Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Subject Module
On
PRODUCTION & OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
July, 2021
CONTENTS
MCQs 37-41
Descriptive questions 42
Glossary/Key Words 42
2
MCQs 93-99
MCQs 134-138
3
Descriptive questions 156
Unit-1
Unit-1: Topics:
Introduction: Definition, Objectives, Scope and functions of Production & Operations
Management, Types of production systems, Transformation process model, Systems
Perspectives of Operations management, Relationship of Operational Management with other
functional areas.
Production Design and Development: Product Design, Factors determining the Design of a
Product, Approaches to Product Design, Product Development Process, and Factors
influencing Product Development.
4
Business System
The business organization is classified into different subsystems based on the functions like
marketing, production/operation, finance and human resource etc.
(i) “Production management then becomes the process of effectively planning and
regulating the operations of that part of an enterprise which is responsible for actual
transformation of materials into finished products”.
The definition seems to be quite incomplete as it ignores the human factors involved in a
production process and lays stress only on the materialistic features.
(ii) “Production management deals with decision making related to production process
so that the resulting goods or services are produced according to specifications in
amounts and by the schedules demanded, and at a minimum cost”.
Thus, production management is concerned with the decision making regarding the production
of goods and services at a minimum cost according to the demands of the customers through
the management process of planning, organizing and controlling. In order to attain these
objectives, effective planning and control of production activities is very essential. Otherwise,
the customers shall remain unsatisfied and ultimately certain-activities may have to be closed.
5
(i) Specifying and accumulating the input resources, i.e., management, men,
information, materials, machine and capital.
(ii) Designing and installing the assembly or conversion process to transform the
inputs into output, and
(iii) Coordinating and operating the production process so that the desired goods and
services may be produced efficiently and at a minimum cost.
The operation system includes both manufacturing sector as well as service sector, but when
you use the word PM, you should be careful to note that it refers to the manufacturing sector
but not the service sector. Suppose, you are designing a layout for the hospital you should say
that you are applying Operations Management Technique not the Production Management
Technique.
When you design a layout for a manufacturing sector you can say that you are applying
Production Technique or Operation Technique or vice versa.
From, the above discussion we can come to a conclusion that production management is a
subset of Operations Management.
Operations management is the conversion of inputs into outputs, using physical resources, so
as to provide the desired utility/utilities of form, place, possession or state or a combination
there-of to the customer while meeting the other organisational objectives of effectiveness,
efficiency and adaptability.
In operations management, the main task is to plan, organise, and control the input and to
produce desired output, which is represented in following diagram.
6
Difference between Production and Operations Management
There are only two points for describing the difference between production and operations
management.
The term 'production management' is more frequently used for a system where tangible
goods are produced, whereas operations management is used for various inputs are
transformed into intangible services.
The second distinction relates to the evolution of the subject. Operations management
is the term used nowadays whereas the production management precedes operations
management in the historical growth of the subject.
7
Production/operations management is the process, which combines and transforms various
resources used in the production/operations subsystem of the organization into value added
product/services in a controlled manner as per the policies of the organization. Therefore, it is
that part of an organization, which is concerned with the transformation of a range of inputs
into the required (products/services) having the requisite quality level.
Figure -Transform
The set of interrelated management activities, which are involved in manufacturing certain
products, is called as production management. If the same concept is extended to services
management, then the corresponding set of management activities is called as operations
management.
8
Operation system is either manufacturing sector or service sector. The input requirements are
shown in figure (Production / Operation System)The transformation process, in which part of
the value addition takes place to get the required quantity of the product or services with the
targeted quality within the specified time period, is carried out in a most economical way.
Operation Management Plan coordinates and controls all the activities in the operation system
to achieve the stated objectives.
Thus (the activities listed in the diagram) the Operations Management activities, ensure the
objective of quantity, quality, delivery time and economical way of doing work. The
communication link between the various activities are shown in the figure (Production /
Operation System).
Each activity is dealt in detail in different sections of this material. This figure (Production /
Operation System)will be very much appreciated after getting a clear understanding of all the
activities.
NATURE OF PRODUCTION/OPERATIONS:
9
The nature of production or operations can be better understood by viewing the manufacturing
function as:-
(i) Production/operations as a system,
(ii) Production/operations as an organisational function,
(iii) Production/operations as a conversion or transformation process and
(iv) Production/operations as a means of creating utility.
Production/Operations as a System
This view is also known as “systems concept of production”. A system is defined as the
collection of interrelated entities. The systems approach views any organisation or entity as an
arrangement of interrelated parts that interact in ways that can be specified and to some extent
predicted. Production is viewed as a system which converts a set of inputs into a set of desired
outputs.
Form utility:
This is created by changing the size, shape, form, weight, colour, smell of inputs in order to
make the outputs more useful to the customers. For example, iron ore is changed to steel, wood
is changed to furniture, etc.
Place utility:
This is created by changing the places of inputs or transporting the inputs from the source of
their availability to the place of their use to be converted into outputs. For example the iron ore
and coal are transported from the mines to the steel plant to be used in the conversion process.
10
Time utility:
This is created by storage or preservation of raw materials or finished goods which are in
abundance sometime, so that the same can be used at a later time when they become scarce due
to higher demand exceeding the quantity available.
Possession utility:
This is created by transferring the possession or ownership of an item from one person to
another person. For example, when a firm purchases materials from a supplier, the possession
utility of the materials will increase when they are delivered to the buying firm.
Service utility:
Which is the utility created by rendering some service to the customer. For example, a doctor
or a lawyer or an engineer creates service utility to a client/customer by rendering service
directly to the client/customer.
Knowledge utility:
This is created by imparting knowledge to a person. For example, a sales presentation or an
advertisement about some product communicates some information about the product to the
customer, thereby imparting knowledge.
Following are the activities which are listed under production and operations management
functions: -
1. Location of facilities
2. Plant layouts and material handling
3. Product design
4. Process design
5. Production and planning control
6. Quality control
7. Materials management
8. Maintenance management.
1. Location of facilities:
Location of facilities for operations is a long-term capacity decision which involves a
long-term commitment about the geographically static factors that affect a business
organization. It is an important strategic level decision-making for an organization. It
deals with the questions such as ‘where our main operations should be based?’
11
2. Plant layouts and material handling:
According to James Moore, “Plant layout is a plan of an optimum arrangement of
facilities including personnel, operating equipment, storage space, material handling
equipment’s and all other supporting services along with the design of best structure to
contain all these facilities”.
‘Material Handling’ refers to the ‘moving of materials from the store room to the
machine and from one machine to the next during the process of manufacture’. It is also
defined as the ‘art and science of moving, packing and storing of products in any form’.
It is a specialized activity for a modern manufacturing concern, with 50 to 75% of the
cost of production.
3. Product design:
Product design deals with conversion of ideas into reality. Every business organization
have to design, develop and introduce new products as a survival and growth strategy.
Developing the new products and launching them in the market is the biggest challenge
faced by the organizations.
4. Process design:
Process design is a macroscopic decision-making of an overall process route for
converting the raw material into finished goods. These decisions encompass the
selection of a process, choice of technology, process flow analysis and layout of the
facilities.
Dispatching is concerned with the starting the processes. It gives necessary authority so
as to start a particular work, which has already been planned under ‘Routing’ and
‘Scheduling’.
6. Quality Control:
Quality Control (QC) may be defined as ‘a system that is used to maintain a desired
level of quality in a product or service’. It is a systematic control of various factors that
affect the quality of the product. Quality control aims at prevention of defects at the
source, relies on effective feedback system and corrective action procedure. Quality
control can also be defined as ‘that industrial management technique by means of
which product of uniform acceptable quality is manufactured’. It is the entire collection
12
of activities which ensures that the operation will produce the optimum quality
products at minimum cost.
The main objectives of quality control are: To improve the companies’ income by
making the production more acceptable to the customers i.e., by providing long life,
greater usefulness, maintainability, etc. To reduce companies cost through reduction of
losses due to defects. To achieve interchange ability of manufacture in large scale
production. To produce optimal quality at reduced price. To ensure satisfaction of
customers with productions or services or high-quality level, to build customer
goodwill, confidence and reputation of manufacturer. To make inspection prompt to
ensure quality control. To check the variation during manufacturing.
