice Act, 1986. The programme endeavours to provide
the support necessary for the wholesome development of street children particularly
those without homes and family ties and children especially vulnerable to abuse
and exploitation such as children of sex workers and children of pavement dwellers.
Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA)
It is an autonomous Body under the Ministry of Women and Child Development.
Its mandate is to find a loving and caring family for every orphan/destitute/
surrendered child in the country. CARA was initially set up in 1990 under the
aegis of the Ministry of Welfare.
Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS)
This scheme is based on the cardinal principles of “protection of child rights” and
“best interests of the child”. The ICPS aims to promote the best interests of the
child and prevent violations of child rights through appropriate punitive measures
against perpetrators of abuse and crimes against children and to ensure rehabilitation
of all children in need of care and protection. The Ministry of Women and Child
Development seeks to combine its existing child protection schemes under one
centrally sponsored scheme of ICPS. This scheme aims to work with government
and civil society partnership. The target group constitutes children in need of care
and protection, vulnerable children, and children in conflict with law.

Check Your Progress IV

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Discuss in brief the programmes that ensure child rights in India.
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2.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed the policies and programmes for children in India.
Children are an asset of a country and all steps have to be taken in their best
27
Care and Safeguards interest. India is committed to the rights of child and it ratified the Convention on
of Children the Rights of the Child in 1992. Various policies like National Policy on Children
1974, NPE 1986, National Nutrition Policy 1993, National Population Policy 2002
etc. highlight the importance of achieving targets to ensure development of children.
In response, the programmes focus on critical areas of education, survival, health,
safety and well-being of children.

2.7 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Bajpai, Asha (2003) Child Rights in India: Law, Policy and Practice, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
Government of India (1986) National Policy on Education, Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Department of Education.
Government of India (1992) Programme of Action, National Policy on Education,
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Education.
Government of India (2005), National Plan of Action for Children, Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Department of Women and Child Development,
New Delhi.
Government of India (2008) Annual Report, Ministry of Women and Child
Development, New Delhi.
Gautam, Manjulika (2006) ‘Child Development in India’, Yojana, November, pp.26-
29.
Dreze, Jean and Aparjita Goyal (2003) ‘Future of Mid-Day Meals’, Economic and
Political Weekly, Vol. 38, no.44, pp.4673-4683.
‘Child Labour’ http://labour.nic.in/cwl/ChildLabour.htm accessed on 31/12/08.
‘National Policy on Children 1974’
www.saathii.org/ovc/child_rights_and_policies/i-04-national_policy_for_children.
pdf accessed on 31/12/08.
'Education For All'
http://www.educationforallinindia.com/ssa.htm accessed on 31/12/08.
‘National Policy on Child Labour 1987’
http://labour.nic.in/cwl/ChildLabour.htm accessed on 31/12/08.
‘National Plan for SAARC Decade of the Girl Child 1991-2000’.
http://www.bihartimes.com/poverty/anant_pandey.html accessed on 31/12/08.
‘National Nutrition Policy 1993’
http://wcd.nic.in/nnp.pdf accessed on 31/12/08.
‘National Population Policy 2000’
http://populationcommission.nic.in/npp_obj.htm accessed on 31/12/08.
‘National Health Policy 2002’ http://mohfw.nic.in/np2002.htm accessed on 31/12/
08.
‘National Charter for Children 2003’
http://www.childlineindia.org.in/pdf/NationalCharterforChildren-2004.pdf accessed
28 on 31/12/08.
‘Rajiv Gandhi National crèche Scheme’ Policies and Programmes
for Children in India
http://cswb.gov.in/index1.asp?linkid=234&langid=1 accessed on 31/12/08.
‘Shishu Greh Scheme’
http://www.karmayog.org/adoption/adoption_16635.htm accessed on 31/12/08.
‘Scheme on Community based production of Nutritious Food’
http://www.nposonline.net/dwcd.shtml#food accessed on 31/12/08.
‘Report on Convention of the Rights of the Child and its two optional Protocols’
http://wsw.wcd.nic.in/childabuse.pdf accessed on 31/12/08.
‘Child Budgeting in India’ – Dr. Loveleen Kacker http://wcd.nic.in/
statesecretariesmeet.htm accessed on 31/12/08.
‘Scheme for Working Children in Need of Care and Protection, Pilot Project to
Combat the Trafficking of women and Children for Commercial Sexual
Exploitation’
http://www.csa.org.in/Integrated_Child.pdf accessed on 31/12/08.
‘Integrated Child Protection Scheme’
http://www.csa.org.in/Integrated_Child.pdf accessed on 31/12/08.
‘Central Adoption Resource Authority’
http://cara.nic.in/about_us.htm accessed on 31/12/08.
‘Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan’
http://education.nic.in/ssa/ssa_1.asp#1.0 accessed on 31/12/08.
‘Mid day meals’
http://pmindia.nic.in/nac/communication/meal.pdf.
http://pib.nic.in/archieve/flagship/bkg_mdm1.pdf accessed on 31/12/08.

29
Care and Safeguards
of Children UNIT 3 POSITIVE PARENTING
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The “Systems” Approach to Family
3.3 Family in a Changing Context
3.4 The Family Life Cycle
3.5 Parenting: The Concept
3.6 Indian Culture and Parenting
3.7 Parenting Needs during Various Life Stages
3.8 Parenting Styles
3.9 Strategies toward Effective Parenting
3.10 Tips to Effective Parenting
3.11 Let Us Sum Up
3.12 Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
l describe the family as a sociological concept;
l identify the emerging trends;
l discuss the Family Life Cycle and its implications for the various life stages;
l explain parenting both as a concept as well as its challenges during the various
life stages of the family lifecycle; and
l discuss various parenting styles and proactive strategies in child rearing.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Family is understood to be one among the most important social institutions all
over the world. Schriver (1995) uses the term ‘familiness’ to broaden the traditional
concept of family; familiness “reminds us as individuals and as members of
particular families, to think always about possible alternative structures and sets
of functions that constitute family for others” (Schriver, 1995). Garbarino and
Abramowitz (l992) terms family as the “headquarters for human development.”
Families, for that matter, make up the thread necessary to weave human society
together.
From the sociological perspective, a family is regarded as the primary institution,
as constitutes the basic unit of any society. But, how then does one define a family?
Sociologists worldwide define three distinct functions for families: getting married,
procreating, and developing kinship ties. Reader (1980) defines family as a “small
kinship structured group with the key function of nurturant socialization.” Duvall
(l97l) defines family as “a unit of interacting persons related by ties of marriage,
birth, or adoption, whose central purpose is to create and maintain common culture,
which promotes the physical, mental, emotional, and social development of each
30 of its members.”
A simpler, yet broader definition by Hartman and Laird (1983), considers a family Positive Parenting
created when “two or more people construct an intimate environment that they
define as a “family,” an environment in which they generally will share living
space, commitment, and a variety of the roles and functions usually considered
part of family life.” Such a broad definition takes into account couples –
heterosexual and homosexual, single-parent families, elderly, as well as persons
related by blood, living together, also.

3.2 THE “SYSTEMS” APPROACH TO FAMILY

A “family” is a system consisting of interrelated parts that keep influencing each
other. For that matter, family influence is regarded as complex (Ashford, 2003)
because it often goes beyond the mother-child relationships, and involves the father,
the grandparents (or the in-laws, as in the Indian context) and their interrelations
with the parents and the social environment. Considering the ‘systems’ approach,
one cannot afford to underestimate the influence of external factors – religion,
caste, neighbourhood, friends, school, and work.
Still further, the family takes the responsibility of almost all functional nurturing
activities- childbearing, childrearing, schooling, socializing, and indoctrinating a
definite value system – of a society. Herein, comes the role of the parents. The
following section explains the concept of parenting, the changing trends in family
systems and its impact on parenting and helps you to appreciate the difference
between the traditional Indian way of parenting as against the West; the various
approaches to parenting; the variations required across the different stages –
childhood and adolescence; and, finally, provide the tips for parenting. Also,
important is the need to understand the concept of responsible parenthood.