7. Materials management:
Materials management is that aspect of management function which is primarily
concerned with the acquisition, control and use of materials needed and flow of
goods and services connected with the production process having some
predetermined objectives in view.
13
System:
System is an arrangement or assembly of inter-dependent processes (activities) that are based
on some logic and function. It operates as a whole and is designed (build) with an intension to
achieve (fulfil) some objective or do some work. Huge systems are often a collection
(assembly) of smaller sub-systems.
Production system consists of three main components viz., Inputs, Conversion Process and
Output.
Hence, we can say that, production system is a union or combination of its three main
components viz., Inputs, Conversion Process, and Output. In short, everything which is done to
produce goods and services or to achieve the production objective is called production system.
Examples:
The examples of a production system are as follows:
Tangible goods: Consider an example of a manufacturing industry like a Sugar Industry.
Here, sugarcane is first used as an input, then the juice of sugarcane is processed through a
conversion process, finally to get an output known as a refined sugar (used for mass
consumption).
Intangible goods: Consider an example from a service industry that of a software-
development firm or company. Here, initially, written program codes are used as an inputs.
These codes are then integrated in some database and are provided with a user-friendly
interface through a conversion process. Finally, an output is made available in form of an
executable application program.
14
Types of Production System:
There are mainly two main production systems:
This is the first or primary type of production system and it means it involves a continuous or
almost continuous physical flow of material. It makes use of special purpose machines and
produces standardized items in large quantities.
According to Buffa,“Continuous flow production situations are those where the facilities are
standardized as to routings and flow since inputs are standardized. Therefore, a standard set of
processes and sequences of the process can adopt.”
Such processes are adopted by the concern which produces goods or services continuously by
putting them through a series of successive connected operations in anticipation of customer
demand and rather than in response to customers or orders.
15
Generally, under this system finished product of one process is used in the next process as a
raw material until the last process.
Large industries like petroleum refining, heavy chemical industries generally use this system
of production.
Under this system, generally, one principal raw material is transformed into several products at
different stages of operations.
For Example- Crude oil is processed into kerosene, gasoline, and other products.
Assembly line a type of flow production which is developed in the automobile industry. A
manufacturing unit prefers to develop and employ an assembly line because it helps to improve
the efficiency of production. In an assembly line, each machine must directly receive material
from the previous machine and pass it directly to the next machine.
B. Intermittent Production System
Intermittent Production System situations are those where the facilities must be flexible
enough to handle a wide variety of products and sizes or where the basic nature of activity
imposes changes of important characteristics the input.
Under this system of manufacturing production is done in lots rather than on a continuous flow
of basis. It is done more often on the basis of customer orders. The finished product is
heterogeneous but within a range of standardized options assembled by the producers.
This type of production system is based on the nature of the proper management system.
Auto-Mobile Industry
Electrical Goods
Manufacturing plants Printing press etc.
In this system, goods are produced according to the orders of the customers. Continuous
demand for such items is not assured and therefore production is done only when the orders for
the manufacturing of items are produced from the customers.
Under this system, the manufacturing is done in batches or groups or lots either on the basis of
customer’s order or with a hope of a continuous demand of the product. Under this system,
16
medium scale production is warranted. The best example of this type of production system is
the chemical industry where different medicines are produced in batches.
For example, a hospital transforms ill patients (the input) into healthy patients (the output).
Often all three types of input – materials, information and customers – are transformed by the
same organisation. For example, withdrawing money from a bank account involves
information about the customer’s account, materials such as cheques and currency, and the
customer. Treating a patient in hospital involves not only the ‘customer’s’ state of health, but
also any materials used in treatment and information about the patient.One useful way of
categorising different types of transformation is into:
17
Several different transformations are usually required to produce a good or service. The
overall transformation can be described as the macro operation, and the more detailed
transformations within this macro operation as micro operations.
Type of inputs:
1. Materials
2. Information (e.g. Consultancy firms and accountancy firms)
3. Customers (e.g. Hairdressing, Hospitals)
Transformation process is any activity or group of activities that takes one or more inputs,
transform and adds value to them and provides output for customers.
18
Figure - Example of typical transformation process
Type of transformation:
1. Manufacture: The physical creation of products (for example cars)
2. Transport: The movement of materials or customers (for example a taxi service)
3. Supply: Change in ownership of goods (for example in retailing)
4. Service: The treatment of customers or the storage of materials (for example hospital
wards, warehouses).
Nature of outputs:
1. Tangibility
2. Transportability
3. Storability (can be stored)
4. Customer contact
5. Simultaneity
6. Quality
19
Systems view of operations management states that activities in an operations system can be
classified as inputs, transformation process and output. Inputs are classified into three
general categories-external, market and primary resources.
Transformation resources are the elements that act on, or carry out, the transformation process
on other elements. These include such elements as labour, equipment/plant and energy. The
nature and mix of these resources will differ between operations. The transformed resources
are the elements which give the operations system its purpose and goal. The operations system
is concerned with converting the transformed resources from inputs into outputs in the form of
goods and services. There are three main types of transformed resource of materials which can
be transformed either physically (e.g. manufacturing), by location (e.g. transportation), by
ownership (e.g. retail) or by storage (e.g. Warehousing).
These sub systems are present in all the 4 major sections. They are centrally controlled by the
Plant Management Office (PMO).The PMO controls the central decision making and is
responsible for running all the departments in sync. The PMO ensures that the decisions made
by the departments do not contradict and a healthy harmony is maintained so that all of them
work together as a part of a system.
Thus, we see how systems view in operations can be put to a practical use. The idea behind
systems model is that the operations function can concentrate solely on transforming input of
raw material into goods and services without considering the external environment. The
systems view gives a very simplified view of the company and thus helps us in understanding
the basic processes in a company. We can see what are the major areas of attention in
20
acompany and helps us in understanding the hierarchy and layout of an organization. However,
the disadvantages of this model include the slowness of response to change in environment as
they are transmitted through various connected functions and the inability of operations to
develop in response of the needs of the customers. Systems view gives us an oversimplified
view. In real life the processes are much more complex and cannot be differentiated so easily.
Planning
Operations management professionals are responsible for collaborating with other managers
and executives to determine how operational planning can contribute to the long-term strategy
of the organization. They provide the functional component of the strategic operations of the
company by planning the activities that contribute to the overall goals of the organization. This
planning can include determining goals and policies for logistics management, budget
management and support services management. In short, the operations manager ensures that
all departments on the same page about the direction the company is heading.
Direction
To ensure that planning is carried out, operations management professionals are also
responsible for providing direction to various managers under their watch. Operations
managers ensure that all departments are completing their necessary function within the
organization by meeting productivity goals and budgetary guidelines. The operations manager
may need to make corrections or modifications when goals are not being met or carried out in
a manner consistent with company policy.
Coordination
Resources
The operations manager is also integral to the continued strategy and vision of a company in
his role as a resource manager. Operational managers must be able to assess the resources of
the organization, whether they be monetary or otherwise, and ensure that the resources are
used as efficiently as possible. An effective operations manager can assess whether or not
resources are being used wisely and increase profitability as a result of his assessment.
21
Profitability contributes to long-term company goals and strategies by providing additional
resources for planning strategy.
22
Production Planning and Control
Meaning:
Production planning and control is an important task of Production Manager. It has to see that
production process is properly decided in advance and it is carried out as per the plan.
Production is related to the conversion of raw materials into finished goods. This conversion
process involves a number of steps such as deciding what to produce, how to produce, when to
produce, etc. These decisions are a part, of production planning. Merely deciding about the
task is not sufficient.
The whole process should be carried out in a best possible way and at the lowest cost.
Production Manager will have to see that the things proceed as per the plans. This is a control
function and has to be carried as meticulously as planning. Both planning and control of
production are necessary to produce better quality goods at reasonable prices and in a most
systematic manner.