3.3 FAMILY IN A CHANGING CONTEXT

The family is a complex system; but it is not static, and as a developing system the
family reflects a changing world. For that matter, even the definition of ‘family’ is
changing to accommodate the rapid changes that are taking place in our society.
The simpler yet complex forms of families, such as “single-parent” and “nuclear”
families, as a concept are vying for more attention.The former kind, emerging out
of choice or imposed for reasons of marital discord, although not accepted in the
Indian society, is becoming increasingly common. The latter, carried more appeal,
not only because it was fashionable, but also because it became a compulsion with
the new trend worldwide to economize and make efficient use of one’s resources.
The propagation of neo-colonialism (read the LPG regime), this compulsion has
became all the more a reality. Sigelman & Shaffer (1991) have brought to our
attention certain changing trends:
l More adults are living as singles today than in the past
l Many young adults are delaying marriage in order to pursue educational and
career goals
l After marriage, couples are having fewer chances of surviving
l An increasing number of couples decide to remain childless
l Up to 50% of young people are expected to obtain divorce sometime in their
marriage
l Up to 50% of the children born in the l980s are more likely to end up in a
single-parent family.
31
Care and Safeguards Statistics in India, especially the urban areas, show a similar pattern. True, nuclear
of Children families are of great significance in urban India too. This continues to dominate
literature written by and for the elite and the literate. However, in reality 80% of
India’s population lives in villages, where the joint family system still continues to
be a significant presence and is thus of relevance and value. The West still continues
to marvel and discuss with much awe how this unique system functions and holds
its ground. As one of the experts Prof. Gracious Thomas remarks, the joint family
system will remain a force to reckon with for at least another half of a century.
All said and done having a family, as well as raising a child within the family may
be deemed to be one of the toughest and most fulfilling jobs in the world. Needless
to say it is one for which you may feel the least prepared. Most of the other less
important things in the world, whether it be a car, a laptop, a microwave oven or
a blender all come with instruction manuals offering you ample preparation. For
that matter, the simplest of mobile phones come with a minimum of two manuals,
twice the dimensions of the mobile. But unfortunately, we have no instruction
manuals for the most important, priceless things in life – marriage, parenting and
child-rearing. Most of these are transacted only through trial and error and practice
wisdom handed down from generation to generation, or even sheer accident.

3.4 THE FAMILY LIFE CYCLE

In fact, a family undergoes a sequential development that may be likened to a life
cycle. Carter and McGoldrick (1988) describes a six-stage cycle for family
development, each with distinct development tasks that put special demands on
the couple.

Life Cycle Stage Key Development Tasks Changes required to

Develop
the unattached young accepting parent/off spring l differentiation of self
adult: between separation from parents (or family
families of origin)
l development of
intimate peer relations
l establishment of self at
work

newly married couple: committing to a new l forming a marital

enjoining of families phase
family with young accepting new members
children
family with assigning flexibility to
adolescents family boundaries to
include children’s
independence and
32 grandparents’ frailities
system
l realignment of
relationships with
families and peers
l adjusting marital
system to accommodate
children
l assuming parenting
roles
l realignment of
relationships to include
parenting and grand
parenting roles
l altering parent-child
relationships permitting
adolescents to move in
and out of the system
 Positive Parenting
l re-focussing on mid-life
issues - marital and career
l shift in concern for the
older generation

launching children accepting a multitude l renegotiation of marital

and moving on of exits from and system (as a dyad)
entries into the family
l development of adult-to-
system
adult relationships
between grown children
and their parents
l re-alignment of
relationships to include
in-laws and grandchildren

family in late life accepting shifting l maintaining functioning -

generational roles own, couple, or both -
Adapted from: Carter and interests in the face
& McGoldrick. 1988 Adapted from: Carter of physiological decline
& McGoldrick. 1988
l exploration of new
familial and social-role
options
l support for a more central
role for middle
generations
l making room in the
system for the wisdom
and experience of the
elderly: supporting the
older generation without
over-exerting them
l dealing with loss of
spouse, siblings, and
other peers and
preparation for own
death, life review and
integration

Adapted from: Carter & McGoldrick. 1988

For the very same reason that a family undergoes various changes, one may expect
the pressure to vary from one stage to the other, thereby impacting on the satisfaction
of the couples. As couples move through the family life cycle, they experience
different sources of satisfaction and frustration. Some researchers have attempted
to examine the effects (Belsky, l990; Rollins & Feldman, l970) and have found a
U-shaped relationship between life-cycle stage and marital satisfaction; marital
satisfaction starts high, when the couple are newly married (honeymooning), and
eventually plummets to its lowest point during the stage where families have school-
aged children. However, there is subsequently an improvement, especially when
families grow up with teenage children and eventually begins an upward incline
to the final stage, the ageing family, where satisfaction reaches a level similar to
that of the newly married couple.

33
Care and Safeguards
of Children Check Your Progress I
1) Describe the concept of family and it emerging trends in the changing
context.
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2) Describe the systems approach to understanding a family.
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3) Explain the concept of “family lifecycle” and the various challenges posed
to each life stage.
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3.5 PARENTING: THE CONCEPT

What is parenting? The simplest possible answer is “anything and everything that
a parent does, with the intention of helping her/his child to develop into a well
adjusted human being.” Parenting encompasses the host of activities undertaken
by the parent(s), in raising a child or children (Webster’s Dictionary, 1975).
Parenting connotes the caring and rearing of a child or children, especially the
care, love, and guidance given by a parent (The American Heritage Dictionary of
the English Language, 2009; Collins English Dictionary, 2003).
Parenting is quite often understood, to be a consistent activity, starting with the
birth of the child and pervading until usually early adulthood. It is vital to appreciate
the necessity for an agreement and conscious planning between the couple regarding
the number of children, the spacing, consistency regarding discipline, the necessity
of core family values and tradition, much before the child is born. In this manner,
parenting is a more comprehensive phenomena, beginning before conception. Once
the child is born, parenting develops in complexity as it consists of mutual,
reciprocal interactions that take place, in the least, between the child, the mother
and the father. The adjustment between these pairs has got an influence on the
other. For instance the adjustment between the mother and the child, influences
the mother’s disposition towards the father. Likewise, it is also important to realize
how the relationship between the mother and father could be a stressor on the
34
adjustment between the mother and child. Belsky (1981) refers to this as circular Positive Parenting
influences.
Parenting is an activity, very instinctual, and unique to living creatures. Parenting
among non-human species, is usually less lengthy and complicated, though
mammals tend to nurture their young extensively, over longer periods of time.
There are diverse views regarding how effective parenting would become with the
number of offsprings in the family. The very rational, linear thinking West concludes
that the degree of attention parents invest in their offspring is largely inversely
proportional to the number of offspring the average adult in the species produces
(Scutta, 2006). Thus, the western psyche on parenting subscribes to the principles
of economics of investing most into the minimum, to make it more efficient. As
against this, the Orient and the Mediterranean seem to think that love (attention) is
not divided, instead it is multiplied! For the latter, it is more the merrier! Taken in
this manner, parenting becomes all the more challenging too!

3.6 INDIAN CULTURE AND PARENTING

It needs to be stressed that parents world over, unlike what has been perceived, are
not very different when it comes to teaching children the importance of values.
The significant difference however, lies in the fact that, Indian families have their
own unique set of values and traditions that sometimes conflict with the values of
other cultures, especially in the context of the globalization and multiculturalism.
One needs to understand that among these, are values, which would qualify as
universal values. For instance all cultures hold courage, independence, honesty,
faithfulness, respect (for dignity), etc. to be values that should be inculcated in
children.
In its broadest sense, India's cultural heritage is unique in many ways. It has at the
subliminal level, Indian values such as non-violence, respect for the elders, respect
for life even for the lowest species (leading to ahimsa), respect even for that matter
towards inanimate objects such as books or tools of trade, respect for family ties,
as well as hospitality and reverence for guests as embodied in Sanskrit “athiti
devo bhava.” In spite of the rich diversity in the Indian continent, all such values
are universally cherished. The value of prayer in some form or the other, continues
to be important for all sections of the Indian society. Whether it be home, place of
work, or even a meeting, all starts with a prayer or an aarathi (a ritual). Similarly,
the old and the infirm are taken care of, at home and even by the society. Family
ties and core values continue to be a very significant influence when it comes
critical decisions. The age old adage “cleanliness is next to Godliness” still holds
good. This is something that all parents inculcate in their children, as it is a form
of discipline.
Honesty and integrity, however old fashioned they may sound, rest high on the
priority list. Inculcating such values in children will hold them in good stead for
the rest of their life. In an age where corruption is ruling the roost, the average
youngster might be faced with the dilemma as to how much honest (or dishonest),
one can be; nevertheless for a few this virtue becomes even more important. We
may not be able to change the world, but, in our daily lives, we can definitely
practise being honest. Since children learn from what they see, it becomes very
important for the parents and teachers to set an example by being genuine and
honest themselves. On the other front, the increasing influence of the West, has
made it increasingly difficult for parents to try and keep such values intact, nor
translate and inculcate them to the young. The exposure to immense opportunities
at work, the media, telecommunications – all propel the younger generation into a
state of conflict between the values that they have and the values that prevail in
the society at large.
35
Care and Safeguards
of Children 3.7 PARENTING NEEDS DURING VARIOUS LIFE
STAGES
Parenting strategies are not the same for all children and during all stages. One
needs to understand that parenting needs to be approached, not from the parents’
point of view but rather, it should be strategized in accordance with the child.
Parenting strategies need to be devised in consonance with the child, who is at the
receiving end. The parent must be flexible in order to accommodate various aspects
such as the child’s temperament, age (affects cognition and preparedness), gender,
special needs, family type, cultural context, etc., naming a few. The next part of
the discussion explores the various stages and the strategies, therein.
Infancy and Babyhood
According to Erikson, infancy is the stage of establishing “Trust”. The child being
very sensitive might be affected by neglect or even poor parental responsiveness.
Factors in the family that can affect the infant's development include parental
personality and temperament, parental history of mental illness, major family
transitions such as separation and divorce, and periods of parental apathy such as
those that occur during a depression. An infant is extremely vulnerable. Hence
consistent care-giving and attention is essential for the child to develop trust in the
family – the (first) world the child is born into.
Interactions within the family seem to occur in a regular pattern. Parents satisfied
with their marriage, may interact positively with the baby and have, in turn,
responsive infants. Stress in the relationship can occupy the parents and affect the
quality of their interaction with the infant. Marital problems can negatively affect
the baby’s development. Ironically, one of the major sources of stress in a
relationship can be the babies themselves. A demanding infant can increase the
stress level within the family, which, in turn, may then interfere with the parents’
interaction and consequently can affect the baby’s responses. Belsky (1981)
describes these interactions as circular influences; what transpires between the
husband and the wife might affect the caregiver’s attitude and also behaviour,
which, in turn, could influence the infant's functioning, which might in full circle,
affect the marital relations.
Clarke-Stewart (1978) argues that the mother’s stimulation and involvement with
the infant enhances the infant's development, making it more responsive. This
responsive infant arouses the father to participate better in parenting. The father’s
interest in the infant further increases the mother’s involvement. This is again a
circular influence. Chan & Patterson (1998) too have noted how the quality of the
parent-child relationship and the relationship between the two parents impacts on
the child’s adjustment.
Babyhood and Toddlerhood
The ages one to three years are significant, in the sense that it is during this stage
that the child gradually becomes confident and establishes control over its body
self. Babyhood is the stage of “autonomy” (Erikson, XXXX). It starts with many
‘firsts’ – the first time it rolls over, the first time it stands, the first time it utters
the universal word “ma” or “amma”, the first step it takes, etc. During all these
stages, the mother and the father encourage the child to repeat the act. In fact
many of those firsts are accomplished by the constant egging done by these
significant many. It is this persistent encouragement by means of words and
excitement that eventually propels a child to master the art of repetition. The
encouragement on the part of the parent enables the child to attain control over its
body and endorse a sense of autonomy. If encouragement does not come otherwise,
the child becomes doubtful and is in shame and will eventually withdraw as it
36 loses its confidence.
Preschool (Early Childhood) Positive Parenting