Production planning is the function of looking ahead, anticipating difficulties to be faced and
the likely remedial steps to remove them. It may be said to be a technique of forecasting ahead
every step in the long process of production, taking them at a right time and in the right degree
and trying to complete the operations at maximum efficiency.
Production control, on the other hand, guides and directs flow of production so that products
are manufactured in a best way and conform to a planned schedule and are of the right quality.
Control facilitates the task of manufacturing and see that everything goes as per the plans.
23
4. Coordinate with other departments relating to production to achieve regular balanced and
uninterrupted production flow.
5. To conform to delivery commitments.
6. Materials planning and control.
7. To be able to make adjustments due to changes in demand and rush orders.
Better Control of Inventory: A sound system of production planning and control helps
in maintaining inventory at proper levels and, thereby, minimizing investment in
inventory. It requires lower inventory of work-in-progress and less finished stock to give
efficient service to customers. It also helps in exercising better control over raw-material
inventory, which contributes to more effective purchasing.
Reduced Idle Time: Production planning and control helps in reducing idle time i.e.
loss of time by workers waiting for materials and other facilities; because ensures that
materials and other facilities are available to the workers in time as per the production
schedule. Consequently, less man-hours are lost, which has a positive impact on the cost
of production.
Improved Plant Morale: An effective system of production planning and control co-
ordinates the activities of all the departments involved in the production activity. It
ensures even flow of work and avoids rush orders. It maintains healthy working conditions
in the plant thus, there is improve plant morale as a by-product.
Good public image: A proper system of production planning and control is helpful in
keeping systematized operations in an organization. Such an organization is in a position
to meet its orders in time to the satisfaction of its customers. Customer’s satisfaction leads
24
to increased sales, increased profits, industrial harmony and ultimately good public image
of the enterprise.
Lower capital requirements: Under a sound system of production planning and control,
everything relating to production is planned well in advance of operations. Where, when
and what is required in the form of input is known before the actual production process
starts. Inputs are made available as per schedule which ensures even flow of production
without any bottlenecks. Facilities are used more effectively and inventory levels are kept
as per schedule neither more nor less. Thus, production planning and control helps, in
minimizing capital investment in equipment and inventories.
Stage 1: Pre-Planning
Under this phase of production planning, basic ground work on the product design, layout
design and work flow are prepared. The operations relating to the availability scope and
capacity of men, money materials, machines, time are estimated.
Stage 2: Planning
This is a phase where a complete analysis on routing, estimating and scheduling is done. It also
tries to find out the areas of concern for short time and long time so that prominent planning
can be prepared.
Stage 3: Control
Under this phase, the functions included are dispatching, follow up, inspection and evaluation.
It tries to analyze the expedition of work in progress. This is one of the important phases of the
Production Planning and Control.
Planning can be classified as strategic planning, tactical planning and operational planning
according to the hierarchical levels in which it is done in the organization. Another
classification based on time span of planning is long range, intermediate range and short-range
planning.
Strategic planning:
Strategic planning is a process of thinking through the organizations current mission and
environment and then setting forth a guide for future decisions and results.
Example: Technology forecasting and choice of appropriate technology for the long-range
time horizon.
25
Strategic plans are usually long-range plans done at the top management level. For example,
the vice-president-operations, together with the top executives of the firm develop long range
capacity and facility plans.
The long-range plans focus on product lines, divisions, factories, markets and other business
units, span several years and reflect the operations strategy of the business. Long range plans
focus on the utilization of production facilities in the long run to achieve business objectives.
They involve commitment in terms of capital investment, manufacturing process technology,
product life and the like. The factors to be taken into consideration in long range planning are
investment capacity of the firm, product life cycle, technology level, market requirement and
the like. These plans set in motion activities required to develop facilities and equipment,
production processes and major sub-contractors. Long range plans become constraints on how
many products can be produced in the intermediate and short-range plans.
Tactical Planning
Tactical Planning is done over an intermediate term or medium range time horizon by
the middle level management (Operations at departmental level). These plans focus on
aggregate products rather than individual specific products. These aggregate plans have
a time span of 6 to 18 months. They specify the employment plan; machinery and
utility plans, the sub-contractor and materials supply plans and facility modification/
expansion plans.
Operational Planning
Operational planning is done over a short-range time span developed by the junior level
management. It is concerned with the utilization of existing facilities rather than the
creation of new facilities. It involves proper utilization of key resources such as raw
materials, machine capacity, energy etc.
Short term planning takes into account, current customer orders, priorities, material
availability, absenteeism rate, cash flows, etc., and it is designed to respond quickly to
changes in production levels and market conditions.
Short range planning establishes short range schedules which specify the quantity of
specific products to be produced in each week of the planning horizon which varies
from a week to a few months.
26
Procedures of Production Planning and Control
The process of PPC follows a pre designed formulation. The purpose is to ensure that the
plans are implemented properly. These plans are for a specified time period keeping in mind
the stipulated costs and agreed policies. The costs include the capital cost of the facility, assets
and labour.
Demand predictions: The production planning process begins with estimating or forecasting
the demand among the consumers for the product or the service which is being offered.
Rate of production: The rate and scale of production is set up. It is broken into realistic time
periods and schedules. The stipulated or specified job needs to be finished by a particular date
to start the next step.
Production planning is a sequence of steps that empower manufacturers to work smarter and
optimize their production process in the best possible manner. This helps manufacturers work
smarter by efficiently managing internal resources to meet customer demand.
27
As per the British Standards Institute, there are following stages or essential elements in the
process of production planning and control. These are as follows:
1. Routing
Routing determines the path from which the raw materials flow within the factory. Once, the
sequence is followed, raw materials are transformed into finished goods.
Setting up time for every step is important to measure the overall duration of the production
process. Simply saying, routing in manufacturing states the sequence of work and operations.
Routing throws light on the quantity and quality of materials to be used, resources involved
(men, machine, and material), the series of operations and place of production.
Routing manages “How”, “What”, “How much”, & “Where” to produce in a manufacturing
company. It systematizes the process and nurtures optimum utilization of resources to get the
best results.
2. Scheduling
Scheduling is the second step that emphasizes on “When” the operation will be completed. It
aims to make the most of the time given for completion of the operation.
Organizations use different types of schedules to manage the time element. These
include Master Schedule, Operation Schedule, Daily Schedule and more.
3. Loading
This is when the execution of the scheduling and the routing occurs. The load at each of the
routing points and the start-end of an operation or activity are checked for resources support
and help. It’s during this step that the assignment of individual work / workload will take
place. It is also when efficiency will be put to the test.
4. Dispatching
The third step ensures that operations are done successfully and everything is loaded on the
software. Dispatching includes the release of orders, in accordance with the scheduled charts.
28
5. Follow-up
Also known as expediting, follow-up is the final step that finds faults or defects, bottlenecks
and loopholes in the entire production process. In this step, the team measures the actual
performance from start till the end and then compares it with the expected one.
Expediters or stock chasers are responsible for performing follow-up process. It is quite
obvious that any of the processes may undergo break-downs or machine failure. Follow-up
promotes smooth production by eliminating these defects.
6. Inspection
Inspection bouts and audits should be conducted to ensure everything under the production’s
scanner adhered to the proper quality standards.
7. Correction
Once the steps above are done, the results will be seen, and you can take action to correct any
issues. This is crucial to make the process more efficient in the future.
The economic success of manufacturing firms depends on their ability to identify the customer
needs of customers and quickly create the products to meet the needs that can be produced at
low cost. A product is anything that can be offered to a market for attention, acquisition, use,
or consumption that must satisfy a want or need.
Classification of product
Industrial products: These products are manufactured, assembled and are primarily to be sold
for producing other products. For example: raw material, parts (components), sub-assemblies,
installations, tools (hand or power operated), and MRO (maintenance, repairs, and operating)
supplies.
29
needs to be considered during the strategic planning process. Product design can be defined as
a strategic activity that takes a concept for a product and creates specifications that allow
production of the product, possibly in prototype form [2], Product design is increasingly-
important in today’s competition as it has significant impact on the performance of the firm
[3]. Profits can be maximized by lowering production costs through careful product design. A
well-designed product will enable the firm to achieve a higher market share [2], Consequently,
when the firm undertakes a new (existing) product design activity, it is important to employ a
technique that will generate optimal solutions prior to its launching in an increasingly
competitive global market.
30
To survive in the competitive market the manufacturing firm must have the ability to out-
perform along the five dimensions:
• Acuity: The ability to see the competitive environment clearly and thus to anticipate
and respond to customer’s evolving needs and wants.
Aberdeen survey reported new product development as a leading driver of revenue, profit, and
market share growth in more than seventy five percent consumer companies also it had the
most significant impact on revenue growth.
31
A product development process is a sequence of activities which an enterprise employs to
conceive, design, and commercialize a product. The six phases of the generic product
development process are shown in figure . These are briefly summarized below :
Planning: This phase begins with corporate strategy and includes assessment of technology
developments and market objectives. The output of the planning phase is the project mission
statement, which specifies the target market of product, business goals, key assumptions, and
constraints.
Concept development: In this phase, the needs of the target market are identified, alternative
concepts are generated and evaluated, and one or more concepts are selected for further
development and testing. A concept is a description of the form, function and features of a
product. The concept development process includes the following activities;
> Identifying customer needs: The goal of this activity is to understand customer needs.
> Establishing target specifications: Specifications are the translation of the customer needs
into technical terms.
> Concept generation: The goal of concept generation is to generate product concepts that
may satisfy the customer needs. A product concept is an approximate description of
technology, working principles, and form of the product. The degree to which a product
satisfies customers and can be successfully commercialized depends to a large measure on the
quality of the concept. Concept generation is relatively inexpensive and can be done relatively
quickly in comparison to the rest of the development process. The concept generation process
begins with a set of customer needs and results in a set of product concepts from which the
development team will make a final selection. In most cases, team will generate hundreds of
concepts of which 5 to 20 will merit serious consideration during concept selection activity.
The concept generation method consists of five steps:
> Clarify the problem: Many design challenges are too complex to solve as a
single problem and can be usually divided into several simpler sub problems (i.e.
problem decomposition).
> Search externally: External search aimed at finding existing solutions to both the
overall problem and the sub problems identified during the problem clarification step.
The external search for solutions is essentially an information gathering process.
Information is to be gathered from published literature (journals, conference
proceedings, trade magazines, market/ consumer/ product information), internets,
competitors, patents, lead users, experts, and related benchmarked products.
> Search internally: Use individual and group methods to retrieve and adapt the
knowledge of the team.
> Explore systematically: As a result of the external and internal search activities,
the team may generate hundreds of concept fragments. These fragments are to be
organized and synthesized by considering all of the combinations of the fragments
associated with each sub problems. If more the number of combinations, then it will
be a difficult task. However, some of the combinations do not make sense.
> Reflect on the solutions and the process: Identify opportunities for improvement
in subsequent iterations or future projects.
Concept selection: Concept selection is the process of evaluating concepts with respect to
customer needs and comparing these concepts with various criteria and then selecting one or
more concepts for further investigation. This is the activity in which various product concepts
32
are analyzed and sequentially eliminated to indentify the most promising concept(s).The
process usually requires several iterations and may initiate additional concept generation and
refinement. The methods used for concept selections are:
> External decision: Concepts are turned over to the customer, client, or some other external
entity for selection.
> Product champion: An influential member of product development team chooses a concept
based on personal preference.
> Intuition: The concept is chosen by its feel
> Multivoting; Each member of the team votes for several concepts. The concept with the most
votes is selected.
• Concept testing; One or more concepts are then tested to verify that the
customer needs have been met, assess the market potential of the product, and
identify any shortcomings which must be remedied during further
development.
• Setting final specifications: The target specifications set earlier in the process
are revisited. At this stage, the product development team must commit to
specific values of the metrics reflecting the constraints inherent in the product
concept, limitations identified through technical modeling and trade-offs
between cost and performance.
System - level design: In this phase, the product is decomposed into subsystems
andcomponents. The final assembly scheme for production system is defined during this
phase.
Detail design: This phase includes the complete specification of the geometry, materials
andtolerances of all of the unique parts in the product. The output of this phase is control
documentation (i.e. drawings, computer files, tooling required, standard or purchased part
list of the product, process plan for fabrication and assembly etc.).
Production ramp-up: In the production ramp-up phase, the product is made using
intendedproduction system and then supplied to preferred customers to indentify the
remaining flaws. During the transition from production ramp-up to ongoing production, the
product is launched.
33
management decision gates), the activities of the next stage of product development are taken
place. It consists of various stages as follows:
Stage 1: Scoping: A quick and inexpensive assessment of the technical merits of the
productdevelopment project and its market prospects.
Stage 2: Build Business Case: Technical, marketing, economic and business feasibility
areevaluated resulting in a business case which has three main components: product and
project definition; project justification; and project plan.
Stage 3: Development: In this stage, the actual design and development of the new
productoccurs, the manufacturing or operations plan as well as the marketing launch and
operating plans are developed, and the test plans for the next stage are defined.
Stage 4: Testing and Validation: The purpose of this stage is to provide validation of the
entire project: the product itself, the production/manufacturing process, customer acceptance,
and the economics of the project.
Customers may have different preferences over a set of product attributes. Depending on
the nature of the demand, it is necessary to make product differentiation based on multi
attributes. The use of product differentiation is to expand the demand through maximizing the
number of individuals for whom a new product is closest to their respective ideal point
(preference). Customer voices are diverse and there is no one monolithic voice of the
34
customer. In consumer markets, there are varieties of needs. Even within one buying unit,
there are multiple customer voices (e.g., children versus parents). These diverse voices must be
considered, reconciled and balanced to develop a truly successful product. The customers’
desires and tests should reflect in the product during product development process. There are
four levels of customer requirements, which must be satisfied at each level before addressing
those of the next level. These four levels areExpecters:
These are the basic qualities one must offer to be competitive and to remain in business.
These are the characteristics that customers assume as a part of the product or service; that is,
they expect them as standard features.
In addition to attribute composition of product their prices also affect the consumer
decision. The consumer first decides on his budget for the product class and then he evaluates
subsets of attributes within the product class, which have prices approximately equal to his
budget constraint. Cost is an important factor in setting the price but there is another important
factor ‘customer value’ (customer worth) i.e. what a product or a service worth to the
customer in monetary units. Therefore, it is necessary to design a product based on preferred
attributes of the customers (or group of customer i.e. segment) and customer value. The
manufacturers can customize the product as per the needs of variety of segments in order to
maximize the profits.
Different organizations may have different design perspectives about the issues such as
product concept, architecture, configuration, schedule, etc. Some product development
decisions may be related to technology or assembly of product or variants of the product or
may be regarding product development team. Krishnan and Ulrich [17] suggested the product
35
development decisions related to concept development in which product’s basic physical
configuration and specifications are defined are:
> Introducing new technology that doesn’t satisfy the customer needs.
> Not continually improving and optimizing the product and the manufacturing
processes.
> Designing without the input from manufacturing and production early in the
development process.
> What are the target values of the product attributes, including price?
Although there have been significant mathematical modelling and data analysis
technique reported in the literature, but there is shortage of theory development in
segmentation based on the product attributes. That is, segmentation techniques are scarce in
product development literature. The work carried out in this research will propose a
descriptive model for product development and segmentation; and therefore it will contribute
to theory of product design and development.
36
Unit-1: MCQ with Answers
1. Which of the following is not a part of Five M’s?
a. Material
b. Machine
c. Motion
d. Method
Answer: c
37
7. Procurement cycle time is time consumed for
a. Receiving of raw material
b. Inspection of various raw materials
c. Inspection of purchased components parts
d. All of the above
Answer: d
38
14. ___ is the probability that a product will operate properly within an expected time
frame.