The preschool age is the age during which the child progressively gains more
confidence in terms of developing relationships and engaging a wider environment
outside their home setting. Piaget identifies this as the pre-operational stage of
cognitive development. During the preschool stage, the child’s activities are oriented
towards developing control over its own body and progressively adjusting with
the demands of the external environment. In the process the child engages in play
and working in a group. The experiences of a child need to be oriented to developing
language proficiency and social skills.
Parenting assumes special significance since it determines the gender identity.
Preschoolers are attuned to learning about the meaning of being male or female
and begin to identify with the same sex parent. Adult males help young boys define
their own developing masculinity by encouraging and supporting their
accomplishments. Boys will model themselves after their fathers at this age. Girls
too seek out and benefit from fatherly attention; the father’s role helps girls define
their feminine side. On the flip side, Western studies show that preschool girls
may tend to be resentful and jealous of their mother’s special relationship with the
father.
The mother’s role remains significant in the preschool years. Although they depend
on their mothers less for physical care than they did as infants, they need emotional
support and encouragement just as much as ever (Hartup, 1989; Sears, Maccoby,
& Leven, 1967). Still, much of a mother’s time revolves around childcare duties;
the fathers tend to spend less time in direct care and more time playing (Robinson,
1977). Mothers tend to introduce soothing activities to their preschoolers, such as
reading, drawing, and music. Such activities teach children how to soothe and
comfort themselves. Children also learn a great deal about feelings and relationships
from their mothers. During play, mothers tend to be more verbal and visual with
their preschoolers than fathers (Power, 1985). This interaction style during play
may contribute to the child's understanding of relationships and coping strategies.
The father plays a significant role in broadening the child’s perspective on the
world. The father’s play has been described as more provocative and vigorous,
and less conventional and verbal than the mother’s play (Yogman, Colley, &
Kindlen, 1988). Fathers engaging their children physically and in rough play tend
to raise children with increased social competencies (MacDonald, l987; Parke et
al., 1988). This physical play is important to children in that, how they learn to
cope with the exhilaration, challenge, and unpredictability of their fathers’ physical
play, prepares them for the uncertainties of later life experiences. Watching and
interacting with their fathers, help children learn of the numerous, alternative ways
of completing a task.
Late Childhood and Adolescence
Middle and late childhood converges on the need to develop abilities and skills to
deal with the real world around. Classified as the concrete operational stage of
cognitive development by Piaget, this stage expects the child to learn the primary
skills of reading, writing and arithmetic. Eventually they also become conscious
of themselves and eventually are oriented towards the “sculpturing” of an identity.
By the time children reach late childhood, they are spending much less time with
parents and more time with the peers. One study reveals that parents spend less
than half as much time with their children between the ages of 5 and 12 than they
did before (Hill & Stafford, 1980). Although less time is spent with the immediate
family, it continues to be an extremely significant influence on the child. A parent’s
expressed confidence about the child’s ability is a more important influence than
the child’s past performance (Parsons, Adler, & Kazchak, 1982a). During late
37
Care and Safeguards adulthood, the family provides a very important base for the child to continue
of Children growing and developing. Children need the safe authoritative structure that parents
can provide. Even though children show less patience and respect for their parents,
they depend on the parents for unconditional love and perceive them as sources of
reliable information and authority (Rapalie, Degelman, & Ashburn, 1986). It is
this trust that parents may subtly use as a pivot in disciplining their children, which
is the most critical component in parenting.
Discipline may be introduced in a more subtle manner during late child and further
into adolescence. Hoffman (1970) identified three major parental disciplinary
strategies. The first approach is power assertive discipline which includes physical
punishment, threat of punishment, and physical attempts to control the child’s
behaviour; the second strategy is love withdrawal, which involves withdrawing
love when the child’s behaviour is inappropriate; and finally induction, involves
explanation and rationality in attempting to influence the child’s actions.
There are critiques to these strategies. For instance, using physical means and
punishment, may be a covert form of aggression. Parents who behave aggressively
toward their children provide a model for aggressive behaviour which the child is
most likely to emulate. Similarly, children who are forced to be involved in physical
confrontations with their parents are more likely to use fighting, arguing, and threats
of punishment as suitable strategies to resolve disputes. Parents who use love
withdrawal do so by verbally discounting their children, threatening to send the
children away, and indicating to the children that they are not loved because of
their actions. In this approach, parental actions include persistently ignoring the
child, refusing to converse with the child, and generally, not interacting with the
child. Research has shown that such behavior often leaves the child fearful, can
lead to excessive anxiety in children and inhibit needed expression of emotions
(Hoffman, 1970). lnduction is an important alternate strategy that emphasizes on
moral development. Induction is effective because it helps children develop internal
moral standards (Lickona, 1983). Children disciplined by induction exercise self-
control and learn to display more consideration and generosity toward others when
compared with children who have been disciplined with power assertion techniques
(Dlugokinski & Firestone, 1974).
Induction becomes all the more effective a strategy when the child approaches
adolescence, during which individuation happens and the child yearns for
psychological emancipation. The child who is in the process of transforming into
a mature adult, needs to evaluate its actions and decisions. Only such learning
would help the child develop self-control.

3.8 PARENTING STYLES

Intergenerational patterns of parenting also affect the family environment. Parenting
styles are passed on from parents to children, who then adopt the same style of
parenting with their own children (Lyons & Zeanalt, 1993). Needless to say, parents
who abuse their children are often those who were once party to child abuse and
were often abused as children themselves. Hence, it becomes imperative that we
adopt neutral strategies to parenting as the child advances from late childhood,
through puberty into adolescence. Baumrind (1989) concluded that the type of
parenting practiced influenced the adolescent’s behaviours. Baumrind (1989)
identified three types of parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, and laissez-
faire.’
Authoritative parenting, is that parenting style whereby there is warmth and affection
coupled with demands being made on the child. Such parenting leads to
psychologically healthy adolescents. Authoritative parents expect adolescents to
38
be independent, yet still place limits and controls on their behaviours. Authoritative Positive Parenting
parenting is found to influence positively the adolescent’s development of social
competence-particularly self-reliance and social responsibility.
On the other hand, authoritarian parenting is characterized by being excessively
demanding, restrictive and punitive, while showing low levels of warmth. This
type of parenting is associated with anxiety concerning social comparison,
ineffective social interactions, and inability to relate to others in group activities.
‘Laissez-faire’ parenting suggests an excessive indulgence or detachment; apparently
Baumrind identifies two types-permissive indifferent and permissive indulgent.
Permissive indifferent parents are uninvolved in their child’s life; they are neglectful
and unresponsive. This type of parenting is associated with a relative absence of
self-control on the part of the adolescent. Permissive – indulgent parents are warm,
accepting, and responsive but rarely demanding. Such parents are actively involved
in the adolescent’s life but rarely enforce rules and allow the child excessive
freedom. As a consequence, such adolescents are not sensitive and often do not
abide by rules. Similarly, adolescents who are brought up by parents who are
indifferent or uninvolved are found to be at greatest risk for psychological and
social problems (Baumrind, 1989).