A) serviceability
B) performance
C) reliability
D) durability
Answer: c
16. Material requirements planning (MRP) is useful for all of the following except
A) erratic orders
B) independent demand items
C) discrete demand items
D) dependent demand items
Answer: b
19. All of the following are inputs into the MRP process except
A) the planned order report
B) the item master file
C) the product structure file
D) the master production schedule
Answer: a
39
21. Which of the following statements is most true?
A) product and process layout are equally efficient: neither are flexible
B) product and process layouts are equally flexible; neither are efficient
C) product layouts are efficient: process layouts are flexible
D) product layouts are flexible; process layouts are efficient
Answer: c
23. ___ is the probability of rejecting a lot that has an acceptable quality level is referred
to as the
A) acceptable quality level
B) lot tolerance percent defective
C) consumer’s risk
D) producer’s risk
Answer: d
25. The objective of ______ is to regulate and control the various operations of
production processes for orderly flow of material.
A. Production control
B. Production Audit
C. Production Planning
D. Production Execution
Answer: A
26. ______ involves taking remedial action to fill the gap or to modify the failure.
A. Production control
B. Production Audit
C. Production Planning
D. Production Execution
Answer: A
27. Production planning involves forward thinking regarding remedial action in case of
any failure.
A. Production control
B. Production Audit
40
C. Production Planning
D. Production Execution
Answer: C
28. ______ is the execution of the schedule plan as per the root chalked out.
A. Routing
B. Scheduling
C. Loading
D. Sequencing
Answer: C
29. ______ is concerned with determining the order in which jobs are processed.
A. Routing
B. Scheduling
C. Loading
D. Sequencing.
Answer: D
30. ______ is about analysis and determine of the time required to perform each
operation.
A. Routing
B. Scheduling
C. Loading
D. Sequencing
Answer: B
Descriptive Questions: -
Question 1. What is Operations Management? What are the main functions of operation
management?
Question 7. What are the types of Production Control? Also elaborate Factors of
Production Control?
41
Question 9. What are the Main Elements of Production Planning & Control?
Question 13. What do you understand by new product design? Describe its process.
Question 14. Discuss the major challenges of product design and development.
Further Readings:
5. Jacobs F. Robert and Chase Richard, Operations and Supply Chain Management, McGraw
Hill Education.
42
Unit-II
Unit-II: Topics:
Plant Location and Layout:
Factors affection location, Criteria of site selection, Plant Location methods, Factor Rating,
Centre of Gravity Method, Analytic Delphi Method, Objectives of Plant Layout, Factors
affecting for plant layout, Types of Layouts – Process, Product and Fixed Position Layouts,
Problems in Facility Layout
43
Introduction
Plant location or the facilities location problem is an important strategic level decision-
making for an organisation. One of the key features of a conversion process (manufacturing
system) is the efficiency with which the products (services) are transferred to the customers.
Thisfactwillincludethedeterminationofwheretoplacetheplantorfacility.
The selection of location is a key-decision as large investment is made in building plant and
machinery. It is not advisable or not possible to change the location very often. So animproper
location of plant may lead to waste of all the investments made in building and
machinery,equipment.
Before a location for a plant is selected, long range forecasts should be made anticipating
future needs of the company. The plant location should be based on the company’s expansion
plan and policy, diversification plan for the products, changing market conditions, the
changing sources of raw materials and many other factors that influence the choice of the
location decision. The purpose of the location study is to find an optimum location one that
will result in the greatest advantage to theorganization.
NEED FOR SELECTING A SUITABLE LOCATION
The need for selecting a suitable location arises because of three situations.
Whenstartinganeworganisation,i.e.,locationchoiceforthefirsttime.
Incaseofexistingorganisation.
IncaseofGlobalLocation.
I. In Case of Location Choice for the First Time or New Organisations
Cost economies are always important while selecting a location for the first time, but should
keep in mind the cost of long-term business/organisational objectives. The following are the
factors to be considered while selecting the location for the new organisations:
1. Identification of region: The organisational objectives along with the various long-
term considerations about marketing, technology, internal organisational strengths and
weaknesses, region- specific resources and business environment, legal-governmental
environment, social environment
andgeographicalenvironmentsuggestasuitableregionforlocatingtheoperationsfacility.
2. Choice of a site within a region: Once the suitable region is identified, the next step
is choosing the best site from an available set. Choice of a site is less dependent on the
organisation’s long-term strategies. Evaluation of alternative sites for their tangible and
intangible costs will resolve facilities-locationproblem.
The problem of location of a site within the region can be approached with the
following cost-oriented non-interactive model, i.e., dimensional analysis.
3. Dimensional analysis: If all the costs were tangible and quantifiable, the
comparison and selection of a site is easy. The location with the least cost is selected. In
most of the cases intangible costs which are expressed in relative terms than in absolute
terms. Their relative merits and demerits of sites can also be compared easily. Since both
tangible and intangible costs need
tobeconsideredforaselectionofasite,dimensionalanalysisisused.
The existing firms will seek new locations in order to expand the capacity or to place the
existing facilities. When the demand for product increases, it will give rise to following
decisions:
● Whethertoexpandtheexistingcapacityandfacilities.
44
● Whethertolookfornewlocationsforadditionalfacilities.
● Whethertoclosedownexistingfacilitiestotakeadvantageofsomenewlocations.
45
All these factors are applicable to service organizations, whose objectives, priorities
and strategies may differ from those of hardcore manufacturing organizations.
III. In Case of GlobalLocation
Becauseofglobalisation,multinationalcorporationsaresettinguptheirorganizationsinIndia
and Indian companies are extending their operations in other countries. In case of global
locations thereisscopeforvirtualproximityandvirtualfactory.
VIRTUAL PROXIMITY
With the advance in telecommunications technology, a firm can be in virtual proximity to
its customers. For a software services firm much of its logistics is through the information/
communication pathway. Many firms use the communications highway for conducting a
large portion of their business transactions. Logistics is certainly an important factor in
deciding on a location—whether in the home country or abroad. Markets have to be
reached. Customers have
tobecontacted.Hence,amarketpresenceinthecountryofthecustomersisquitenecessary.
VIRTUAL FACTORY
Many firms based in USA and UK in the service sector and in the manufacturing sector often
out sources part of their business processes to foreign locations such as India. Thus, instead of
one’s own operations, a firm could use its business associates’ operations facilities. The Indian
BPO firm is a foreign-based company’s ‘virtual service factory’. So a location could be one’s
own or one’s
businessassociates.Thelocationdecisionneednotalwaysnecessarilypertaintoownoperations.
REASONS FOR A GLOBAL/FOREIGN LOCATION
A. Tangible Reasons
The trangible reasons for setting up an operations facility abroad could be as follows:
Reaching the customer: One obvious reason for locating a facility abroad is that of
capturing a share of the market expanding worldwide. The phenomenal growth of the GDP
of India is a big reason for the multinationals to have their operations facilities in our
country. An important reason is that of providing service to the customer promptly and
economically which islogistics-
dependent.Therefore,costandcaseoflogisticsisareasonforsettingupmanufacturing facilities
abroad. By logistics set of activities closes the gap between production of goods/services
and reaching of these intended goods/services to the customer to his satisfaction. Reaching
the customer is thus the main objective. The tangible and intangible gains and costs depend
upon the company defining for itself as to what that ‘reaching’ means. The tangible costs
could be the
logisticsrelatedcosts;theintangiblecostsmaybetheriskofoperatingisaforeigncountry.Thetangib
le gains are the immediate gains; the intangible gains are an outcome of what the company
defines the concepts of reaching and customer for itself.
The other tangible reasons could be as follows:
(a) Thehostcountrymayoffersubstantialtaxadvantagescomparedtothehomecountry.
(b) The costs of manufacturing and running operations may be substantially less in that
foreign country. This may be due to lower labour costs, lower raw material cost,
better availabilityoftheinputslikematerials,energy,water,ores,metals,keypersonneletc.
(c) The company may overcome the tariff barriers by setting up a manufacturing plant
in a foreigncountryratherthanexportingtheitemstothatcountry.