Check Your Progress II

1) What is parenting? Describe the various challenges posed to the couple
during the various stages of child development.
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2) What do you understand by parenting styles?
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3.9 STRATEGIES TOWARD EFFECTIVE

PARENTING
The present section will examine some of the more popular approaches to parent
training in the West, which happen to be equally relevant to the Indian context.
These include: parent-effectiveness training (Gordon, l970), parent involvement
training (reality therapy for parents, inspired by William Glasser); behaviour
modification (Forehand & Long, 1996; Barkley, 1998); and systematic training for
effective parenting (Adlerian therapy for parents, originated by Dreikurs and best
represented by the work of Dinkmeyer et al., 1997).
Parent Effectiveness Training (PET)
This is a strategy developed to impart effective parenting skills to individuals
especially young parents and single parents, who are deficient in parenting skills.
Parent-Effectiveness-Training emphasizes on the need for respect between parent 39
Care and Safeguards and child. PET encourages parents to give up, forever, the use of power. Gordon
of Children (1970) proposes two reasons: first, it is damaging to people and relationships, and,
second, power undermines PET's “no lose” approach to resolving conflicts. Another
paradigm in PET is its conceptualization that there is no such thing as children’s
misbehaviour; children simply behave. Any behaviour for that matter aims at getting
needs met.
Hence, the first strategy is to encourage parents and children to enlarge the no-
problem aspect of their relationships. This goal can be accomplished via such
approaches as environmental modification-putting things where children cannot
reach them, where the thing can become the major irritant (e.g. the remote) or
minding your own business, or relaxing and staying calm. When this does not
work, the parent turns to the critical techniques of PET, where the parent is taught
to first ask the question “Who owns the problem?” If the child owns the problem,
the parent learns to use active listening. For example, the child comes home and is
upset because she misplaced her homework book and was scolded by the teacher.
The parent is taught to help the child understand, accept, and deal with her (own)
feelings. The parent may ask “You really look very upset…it means a lot to you to
turn in your homework on time.” Often a parent’s inclination is to use other
ineffective strategies, including getting mad at the child, attempting to reassure
the child, or presenting rationalizations or solutions! If on the other hand, the
behaviour is unacceptable to the parent, then for obvious reasons the parent owns
the problem; then the first strategy is to use messages: “I really need some quiet
time… could you please reduce the volume on the TV?” Parents are taught to use
this rather than the familiar You-message: “You always have to turn up the volume
too loud!” Such messages, according to PET, may not only challenge, but also
demean the child and can be damaging to the child’s self-esteem.
When active listening and l-messages do not resolve the problem, the parent turns
to the “no lose” method of problem solving. The parent reverts to eliciting the
child's cooperation in problem solving and proceeds in six steps: (l) defining the
conflict; (2) use brainstorming with the child to generate solutions; (3) evaluate
the solutions on the list; (4) examining if there is a solution that satisfies both
parties, and, if so; (5) deciding how to implement it; and (6) evaluate the solution
at a later time to examine whether it had really worked.
Parent Involvement Training (PIT)
A large part of the PIT strategy focuses on the parents involved. The PIT theory
holds that no effective behaviour change can take place without a helping
relationship based on trust, warmth, and respect. PIT uses direct strategies of getting
involved, including teaching parents to stop what they are doing and attending to
their children, especially when the child is upset. PIT involves seven steps:
1) Establish and maintain involvement- Strongly recommended is a conversation-
talking about something of mutual interest
2) Help the child see what their current behaviour is, and understand that it is
something they have chosen. Although feelings are important, understanding
one’s behaviour is critical.
3) Suggest the children evaluate their behaviour; Self-judgment is stressed on;
the child is asked to examine whether what they are doing is helping them.
4) Help the children plan increasingly responsible behaviour and assist the child
to set realistic goals and have a successful experience.
5) Get the child committed to a plan by extracting a mutual contract; such a
strategy increases the child’s commitment to the plan.
40
6) Accepting no excuses if the child fails to meet the commitment; together revert Positive Parenting
back to Step 3.
7) Avoiding punishment (as a rule) as it will demoralize the child; instead, use
praise whenever the child succeeds.
Behaviour Modification
This strategy involves using principles of learning and behaviours; we apply
concepts such as reinforcement, punishment, extinction, as well as stimulus control.
Here for a start, the parents are taught to identify behaviours they want to change.
After learning to define behaviour as precisely as possible, the parent develops a
home project: identifying the target behaviour, defining it, developing a tracking
by record-keeping. Parents are then taught ways and means of increasing and
decreasing such behaviour; for example, to increase a target behaviour, the parents
may use praise (a positive reinforcement) and in the case of younger children even
a home “token economy”, or to decrease a target behaviour, the parent may be
taught to resort to various sorts of punishments ranging from ignoring to cutting
down on privileges (TV watching, computer games, etc.).
Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP)
The fulcrum of STEP rests on the belief that a misbehaving child is a discouraged
child. Often there are only four goals to a child’s behaviour: power, revenge,
inadequacy and attention. STEP emphasises on equipping the parent with skills of
disciplining and encouragement, thereby reducing chances of overprotection and
unnecessary service. For example, the parent never is encouraged to pour milk for
the child; instead, the child pours the milk in tandem with its needs, wipes it if it
spills, and is taught to try doing the same again without spillage. This puts the
onus of the behaviour on the child, making the child increasingly capable of learning
to regulate his behaviour. Unlike Behaviour Modification which holds the parent
responsible for controlling behaviour, STEP holds the child responsible for its
own decisions and consequent behaviour. Hence, if their choice is good, they enjoy
its fruits; if their choice is bad, they bear the consequences. This, in effect, develops
the child to be adult-oriented, learning from natural consequences rather than
parental interference.