B. IntangibleReasons
The intangible reasons for considering setting up an operations facility abroad could be
as follows:
1. Customer-related Reasons
46
(a) With an operations facility in the foreign country, the firm’s customers may feel
secure
thatthefirmismoreaccessible.Accessibilityisanimportant‘servicequality’determinant.
(b) Thefirmmaybeabletogiveapersonaltough.
(c) The firm may interact more intimately with its customers and may thus understand
their requirementsbetter.
(d) Itmayalsodiscoverotherpotentialcustomersintheforeignlocation.
2. Organisational Learning-relatedReasons
(a) The firm can learn advanced technology. For example, it is possible that cutting-
edge technologies can be learn by having operations in an technologically more
advanced country. The firm can learn from advanced research
laboratories/universities in that country.Suchlearningmayhelptheentireproduct-
lineofthecompany.
(b) The firm can learn from its customers abroad. A physical location there may be
essential towards thisgoal.
(c) It can also learn from its competitors operating in that country. For this reason, it
may havetobephysicallypresentwheretheactionis.
(d) The firm may also learn from its suppliers abroad. If the firm has a manufacturing
plant there, it will have intensive interaction with the suppliers in that country from
whomthere
maybemuchtolearnintermsofmodernandappropriatetechnology,modernmanagement
methods,andnewtrendsinbusinessworldwide.
3. Other StrategicReasons
(a) The firm by being physically present in the host country may gain some ‘local boy’
kind of psychological advantage. The firm is no more a ‘foreign’ company just
sending its products across international borders. This may help the firm in lobbying
with the government ofthatcountryandwiththebusinessassociationsinthatcountry.
(b) Thefirmmayavoid‘politicalrisk’byhavingoperationsinmultiplecountries.
(c) By being in the foreign country, the firm can build alternative sources of supply.
The firm could,thus,reduceitssupplyrisks.
(d) The firm could hunt for human capital in different countries by having operations in
those countries.Thus,thefirmcangatherthebestofpeoplefromacrosstheglobe.
(e) Foreign locations in addition to the domestic locations would lower the market risks
for the firm.Ifonemarketgoesslowtheothermaybedoingwell,thusloweringtheoverallrisk.
47
Factors influencing Plant Location/Facility Location
Facility location is the process of determining a geographic site for a firm’s operations.
Managers of both service and manufacturing organizations must weigh many factors when
assessing the desirability of a particular site, including proximity to customers and suppliers,
labour costs, and transportationcosts.
Location conditions are complex and each comprises a different Characteristic of a tangible (i.e.
Freight rates, production costs) and non-tangible (i.e. reliability, Frequency security, quality)
nature.
Location conditions are hard to measure. Tangible cost based factors such as wages and products
costs can be quantified precisely into what makes locations better to compare. On the other hand
non-tangible features, which refer to such characteristics as reliability, availability and security,
can only be measured along an ordinal or even nominal scale. Other non-tangible features like
the percentage of employees that are unionized can be measured as well. To sum thisupnon-
tangiblefeaturesareveryimportantforbusinesslocationdecisions.It is appropriate to divide the
factors, which influence the plant location or facility location
onthebasisofthenatureoftheorganisationas
General locational factors, which include controllable and uncontrollable factors for all type
oforganisations.
Specific locational factors specifically required for manufacturing and service organisations
Location factors can be further divided into two categories:
Dominant factors are those derived from competitive priorities (cost, quality, time, and
flexibility) and have a particularly strong impact on sales or costs. Secondary factors also are
important, but management may downplay or even ignore some of them if other factors are more
important.
General Location Factors
Following are the general factors required for location of plant in case of all types of
organisations.
CONTROLLABLE FACTORS
1. Proximity tomarkets
2. Supply ofmaterials
3. Transportationfacilities
4. Infrastructureavailability
5. Capital
UNCONTROLLABLE FACTORS
6. Government policy
7. Climateconditions
8. Supporting industries andservices
9. Community and labourattitudes
10. CommunityInfrastructure
CONTROLLABLE FACTORS
1. Proximity to markets: Every company is expected to serve its customers by providing
goods and services at the time needed and at reasonable price organizations may choose to
locate facilities close to the market or away from the market depending upon the product.
When the
buyersfortheproductareconcentrated,itisadvisabletolocatethefacilitiesclosetothemarket.Locati
ng nearer to the market is preferred if theproductsaredelicateandsusceptibletospoilage.
• Aftersalesservicesarepromptlyrequiredveryoften.
• Transportationcostishighandincreasethecostsignificantly.
48
• Shelflifeoftheproductislow.
Nearness to the market ensures a consistent supply of goods to customers and
reduces the cost of transportation.
2.Supply of raw material: It is essential for the organization to get raw material in right
qualitiesandtimeinordertohaveanuninterruptedproduction.Thisfactorbecomesveryimporta
nt ifthematerialsareperishableandcostoftransportationisveryhigh.
49
• When a single raw material is used without loss of weight, locate the plant at the raw
materialsource,atthemarketoratanypointinbetween.
• When weight loosing raw material is demanded, locate the plant at the raw urce.
cotton textiles.
3.Transportationfacilities:Speedytransportfacilitiesensuretimelysupplyofrawmaterials
tothecompanyandfinishedgoodstothecustomers.Thetransportfacilityisaprerequisiteforthe
location of the plant. There are five basic modes of physical transportation, air, road, rail,
water and pipeline. Goods that are mainly intended for exports demand a location near to
the port or large airport. The choice of transport method and hence the location will depend
on relative costs, convenience, and suitability. Thus transportation cost to value added is
one of the criteria for plant location.
4.Infrastructure availability: The basic infrastructure facilities like power, water and
waste disposal, etc., become the prominent factors in deciding the location. Certain types of
industries are power hungry e.g., aluminum and steel and they should be located close to the
power station or location where uninterrupted power supply is assured throughout the year.
The non-availability of power may become a survival problem for such industries. Process
industries like paper, chemical, cement, etc., require continuous. Supply of water in large
amount and good quality, and mineral content of water becomes an important factor. A
waste disposal facility for
processindustriesisanimportantfactor,whichinfluencestheplantlocation.
5.Labour and wages: The problem of securing adequate number of labour and with skills
specific is a factor to be considered both at territorial as well as at community level during
plant location. Importing labour is usually costly and involve administrative problem. The
history of labour relations in a prospective community is to be studied. Prospective
community is to be studied. Productivity of labour is also an important factor to be
considered. Prevailing wage pattern, cost of living and industrial relation and bargaining
power of the unions’ forms in importantconsiderations.
External economies of scale: External economies of scale can be described as
urbanization and locational economies of scale. It refers to advantages of a company by
setting up operations in a large city while the second one refers to the “settling down”
among other companies of related Industries. In the case of urbanization economies,
firms derive from locating in larger cities rather than in smaller ones in a search of having
access to a large pool of labour, transport facilities, and as well to increase their markets
for selling their products and have accesstoamuchwiderrangeofbusinessservices.
Location economies of scale in the manufacturing sector have evolved over time and
have mainly increased competition due to production facilities and lower production
costs as a result of lower transportation and logistical costs. This led to manufacturing
districts where many companies of related industries are located more or less in the same
area. As large corporations have realized that inventories and warehouses have become a
major cost factor, they have tried reducing inventory costs by launching “Just in Time”
production system (the so called Kanban System). This high efficient production system
was one main factor in the Japanese car industry for being so successful. Just in time
ensures to get spare parts from suppliers within just a few hours after ordering. To fulfill
these criteria corporations have to be located in the same area
increasingtheirmarketandserviceforlargecorporations.
6.Capital: By looking at capital as a location condition, it is important to distinguish the
physiology of fixed capital in buildings and equipment from financial capital. Fixed capital
costs as building and construction costs vary from region to region. But on the other
50
handbuildings can also be rented and existing plants can be expanded. Financial capital is
highly mobile and does
notverymuchinfluencedecisions.Forexample,largeMultinationalCorporationssuchasCoca-
Cola operate in many different countries and can raise capital where interest rates are
lowest and conditions are mostsuitable.
Capital becomes a main factor when it comes to venture capital. In that case young,
fast growing (or not) high tech firms are concerned which usually have not many fixed
assets. These firms particularly need access to financial capital and also skilled educated
employees.
UNCONTROLLABLE FACTORS
Government policy: The policies of the state governments and local bodies
concerning labourlaws,buildingcodes,safety,etc.,arethefactorsthatdemandattention.
In order to have a balanced regional growth of industries, both central and state
governments in our country offer the package of incentives to entrepreneurs in particular
locations. The incentive package may be in the form of exemption from a safes tax and
excise duties for a specific period, soft loan from financial institutions, subsidy in
electricity charges and investment subsidy. Some of these incentives may tempt to locate
the plant to avail these facilities offered.
Climatic conditions: The geology of the area needs to be considered together
with climatic conditions (humidity, temperature). Climates greatly influence human
efficiency and behaviour. Some industries require specific climatic conditions e.g., textile
mill will requirehumidity.
Supporting industries and services: Now a day the
manufacturing organisationwill not make all the components and parts by
itself and it subcontracts the work to vendors. So, the source of supply of
component parts will be the one of the factors that influences the location.
Thevariousserviceslikecommunications,bankingservicesprofessionalconsultancyservi
ces andothercivilamenitiesserviceswillplayavitalroleinselectionofalocation.
Community and labour attitudes: Community attitude towards
their work and towards the prospective industries can make or mar the
industry. Community attitudes towards supporting trade union activities are
important criteria. Facility location in specific location is not desirable even
though all factors are favouring because of labour attitude towards
management, which bringsveryoftenthestrikesandlockouts.
Community infrastructure and amenity: All manufacturing
activities require access to a community infrastructure, most notably
economic overhead capital, such as roads, railways,
portfacilities,powerlinesandservicefacilitiesandsocialoverheadcapitallikesch
ools,universities andhospitals.
These factors are also needed to be considered by location decisions as infrastructure
is enormously expensive to build and for most manufacturing activities the existing stock
of infrastructure provides physical restrictions on location possibilities.
DOMINANT FACTORS
Factors dominating location decisions for new manufacturing plants can be broadly
classified in six groups. They are listed in the order of their importance as follows.
51
1. Favourablelabourclimate
2. Proximity tomarkets
3. Quality oflife
4. Proximity to suppliers and resources
5. Utilities,taxes,andrealestatecosts
1. Favorable labour climate: A favorable labour climate may be the most important
factor in location decisions for labour-intensive firms in industries such as textiles,
furniture, and consumer electronics. Labour climate includes wage rates, training
requirements, attitudes toward work,
workerproductivity,andunionstrength.Manyexecutivesconsiderweakunionsorallowprobabilit
y ofunionorganizingeffortsasadistinctadvantage.
2. Proximity to markets: After determining where the demand for goods and
services is greatest, management must select a location for the facility that will supply
that demand. Locating near markets is particularly important when the final goods are
bulky or heavy and outbound transportation rates are high. For example, manufacturers of
products such as plastic pipe and heavymetalsallemphasizeproximitytotheirmarkets.
3. Quality of life: Good schools, recreational facilities, cultural events, and an
attractive lifestyle contribute to quality of life. This factor is relatively unimportant on its
own, but it can makethedifferenceinlocationdecisions.
4. Proximity to suppliers and resources: In many companies, plants supply parts to
other facilities or rely on other facilities for management and staff support. These require
frequent
coordinationandcommunication,whichcanbecomemoredifficultasdistanceincreases.
5. Utilities, taxes, and real estate costs: Other important factors that may emerge
include utility costs (telephone, energy, and water), local and state taxes, financing
incentives offeredbylocalorstategovernments,relocationcosts,andlandcosts.
SECONDARY FACTORS
There are some other factors needed to be considered, including room for expansion,
construction costs, accessibility to multiple modes of transportation, the cost of shuffling
people and materials between plants, competition from other firms for the workforce,
community attitudes, and many others. For global operations, firms are emphasizing local
employee skills and education and the local infrastructure.
DOMINANT FACTORS
The factors considered for manufacturers are also applied to service providers, with one
important addition — the impact of location on sales and customer satisfaction.
Customers usually look about how close a service facility is, particularly if the process
requires considerable customer contact.
52
PROXIMITY TO CUSTOMERS
Location is a key factor in determining how conveniently customers can carry on
business with a firm. For example, few people would like to go to remotely located dry
cleaner or supermarket if another is more convenient. Thus the influence of location on
revenues tends to be the dominantfactor.
TRANSPORTATION COSTS AND PROXIMITY TO MARKETS
For warehousing and distribution operations, transportation costs and proximity to
markets are extremely important. With a warehouse nearby, many firms can hold
inventory closer to the customer, thus reducing delivery time and promoting sales.
LOCATION OF COMPETITORS
Onecomplicationinestimatingthesalespotentialatdifferentlocationistheimpactofcompetitors
. Management must not only consider the current location of competitors but also try to
anticipate their reaction to the firm’s new location. Avoiding areas where competitors are
already well established often pays. However, in some industries, such as new-car sales
showrooms and fast- food chains, locating near competitors is actually advantageous. The
strategy is to createa critical mass, whereby several competing firms clustered in one
location attract more customers than the total number who would shop at the same stores
at scattered locations. Recognizing this effect,somefirmsuseafollow–
theleaderstrategywhenselectingnewsites.
SECONDARY FACTORS
Retailers also must consider the level of retail activity, residential density, traffic flow,
and site visibility. Retail activity in the area is important, as shoppers often decide on
impulse to go shopping or to eat in a restaurant. Traffic flows and visibility are important
because businesses’ customers arrive in cars. Visibility involves distance from the street
and size of nearby buildings and signs. High residential density ensures nighttime and
weekend business when the population in the area fits the firm’s competitive priorities
and target market segment.
2.4LOCATION THEORIES
2.5LOCATION MODELS
Various models are available which help to identify the ideal location. Some of the
popular models are:
1. Factor ratingmethod
2. Weighted factor ratingmethod
3. Load-distancemethod
4. Centre of gravitymethod
5. Break evenanalysis
SOLUTION: The weighted score for this particular site is calculated by multiplying
each factor’s weight by its score and adding the results:
Weighed score location 1 = 25 × 3 + 25 × 4 + 25 × 3 + 15 × 1 + 10 × 5
= 75 + 100 + 75 + 15 + 50 = 315
Weighed score location 2 = 25 × 5 + 25 × 3 + 25 × 3 + 15 × 2 + 10 × 3
= 125 + 75 + 75 + 30 + 30 = 335
Location 2 is the best site based on total weighted scores.
2.5.3Load-distance Method
The load-distance method is a mathematical model used to evaluate locations based on
proximity factors. The objective is to select a location that minimizes the total weighted
loads moving into and out of the facility. The distance between two points is expressed
by assigning the points to grid coordinates on a map. An alternative approach is to use
time rather than distance.
DISTANCE MEASURES
Suppose that a new warehouse is to be located to serve Delhi. It will receive inbound
shipments from several suppliers, including one in Ghaziabad. If the new warehouse were
located at Gurgaon, what would be the distance between the two facilities? If shipments
55
travel by truck, the distance depends on the highway system and the specific route taken.
Computer software is available for calculating the actual mileage between any two
locations in the same county. However, for load-distance method, a rough calculation that
is either Euclidean or rectilinear distance measure may be used. Euclidean distance is the
straight-line distance, or shortest possible path, between two points.