3.10 TIPS TO EFFECTIVE PARENTING

1) Catch Kids Being Good
Parents often realize late in the evening of life, that they were far more critical
about their children’s negative behaviour than complimenting their good behaviour.
How would you feel about a boss, who had treated you with such negative guidance,
however well-intentioned it was? A more effective approach would be to catch
kids doing something right: “You made your bed without being asked – that’s
terrific!”, “You have kept your shirt clean and creaseless – wow!... you have grown
up!” or “I was watching you play with your sister and you were exceptionally
patient and caring.” Such complimentary statements will do more to encourage
good behaviour in the long run than repeated scolding or negative comments. It
would be healthy to make a point of finding something to praise your child with
every day. Be generous with rewards – your love, hugs, smiles and compliments –
they can work wonders and are often rewards enough. Soon you will find you are
“cultivating” more of the desired behaviour.
2) Setting Limits
Discipline is absolute for every household. The goal of discipline is to help the
child choose acceptable behaviours and also to learn self-control. They may first 41
Care and Safeguards test the limits you set for them. These are first external (as demanded by the parent),
of Children and eventually internalized with advances in age; limits internalized become
necessary in one’s growth into responsible adults. Establishing house rules – “no
TV until homework is done”, “no physical violence”, “sparing others for their
transgression”, “avoid name-calling, or hurtful teasing of others” – helps kids
understand parental expectations and develops self-control. In order to enforce
this one might need a system in place: one warning, followed by avoidable,
undesirable consequences (punishment) such as a “time out” or loss of privileges.
A common mistake parents often make, is failure to follow through with the
consequences. One cannot discipline a child for warning or punishing one day and
ignoring the same behaviour the next. Consistency and contingency in punishment
teaches what you expect. As a corollary, the same needs to be applied to rewards
for approved, appropriate behavior.
There is this perennial debate regarding the efficacy of ‘corporal punishment’.
The dilemma that hounds many of the noveau parents is “to spare the rod and
spoil the child”. Although these parents are well aware that the purpose of discipline
is to teach, when corporal punishment is used, the danger of using and abusing
children is greater. Most parents will agree that children learn a great deal through
imitation, especially when they see their children dress up in their clothes, repeat
familiar phrases or even pantomime cigarette smoking. When the child is spanked,
they end up using hitting as a form of communication. They are, in fact, teaching
him through imitation to communicate with his hands (hitting) instead of with
words. When our children see us become so angry with them that we strike them,
we not only lose sight of why we are disciplining them, but we show them that it
is an appropriate way to deal with anger.
3) Finding Time for the Child
It is often difficult, if not impossible for parents and kids to get together for a
family meal, let alone spend quality time together. But there is probably nothing
else a child would enjoy more. Getting up ten minutes earlier in the morning so
you can eat breakfast with your child, or an occasional walk after dinner, leaving
the plates in the sink, might be more rewarding than the mundane tasks we
undertake. Children who do not get the necessary attention they want from their
parents, often act out or misbehave because they are sure to be noticed at least in
that way. The children may turn desperate, and rather would be “kicked if not
kissed!”
One strategy might be to hold “family meetings”. Family meetings can be a very
successful method of enhancing family cooperation and closeness. Hold the meeting
once a week at a time when everyone in the family can attend. Keep this time
sacred – avoid changing it at everyone’s convenience. Mark the time on a calendar
and make it as important as a business meeting. Take the phone off the hook so
there are no interruptions. This helps your children see how valuable they are to
you also. Decisions should ideally be made by family consensus, not a majority
vote. If an agreement cannot be reached after a discussion, table the decision until
the next meeting.
Creating a “special night”s each week to be together and letting your child decide
on how to spend the time in a reasonable manner would be good. Adolescents
seem to need less undivided attention from their parents than younger children.
Because there are fewer windows of opportunity for parents and teens to get
together, parents should leave no stone unturned to be available when their teen
does express a desire to talk or participate in family activities. Attending concerts,
games, and other events with your teen communicates caring and lets you get to
know more about your child and his or her friends in important ways. Look for
other ‘thoughtful’ ways to connect such as leaving a note of appreciation, or
42
something special in your kid’s lunchbox; taking a day of work and school together Positive Parenting
to watch a major event (a cricket match or a concert) will not only help you connect,
but also, leave the child memories to cherish together. Do not feel guilty if you are
a working parent; there are the many “little things” you do – making popcorn,
playing board games, watching a movie or window shopping at a mall, or ice-
cream hangout – that kids will remember.
4) Being a Good Role Model
Young children learn a lot about how to behave and respond by observing their
parents as well as significant others. The younger they are, the more likely they
are to take cues from you. Before you lash out or blow your top in front of your
child, think about this: is that how you expect your child to behave when angry?
Be constantly aware that you are being keenly observed by your kids. Studies
have shown that children ending up in violence, usually have a role model for
aggression at home. Each parent needs to model those traits – respect, friendliness,
honesty, kindness, tolerance – that s/he wishes to cultivate in their children.
Demonstrate unselfish behavior – doing things for other people without expecting
a reward, expressing gratitude and offering compliments. Above all, it is important
to treat your kids the way you expect other people to treat you.
5) Make Communication a Priority
Do not expect children to do everything simply because you, as a parent, “say
so.”Gone are those days when children would take for granted anything dished
out to them. They require and deserve explanations as much as adults do. If we do
not show the patience to explain, any average child would begin to question our
values and motives and their basis. Parents who reason with their kids allow them
to understand and learn in a non-judgmental manner. It is imperative that you
make your expectations clear. If there is a problem, describe it, express your feelings,
and invite your child to work on a solution with you. Be sure to include
consequences. Make suggestions and offer choices; these offer the child the
opportunity of considering various options. Be open to your child’s suggestions as
well. Negotiate. Kids who participate in decisions are more motivated to carry
them out.
6) Flexible Parenting
As a parent, if you frequently feel “let down” by your child’s behaviour, it may be
because you have unrealistic expectations. Parents who get caught up in “shoulds”
(for example, “My kid should be potty-trained by now”) may find it helpful to
read up on the matter or to talk to other parents or child development specialists.
One needs to appreciate the interaction between the child’s personality and the
environment and it’s impact on the child's behaviour. This would enable one to
modify a targeted behaviour by changing the environment. If you find yourself
constantly saying “no” to your 2-year-old who gets hold of the precious porcelain
or decorative pieces, look for ways to restructure your surroundings so that fewer
things are off-limits. This will substantially reduce frustration for both of you. As
your child changes, you will also have to gradually modify your parenting style.
Chances are that, what works with your child now, would not work as well in a
year or two. Still confounding, teenagers tend to look less to their parents and
more to their peers for role models. At this stage the role of the parent is to continue
to provide guidance, encouragement, and appropriate discipline while allowing
your teen to earn more independence by allowing the teen to explore and decide.
And above all, be a friend and seize every available opportunity to make a
connection!
7) Assurance that Your Love is Unconditional
As a parent, you are responsible for correcting and guiding your kids. But how
43
you express your corrective guidance, makes all the difference in how a child
Care and Safeguards receives it. When you have to confront your child, avoid blaming, criticising, or
of Children fault-finding; such responses generally tend to undermine self-esteem and generate
resentment. Instead, strive to nurture and encourage, even when disciplining your
kids. Make sure they understand that although you want and expect better next
time, your love is there no matter what.
8) Be Aware of Limitations as a Parent
Face it! No one is perfect! You are imperfect even as a parent. You have strengths
and weaknesses as a family leader. Recognize your abilities – “I am caring and
dedicated.” Vow to work on your weaknesses – “I need to be more consistent
with discipline.” Try to have more realistic expectations for yourself, your spouse,
and your kids. You do not have to have all the answers to every problem or resources
to cater to every need – be forgiving of yourself. And try making parenting a
manageable job. Focus on the areas that need the most attention rather than trying
to address everything all at once. Admit it when you’re burned out. Take time out
from parenting to do things that will make you happy as a person (or as a couple).
Focusing on your own needs does not make you selfish. It simply means you care
about your own well-being, which would ensure that you are recharged and available
as better disposed to parenting. This in itself is another important value to model
for your children.
9) Differentiating Normal against Abnormal Expectations
Development happens in the range of years. Each child develops as an individual.
Each parent needs to ask himself/herself as to whether they are not expecting too
much or too little? A child’s “problem” behaviour may be just one of his/her
important and normal developmental tasks. Awareness of these tasks should reassure
you that your child’s development is normal and likely to change again soon. A
behaviour “problem” often lasts more than 6 months, happens in more than one
place consistently, and appears as a pattern.
Piaget’s research had identified certain normal expectations for the various stages
in development. For instance, during the stage from birth to 3 years, which he
termed Sensorimotor Period, a child expands its world view. Consequently, the
child now experiences outrage and impulses are out of control. During this stage
“parallel play” is normal. Birth of a younger sibling is likely to precipitate ‘sibling
rivalry. Piaget’s termed the period 2 to 7 years as the Pre-operational period. During
the period 2-5 years, children are egocentric and can only see their own perspective.
Hence it is quite natural for them to say “no!”, as it allows them to have feeling of
being in control. They however gradually learn to tolerate frustration and to delay
gratification. Coupled with it, they attribute life-like quality to inanimate objects
and have “imaginary” friends. This is because they develop imagination and
language. The period 5-7 years finds the child very sensitive as the child is prone
to making mistakes. Parent needs to allow them to make mistakes and help teach
that mistakes are opportunities to learn. Thus, the parent can begin to plants seeds
for empathy, through modeling. The period 7-11 years, which Piaget categorized
as the period of Concrete Operations manifests in the form of “latency”, during
which sexual and aggressive drives diminish. The stage being a period of relative
stability (until puberty), it opportunes adaptive functions to solidify, and for habits
and patterns to develop. Children during this phase are often able to organize and
get along on their own. Social skills and ego functions develop now. They also
show interest in the outside world and develop friendships and self control (body,
emotions). During the end stages of late childhood (8-9 years) children become
competitive and experience peer rivalry. This competition enables self evaluation.
Gender barriers emerge in spite of efforts to avoid it; children begin teasing between
the sexes, an act that helps set clear boundaries. Piaget terms 12 years onwards as
the period of Formal Operations. Rebellion with the parents occasions a breakaway
44
from the parents and the redefinition of a self identity or expression. Children Positive Parenting
now are in a stage of overdrive, exploring their future – career, friendships, life
partners, sexual orientation etc.

It is imperative that if the parent suspects a behaviour problem, it is important to

get a thorough diagnosis. Only through a thorough psychological and medical
assessment can you rule out learning disabilities, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD),
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), perceptual problems or genetic
disorders.

10) Boosting Self-confidence and Self-esteem

Children develop their sense of self as early as infancy and babyhood through
their parents’ eyes. The parent’s tone of voice, body language, and every single
expression are absorbed by the child; these affect their self-esteem more than
anything else. Praising accomplishments, however little, makes them proud; letting
the child do things independently will make them feel competent and confident.
By contrast, belittling or unfavourable comparison of a child with another, makes
the child feel worthless. Similarly, it is equally important to avoid loaded statements.
Comments such as “What a stupid thing to do!” or “You act sillier than … !”, can
be as damaging as physical blows. A parent needs to pick and choose words very
carefully. It is also important to let the child know that everyone makes mistakes.
The parent needs to communicate that they still love them, even while they do not
approve their behaviour. Children must be taught to believe in their innate abilities,
and also to believe in themselves.

Children need to be educated to take perspectives by analyzing things in broader

contexts, and the implications of their actions based on their beliefs. They need to
be brought up tough and resilient, and should be able to source from within, the
necessary courage to bounce back after adversities. They need to be given room to
grow into what they actually are; they need to be allowed to dream and help them
to attain their dreams. This is always not very easy, because it may mean wandering
away from the familiar, well-trodden path. The parent needs to instill in them the
courage to take failure in the stride and help them learn from their mistakes. Self-
confidence should be the password which guides their lives. Parents on their part
need to be taught to listen not to what their children tell them; on the contrary,
they need to be sensitive to understand what the children are trying to tell them.
And it is paramount to always find time for them. Children need to be encouraged
to ask questions; they also need to find out answers if any of the questions stump
the parent. Such an attitude will find a good ally in your children.

There are numerous other things that may make our children resourceful and endear
them to others, which parents can help in inculcating. Parents must encourage
children to appreciate good things, good deeds and good actions. In the present
age, although we know that almost all people thrive on praise, rendering praise
has become a rare commodity. On the same note, expressing gratitude goes a long
way and children should be taught the art of ‘thank you’s. They should be taught
to be grateful for all that life has given them – all the small things that make up
their lives, which so many others who are underprivileged, do not have. Showing
compassion, having consideration for others, learning to empathize should be a
part of their daily lives. Acquiring a sense of responsibility and accountability, as
well as learning to behave properly are values, which should be instilled when the
child is young. The value of money and the art of managing finances must be
inculcated early. Ensure that children live within their allowances and without
making it apparent make sure they spend correctly. LIVE well but live simply
should be the motto of their lives.

45
Care and Safeguards
of Children Check Your Progress III
1) Delineate various strategies involved in effective parenting.
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3.11 LET US SUM UP

The present Unit introduces the reader to the concept of family and also in the
Indian context. It also defines parenting and the various strategies that may be
adapted to operationalize effective parenting. While schools do impart moral
education in the early years, it is the parents who have the greater influence.
Imparting appropriate values and teaching the appropriate things are never easy.
Yet, the Indian parenting values provide a foundation since it draws from the great
heritage and culture that is so symbolically India. With this as a base, parenting
and value instilling becomes a little easier. However, we need to contend a
generation “next”, which is so perceptively “modern” in its approach. Keeping
this in mind, small changes in approach can reap rich dividends.

3.12 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

The American Heritage ® Dictionary of the English Language (2009). Fourth Ed.,
New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Collins English Dictionary - Complete and Unabridged 6th Ed. 2003. UK: William
Collins Sons & Co. Ltd.
Ashford, Lecroy & Lortie, (2001). Human Behaviour in Social Environment, New
York: Thompson
Baumrind, D. (1989). Parenting Styles and Adolescent Development. In J. Brooks-
Gunn, R. Lerner & A.C. Petersen (Eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Adolescence. New
York: Garland.
Dowshen, S. (2008). http://kidshealth.org
Johnson, D.C. (2007). “What is Normal Development?”, Temperament Tools:
Working with your Child's Inborn Temperament Traits. http://positiveparenting.com/
Merchant2/merchant.mvc
Sigelman, C.K. & Shaffer, D.R. (1991). Life-span Development. Pacific Grove,
CA: Brooks/Cole

46
 Role of Social Worker in
UNIT 4 ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKER Child Care Settings

IN CHILD CARE SETTINGS

Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Children in Need of Care
4.3 Different Settings and Role of Social Worker
4.4 Let Us Sum Up
4.5 Key Words
4.6 Further Readings and References

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to:
l identify various child care settings;
l describe the need of child care; and
l analyze the roles of social worker in different settings.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Several initiatives have been taken in India for promoting child development. It is
commonly accepted that the foundation stone for development is laid during
childhood. Therefore, it becomes very important to provide the best growing
environment to a child. Programmes like ICDS, training programmes like mobile
crèches, the Vanasthali Rural Development Centre, Mahila Samakhya, Gujarat and
so on have been initiated by the Government. Non Governmental organizations
also run programmes for child care. An individual interacts with several social
systems around him/her. While interacting with these different systems, he/she
faces certain problems, which need intervention. In this Unit we will learn how a
social worker should deal with these children facing problems and who are in
need of intervention. Social workers enhance the social functioning of individuals
through maximum utilization of their inherent potential. Believing in dignity and
worth of people, they hold that sometimes people can be in a state of disequilibrium
due to personal and social challenges. Social workers attempt to prevent and reduce
this disequilibrium by linking people to appropriate social systems and resources.
They develop expertise in building relationships and facilitating communication.

4.2 CHILDREN IN NEED OF CARE

There are some children who are in need of help since problems occur in their
daily life.
Problems many a times occur in the family between parents and children. Children
may complain of favouritism or over-protectionism of parents. Parents may perceive
disobedience or emotional outbursts as problems of children.
Problems faced by children in the family system: Some parents are overly protective
and overly indulgent with their children. Such children get tied down with their 47
Care and Safeguards parents and lose their individuality. In contrast, few parents are indifferent to their
of Children children. They may neglect them or reject them. This may alienate and estrange
the children.

Some parents verbally abuse their children or punish them physically. This may
lead to the child becoming stubborn and aggressive. Some parents exhibit
favouritism towards one child at the expense of the other. Some parents resort to
an equally unhealthy behaviour of comparing one child with the other and letting
down that child. Favouritism and comparison may lead to low self-esteem in
children. Too much authoritarianism stifles the independence and autonomy of
children. Too much permissiveness leads to indiscipline and lack of self control.

Some parents are too demanding and want their children to become high achievers,
rising to great heights in the field of education and successful career options. Such
children may be unable to cope with these kinds of stress and develop anxiety and
panic which may take the form of severe mental disorders.

Despite all the supportive services for children, some cannot live with their own
parents, and substitute care has to be provided for them. They may require such
care for a relatively short period of time, for some years, or for the whole of their
childhood. This need may arise because their family has disintegrated for some
reasons. Parental illness, incapacity or death, marital difficulties, homelessness
and illegitimacy are some likely causes. Other children because of their own mental,
physical or emotional handicap, cannot be contained in their own homes even if
these are undamaged and secure. In some circumstances, a child’s handicap and a
family's problem interact and combine to produce breakdown.

The incomplete family whether affected by death, desertion, divorce or separation,

is inevitably closely associated with child care needs. The working classes,
particularly the manual workers, are at special risk. Families that have moved
home and are without relatives or friends around them are also vulnerable. Families
of unemployed fathers appear to be in particular danger of breakdown. Poor housing
conditions are closely correlated with child care need.

Check Your Progress I

1) Do you think some children are in need of special care? Discuss.

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2) Is there any child in your vicinity who is in need of special care?

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48
 Role of Social Worker in
4.3 DIFFERENT SETTINGS AND ROLE OF SOCIAL Child Care Settings
WORKER
There are some “supportive services” to families which enhance child-parent
relationships and strengthen parents’ abilities to provide for their children’s need.
Family support programmes incorporate efforts to preserve or strengthen families
and maintain children in their own homes. Intact families access the supportive
services of family counselling agencies, child guidance clinics and community
mental health services.
“Supplementary services” fulfill some missing part of the parental role.
Supplementary services are provided when the parental role is inadequately covered.
Social workers join with parents to enhance their abilities for parenting.
“Substitutive services” replace parents’ roles in the family. Substituting another
family or living arrangement implies that “someone else takes over all aspects of
the parental role. Substitute services often require a change in legal custody of the
child, a change of guardianship, severance of parental responsibility, or termination
of parental rights.
Therefore social workers have to play different roles in different situations. Here
we will discuss some of the different services specific to child care and welfare
and the roles of social workers in different situations.

Foster Care

By fostering we mean the care and upbringing of a child in a household of which

neither of his parents is a member. By definition it is obvious that fostering is an
ancient concept: from earliest times it is likely that the orphaned or the abandoned
child would have been fostered by neighbours, friends or other members of the
tribe. Here we will consider fostering as a more formalized activity – initiated,
arranged, and supervised by a properly constituted child welfare agency.
There are formal requirements with regard to the selection and approval of foster
parents.
Though the majority of foster parents are married couples, some foster mothers
are spinsters, widows or divorcees.
Short-stay fostering makes up a large part of the work where children are placed
in foster homes to see them through minor emergencies and crises that are happening
in their own families.
The home and material conditions are investigated by the social worker; medical
history checked upon as well as references taken upon. There are interviews between
the social worker and the foster parents spread usually a fair period of time. First
of all the social worker will make an attempt to find out what the foster parents
are offering, what their needs are and what their conception of fostering is. The
Social worker will then talk about fostering in general and how as a professional
social worker he/she views it, and will outline the hazards and difficulties as well
as the satisfaction and make certain that there is some realization that fostering
could profoundly affect the family and call for quite big adjustments. If there is
then a mutual wish to continue, the social worker will attempt to assess how best
foster parents’ offer to help can be used. The social worker will try to look at their
life experience, how they have tackled difficulties, and she/he will look at their
relationship together and as parents.
When a foster home has been found by the social worker there will be visits by
foster parents to the nursery or home and often the child’s nursery nurse will go
49
Care and Safeguards with him/her on his/her first or second visit to the foster home. In some nurseries
of Children foster parents who are to foster young babies are invited to stay overnight in order
for the baby to get used to the new way they will hold him, feed him, etc. These
are intensely personal matters and to a tiny baby mean everything to him.
The Social worker will have a direct relationship with the child, though with the
very young ones her visits will be more to the family as a whole. She will perhaps
become a familiar person to the child, playing with him/her and doing things like
taking him/herfor rides in her car as he/she gets older. The social worker will,
where possible, be in touch with the natural parents to discuss and involve them in
fostering of their children. She will need to work differently with different varieties
of parents. The social worker may have to arrange visits of parents to the foster
home or may help a teenager to come out of his/her difficulties.
For any social worker in this field, then, the great art is to assess the situation
before even the placement is made. She needs to assess and educate the prospective
foster parents and also needs to assess the life experiences of the child, his needs,
and his defenses.

Residential Care
In social work there is strong emphasis towards treating the cause of the illness. In
the fulfillment of the task of residential care certain elements are basic and obvious:
the growing child needs food, clothing and shelter. During the nineteenth century,
it was recognized that the child also needed education if in due course he/she was
to hold his/her place in society.
For all the changes in thought that time has brought, these five elements provision
of food, clothing, shelter, education, and moral training – remain the responsibility
of the homes. Recently the task of trying to deal with children’s emotions has
been added to these five elements.
The recognition that the nurture of the child’s emotional well being is the “sixth
element” of residential care has undoubtedly led to a revolution and has made the
task of the residential worker more skillful, more demanding, and less easy to
define. The alternative to placement in a foster home is a placement in some form
of residential establishments. In ideal conditions the latter mode of placement might
have advantages: carefully selected, skilled, trained professional staff operating
with small groups of children would be able to give warmth, the opportunity for
identification and that degree of detachment and interpretative skill which the child
deprived of his own home seems to need.
But in the present times the conditions are far from ideal. Briefly, there is a gross
insufficiency of people of the right temperament and calibre entering the profession
of residential child care and remaining in it. For child placed in residential care
the group may be too big; it may be understaffed; identification with the permanent
member of staff may be difficult to achieve. However we know that there are
children who are better placed in residential establishments because placement in
foster homes can only add to their problems. It is no use to foster children whose
parents are unable to accept the fostering at any level, and who may be able to
resume care of them later.
Different residential settings like orphanages, short-stay homes etc. exist for children
and young adolescents. Some of the tasks of social workers in residential
establishments is
— to find out ways to mend or re-establish the child's home, or to bring about
matrimonial reconciliation.
— sometimes it is very difficult for the parents to accept that their child is placed
50 in a home. They are unable to face the sight of them living in a residential
 setting. So they do not visit the child. This leads to failure in relationships and Role of Social Worker in
the child may grow rejective and bitter. The role of the social worker becomes Child Care Settings
vital over here. He/she needs to bring harmony and bridge the gap occurring
due to this reason.
Individual remand homes cater to either boys or girls; only rarely are they for
both. The population is mainly delinquent comprising children who are waiting
for a form of supervision, a court reappearance or placements in long-term
residential establishment. It is very important for the staff to be able to live and
work in harmony to create a happy and lively atmosphere for the child to grow up
in.

Adoption

Sometimes children are placed for adoption since their natural parents are unable
to rear them. For this the applicants to adopt must notify the local authority of
their intention to adopt. When an application to adopt is presented to the court, the
court appoints a “guardian ad litem” usually a social worker.
His/her role is three fold:
l to check that consent to adoption has been given under the present law. The
parent in fact usually the mother, is asked three times to give her consent;
firstly, when she asks an adoption agency to place her child for adoption;
secondly when the application is filed by the adopters when the mother signs
legal consent formally before a justice of the peace, and finally she will be
questioned by the social worker to ascertain whether she really wishes the
adoption to proceed. When she signs consent at the second stage she does not
need to know the name of the adopters since they are given a serial number
by the court.
l that the order if made, will be in the interest of the child. The social worker
verifies all the statements and documents and interviews all concerned.
l thirdly that the applicants are suitable to adopt this child. The court, through
this social worker, wants to ascertain that the adopters are suitable, that they
are medically fit (a medical certificate being required) and that this placement
is in the child’s interest.
The responsibilities of the Guardian Ad Litem are very closely linked to those of
the Court and emphasize their importance for assessment and recommendations to
the court's decision making. Guardians Ad Litem and the Court have the same
overriding duties – to consider the need to reduce delay, to have regard for matters
set out in the welfare checklist and to consider all available options. It is the
responsibility of the Guardian Ad Litem as it is of the Court to give paramount
consideration to the child's welfare. The appointment by the Guardian Ad Litem
of a solicitor to represent the child should provide complimentary pairing of legal
and social work skill aimed at ensuring the voice of the child is heard in proceedings
affecting that child and that the best interests of the child are served. This is a new
interface for both social work and the legal profession requiring ongoing reflection
and consideration of the process. It is incumbent on both the Guardian Ad Litem
and the solicitor to ensure the best representation possible for the child. This can
only be achieved by an openness on both sides to constructive criticism and a
willingness to develop skills where required.
The Guardian Ad Litem’s involvement with a child in specified public law
proceedings begins usually at the time of application and should end when a final
order is made. The negotiation may be to do with resources and ensuring their
availability through the care plan. It may involve the encouraging of reluctant,
suspicious parents to undertake the assessments planned by the Trust or perhaps to 51
Care and Safeguards at least look at facilities on offer to the child-this can obviously require mediation
of Children also. Many of these processes take place away from the court scenario and are
based on a respect for individual roles.
Sometimes problems occur when the child is not told of the true situation, for e.g.
when grandparents adopt but the child is make to believe they are his parents and
that his biological mother is a sibling The social worker’s role becomes important
here. After the adoption has been made, a social worker pays regular visits to
observe the development of the child in the adoptive home. Social workers have
to resolve any conflict arising in the relationship between the child and the adoptive
parents.

Check your progress II

1) Comment on the role of social worker in residential care.
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2) How do you think a social worker can help a child who is being adopted?
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School Social Work

School social work helps children who have difficulties making a satisfactory school
adjustment. These difficulties may be expressed as truancy, failure in school
subjects, and timid, fearful, withdrawn, or over-aggressive behaviour. Other
indications may be stealing, using narcotics, fighting, sullenness, inability to get
along with other children or to accept the authority of the teacher, or demands for
special attention. The maladjusted child is often a serious handicap to other children
in the class. The social worker usually observes the child in class first and then
discusses his or her problems with the teacher and principal. The social worker
also consults school records, the school nurse, the attendance or truant officer, and
above all, the child. Sometimes a discussion with the child changes his or her
attitude. The school social worker, in most instances, contacts the parents after the
interview with the child in order to ask for the parent’s help in improving the
child's adjustment in school.
The school social worker interprets the methods and philosophy of the school to
the parents, which helps the school to establish constructive parent-school
relationships. He or she interprets the school programme to parent-teacher
associations, civic groups, and the community and participants in faculty meetings,
school committees, and group projects. The school social worker seeks to maintain
an independent role, so that the child does not identify the social worker fully
with school authority.
52
The school social worker’s functions vary in different communities. Whether he Role of Social Worker in
or she should also serve as a truant or attendance officer is questionable, but the Child Care Settings
execution of the compulsory school attendance laws is not limited to legal means.
It is also debatable how much school social workers, teachers, and school
counsellors may effectively prevent the development of mental disorders.
Practical experience has shown that the school social worker is frequently successful
in solving behaviour problems and disciplinary questions. Sometimes he or she is
able, through the use of other community resources, group work agencies, and
family welfare services, to improve the conditions in the family that caused the
child's failure or maladjustment in school.
The school social worker should have professional training in social work and an
understanding of the educational process. He or she should be able to work with
children and adults and to operate in a team relationship with the school faculty.
He or she also needs a sense of humour, imagination, flexibility, and a good
knowledge of community resources.

Juvenile Homes

Since India achieved independence in 1947, a great interest has been evinced in
the field of child welfare. One reason of this could be the Constitution of India,
which gives special protection to women and children. In 1986, the Juvenile Justice
Act was enacted. One of the main objects of this legislation was to bring the
operations of the Juvenile Justice System in the country in conformity with the
United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice,
1985. It was also intended to lay down a uniform legal framework for Juvenile
Justice so as to ensure that no child under any circumstance is lodged in jail or
police lock up. The Act envisages separate machinery required for the protection,
treatment, development and rehabilitation of Juveniles coming within the preview
of the Juvenile Justice System.
The juvenile, is a person of age 17 or below who had come in conflict with the
law. This enactment safeguards basic interests of children and takes care of their
development needs. To deal with officially identified delinquents and criminals,
every democratic society has created a system of correctional agencies. These
agencies have been given the task of administering the penalties assigned to
delinquents and criminals. These agencies are expected to protect the community
during the offender’s period of supervised status by controlling his behaviour.
Furthermore, they are expected to help the offender, so that he can return to normal
status, better able to be a constructive member of the community.
To meet the requirements of the aforesaid laws, most of the states in India have
created short-term and long-term institutions. The short term institutions are called
by various names such as remand homes, observation homes, reception homes and
auxiliary homes. These short-term institutions provide immediate shelter and
provisional care to the transients in the legal process. The long – term institutions
have a higher and a bigger objective of working towards permanent rehabilitation
and aftercare. They are known by varying names such as industrial schools, borstal
schools, reformatory schools, children’s homes, fit persons institutions, bal mandirs
and vigilance homes in different states. These institutions have home, facilities for
liberal education and provide food, clothing, medical aid, in – door recreation and
vocational training to their inmates falling in different age for varying lengths of
time. The prime function of these Juvenile Correctional Institutions is to re-educate
and train the child to become responsible well-adjusted citizens.
It should essentially be a treatment facility with an integrated treatment programme.
Child is expected to learn self-discipline, to accept more responsibilities and act
and react in a more socially acceptable manner. The major function of correctional 53
Care and Safeguards institutions is to prepare inmates for social, economic and emotional rehabilitation.
of Children In order to achieve this goal, institutions provide various services and conduct
activities such as residential services (food, clothing and shelter), health services,
education and vocational training, recreation and discipline, social and psychological
services.
The social worker’s specific main tasks in correction are as follows:
1) Act as the officer of the court or other quasi-judicial body to investigate and
report about the offender and his/her social situation, contributing the results
of such social observations in an appropriate and meaningful way to the making
of legal decisions.
2) Supervise the client’s social activities in such a way that violations of the
conditions of his/her status and his/her success in meeting conditions are
perceived and can be reported. The general control plan provided in the status
is individualized according to the client’s need for constructive social control.
Controls are provided by the social worker in such a way that the client is
supported in viably conforming behaviour and inner growth toward self-control
is stimulated.
3) Help the involuntary client to handle the stress produced by the law
enforcement and correctional process constructively. Motivates oneself to ask
for and use help in the modification of delinquent and criminal behaviour.
The social worker needs to modify his/her behaviour in the process and take a
responsible part in the social change of the correctional institution and in the
development of the field of service of the correctional institution, contributing
from his/her professional knowledge and experience to the determination of
policy.
4) The social worker helps the offender to change his/her offending behaviour
therefore his/her can relate constructively to others and become socially
acceptable. This is done through working with the individual to help his/her
to change through better understanding of himself/herself and by tapping his/
her own strengths and resources; and through modification of his environment
to bring about a more healthy social climate in which he/she has to live. The
social worker encourages the offender to talk about his/her problems, to feel
about them, and to come to an insightful understanding of himself/herself,
accompanied by socially constructive behaviour.
The social worker role also includes:
a) advising and helping the juvenile and his/her family cope with the situation;
b) visiting the juvenile;
c) supervising the juvenile, among others;
d) submitting the report on the progress of the juvenile. The reports may give
details that could be used by the court, to determine the success or otherwise
of the probation.
The tasks of the social worker in correction include four particular aspects:
l Investigation for the purpose of securing information about the client’s failure
or success in meeting the obligation of his/her legal status;
l The use of controls to modify the client’s behavior;
l Acting as a legal authority in the client’s life with responsibility for value
change; and
54 l Correctional decision making.
All these are important in working with offenders, especially when helping them Role of Social Worker in
to adjust better to society. The correctional social worker’s most important task is Child Care Settings
to change the values and behaviour of the offenders, so that they begin to accept
the values of the particular community. Therefore, the social worker’s aim is to
help the offender, not to punish him/her. Though the social worker faces many
challenges such as, lack of cooperation from the police (usually the junior officers),
lack of cooperation from the home/family (either out of ignorance or contempt for
the juvenile), lack of cooperation from the juvenile himself/herself, lack of logistics
for SWO to go round, inadequate staff (Social welfare officers, Social Workers
etc).
The goal is to utilize the knowledge and skill of the profession in a corrective
manner, to rehabilitate the offender, to help him/her to help himself/herself, so
that he/she can return to and become a part of his/her society and lead a constructive
life.

Children with Disabilities

The birth of a disabled child can be a traumatic and shattering event for a family.
That is a dominant way in which both professionals involved and researchers have
treated the subject. As a consequence, it has usually been assumed that along with
appropriate information and practical assistance, parents also need skilled help to
overcome the loss, grief and bereavement they feel as a consequence of failing to
produce a healthy child.
A disabled child is vulnerable and likely to be abused in different ways like: neglect,
physical, sexual and emotional abuse. All of this can happen to disabled children
as much as any child, and they may occur for different reasons in some
circumstances. There are some additional forms of abuse that may be specific.
There are, thus, at least three areas where a social worker has an important role to
play : in providing emotional support when needed, in providing practical assistance
and resources, and in reducing the negative impact that dealing with an unfeeling
professionalized bureaucracy may often have. These need to be considered
separately.
The main role of social workers is to help the parents to grieve in a healthy way.
The social worker’s role mainly rests with the parents of the disabled child , if
they are living with their parents.
Sometimes the situation may produce anger and frustration within parents at the
way in which others in the society are reacting towards their children. There arises
a need of emotional support to the family and the social worker can be helpful in
adjusting with the social attitudes Just as the social worker may be called upon to
help a child develop herself/himself identity through perhaps assertiveness skills,
so too she/he may be called upon to support the parents in a similar way. By
moving from the individual to the social model, what the social worker does to
refocus her/his intervention on the help needed to become aware of and deal with
disabling barriers.
What is also clear is that social workers must adopt a flexible approach and not
base their interventions on preconceived ideas or theories of how families cope.
Thus, in providing emotional support, the appropriate place to start is with the
coping strategy of the family itself, and while it is important not to see some
reactions as pathological and others as healthy, it is also of great importance and
the social worker should ensure that any action of the family members is not
disabling to the child. This means that the social worker will often be working in
a situation of uncertainty but he/she should not attempt to impose a professional
decision upon a personal problem.
55
Care and Safeguards A second area in which families with a disabled child may need help is in the area
of Children of practical problems. The main practical problems such as suitable housing, a
reasonable income, reduction of the limitation on mobility that may be caused and
perhaps an increase in time and energy spent on the “normal” child care tasks that
all parents are required to undertake.
It can be part of the social worker’s job to help in this organizing and adapting: in
making sure that the family is receiving all the financial benefits it is entitled to,
contacting organizations like the family fund where necessary, and negotiation
with other agencies such as housing departments.
In case of institutionalized children social workers conduct their tasks along with
other professionals like medical practitioners, psychologists, psychiatrists etc. Their
main task thus becomes capacity building of the children, providing emotional
support and helping the child to lead a less dependent life.

Check Your Progress III

1) How can a social worker intervene in problems faced by children in school?
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4.4 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit we have discussed about why it is important to have an organized
child welfare practice and what are some of the different areas where a social
worker can be of help to a child in need. By now you might be able to identify a
child in need of intervention and what type of service is needed for the child. You
have studied about adoption, foster care, residential care, Juvenile homes and what
roles a social worker plays in these settings.

4.5 KEY WORDS

Overindulgent : indulging or involving in excess
Substitute : person or thing put in place of another
Sullenness : morose, gloominess
Truant : child who does not attend school
Preconceived : forming of an opinion beforehand
Delinquent : a person who offends law
Pathological : condition caused by mental or physical disorder.

4.6 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Social work with disabled people, second edition: by Michael Oliver and Bob
56 Sapey.
Services for Children and their families: Aspects of child care for social workers Role of Social Worker in
by John Stroud. Child Care Settings

Introduction to Social welfare by Walter A Friedlander, Robert Z Apte.

New careers for social workers by Richmond, Adrianne. Chicago: Regnary, 1974.
Differential Use of Social Work Manpower by Barker, Robert L., and Thomas L.
Briggs. New York: National Association of Social Work, 1968.
Counseling Disadvantaged Youth by Englewood Cliffs, N.J Prentice Hall 1969.
Theresa Donaldson, Perspective of the Northern Ireland Guardian ad Litem Agency
– Making a difference for children in “Child care in Practice” Volume 11(issue 2)
Arthur, Kruse, “Administration of Social Welfare Agencies”, Social Work Year
Book, 1950, National Association of Social Work, New York, 1960,p.83.
Baldwadi,R.H., “Preventive Correctional Services in the Field of Child Welfare”,
Social Defence,1973,Vol.9, pp.58-62.
Bhattacharya, S.K., “Juvenile Justice:An Indian Scenario”,Regency Publications,
New Delhi,2000.
Chawdhary,D.Paul, “Social Welfare Administration,” Atma Ram and Sons,1979.
Cooper,J.M., “Children’s Institutions”, Philadelphia, the Dolphin Press, 1931, pp.
572-573.
Spencer, “The Administration Method in Social Work Education Curriculum Study”
Council on Social Work Education, New York, 1959, p.52.

57