Fig. 2.2 Distance between point A and point B
The point A on the grid represents the supplier’s location in Ghaziabad, and the point
B represents the possible warehouse location at Gurgaon. The distance between points A
and B is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle,or
dAB = Sqrt ((XA – XB)2 + (YA – YB)2)
where dAB = distance between points A and B
XA = x-coordinate of pointA
YA = y-coordinate of point A
XB = x-coordinate of point B
YB = y- coordinate of point B
Rectilinear distance measures distance between two points with a series of 90° turns
as city blocks. Essentially, this distance is the sum of the two dashed lines representing
the base and side of the triangle in figure. The distance travelled in the x-direction is the
absolute value of the difference in x-coordinates. Adding this result to the absolute value
of the difference in the y-coordinates gives
DAB = |XA – XB| + |YA – YB|
CALCULATING A LOAD-DISTANCE SCORE
Suppose that a firm planning a new location wants to select a site that minimizes the
distances that loads, particularly the larger ones, must travel to and from the site.
Depending on the industry, a load may be shipments from suppliers, between plants, or to
customers, or it may be customers or employees travelling to or from the facility. The
firm seeks to minimize its load-
distance,generallybychoosingalocationsothatlargeloadsgoshortdistances.
To calculate a load-distance for any potential location, we use either of the
distancemeasures and simply multiply the loads flowing to and from the facility by the
distances travelled. These loadsmaybeexpressedastonesornumberoftripsperweek.
This calls for a practical example to appreciate the relevance of the concept. Let us
visit a new Health-care facility, onceagain.
ILLUSTRATION 3: The new Health-care facility is targeted to serve seven
census tracts in Delhi. The table given below shows the coordinates for the centre of
each census tract, along with the projected populations, measured in thousands.
Customers will travel from the seven census tract centres to the new facility when they
need health-care. Two locations being considered for the new facility are at (5.5, 4.5)
and (7, 2), which are the centres of census tracts C and F. Details of seven census tract
centres, co-ordinate distances along with the population for each centre are given below.
If we use the population as the loads and use rectilinear distance, which location is
better in terms of its total load- distance score?
The centre of gravity is defined to be the location that minimizes the weighted distance
between the warehouse and its supply and distribution points, where the distance is
weightedby the numberof tones supplied or consumed. The first step in this
procedure is to placethe locations on a coordinate system. The origin of the coordinate
system and scale used are arbitrary, just as long as the relative distances are correctly
represented. This can be easilydone by placing a grid over an ordinary map. The centreof
gravity is determined by theformula.
CX = Dix.Wi Wi
57
CY = = Diy.W
i
Wi
58
where Cx = x-coordinate of the centre of gravity
Cy = y-coordinate of the centre of gravity
Dix = x-coordinate of locationi
Diy= y-coordinate of locationi
ILLUSTRATION 4: The new Health-care facility is targeted to serve seven
census tracts in Delhi. The table given below shows the coordinates for thecentre
of each census tract, along with the projected populations, measured in
thousands. Customers will travel from the seven census tract centres to the new
facility when they need health- care. Two locations being considered for the new
facility are at(5.5, 4.5) and (7, 2), which are the centres of census tracts C and F.
Details of seven census tract centres, coordinate distances along with the population for
each centre are given below. Find thetarget area’s centre of gravity for the Health-
care medicalfacility.
60
{ }
Sales
⎝ J
61
Fig. 2.4 BEP chart
2.6LOCATIONAL ECONOMICS
An ideal location is one which results in lowest production cost and least distribution cost
per unit. These costs are influenced by a number of factors as discussed earlier. The various
costs which decide locational economy are those of land, building, equipment, labour,
material, etc. Other factors like community attitude, community facilities and housing
facilities will also influence the selection of best location. Economic analysis is carried out
to decide as to which locate bestlocation.
Thefollowingillustrationwillclarifythemethodofevaluationofbestlayoutselection.
ILLUSTRATION 6: From the following data select the most advantageous
location for setting a plant for making transistorradios.
Site X Site Y Site Z
Rs. Rs. Rs.
(i) Total initial investment 2,00,000 2,00,000 2,00,000
(ii) Total expected sales 2,50,000 3,00,000 2,50,000
(iii) Distribution expenses 40,000 40,000 75,000
(iv) Raw material expenses 70,000 80,000 90,000
(v) Power and water supply expenses 40,000 30,000 20,000
(vi) Wages and salaries 20,000 25,000 20,000
(vii) Other expenses 25,000 40,000 30,000
(viii) Community attitude Indifferent Want Indifferent
business
(ix) Employee housing facilities Poor Excellent Good
SOLUTION:
Site X Site Y Site Z
Totalexpenses Rs. Rs. Rs.
[Add (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) and (vii)] 1,95,000 2,15,000 2,35,000
62
2,35,000×100
RoR for Site Z =
2,00,000
= 7.5%
Location Y can be selected because of higher rate of return.
63
2.7.2 Principles of Plant Layout
1. Principle of integration: A good layout is one that integrates men, materials,
machines and supporting services and others in order to get the optimum utilisation of
resources and maximum effectiveness.
2. Principle of minimum distance: This principle is concerned with the minimum
travel (or movement) of man and materials. The facilities should be arranged such that,
the totaldistance travelled by the men and materials should be minimum and as far as
possible straight linemovementshouldbepreferred.
3. Principle of cubic space utilisation: The good layout is one that utilise both
horizontal and vertical space. It is not only enough if only the floor space is utilised
optimally but the third dimension, i.e., the height is also to be utilized effectively.
4. Principle of flow: A good layout is one that makes the materials to move in
forward directiontowardsthecompletionstage,i.e.,thereshouldnotbeanybacktracking.
5. Principle of maximum flexibility: The good layout is one that can be altered
without much cost and time, i.e., future requirements should be taken into account while
designing the presentlayout.
6. Principle of safety, security and satisfaction: A good layout is one that gives
due consideration to workers safety and satisfaction and safeguards the plant and
machinery against fire, theft,etc.
7. Principle of minimum handling: A good layout is one that reduces the material
handling to theminimum.
2.8.1 ProcessLayout
Process layout is recommended for batch production. All machines performing similar
type of operations are grouped at one location in the process layout e.g., all lathes,
milling machines, etc. are grouped in the shop will be clustered in like groups.
Thus, in process layout the arrangement of facilities are grouped together according
to their functions. A typical process layout is shown in Fig. 2.5. The flow paths of
material through the facilities from one functional area to another vary from product to
product. Usually the paths are long and there will be possibility of backtracking.
Process layout is normally used when the production volume is not sufficient to
justify a product layout. Typically, job shops employ process layouts due to the variety of
products manufactured and their low production volumes.
65
Advantages
1. Theflowofproductwillbesmoothandlogicalinflowlines.
2. In-process inventory isless.
3. Throughput time isless.
4. Minimum material handling cost.
5. Simplified production,planning andcontrolsystemsarepossible.
6. Lessspaceisoccupiedbyworktransitandfortemporarystorage.
7. Reducedmaterialhandlingcostduetomechanisedhandlingsystemsandstraightflow.
8. Perfect line balancingwhicheliminatesbottlenecksandidlecapacity.
9. Manufacturing cycle is short duetouninterruptedflowofmaterials.
10. Small amount of work-in-process inventory.
11. Unskilled workers can learn and manage the production.
Limitations
1. A breakdown of one machine in a product line may cause stoppages of machines
in the downstream of the line.
2. A change in product design may require major alterationsinthelayout.
3. The line output is decided by the bottleneck machine.
4. Comparatively high investment in equipments is required.
5. Lackofflexibility.Achangeinproductmayrequirethefacilitymodification.
2.8.3 CombinationLayout
2.8.4 A combination of process and product layouts combines the advantages of both types of
layouts. A combination layout is possible where an item is being made in different types
and sizes. Here machinery is arranged in a process layout but the process grouping is then
arranged in a sequence to manufacture various types and sizes of products. It is to be
noted that the sequence of operations remains same with the variety of products and
sizes. Figure 2.7 shows a combination type of layout for manufacturing different sized
66
gears.
Fig. 2.7 Combination layout for making different types and sizes of gears
67
2.8.4 Fixed Position Layout
This is also called the project type of layout. In this type of layout, the material, or major
components remain in a fixed location and tools, machinery, men and other materials are
brought to this location. This type of layout is suitable when one or a few pieces of
identical heavy products are to be manufactured and when the assembly consists of large
number of heavy parts, the cost of transportation of these parts is very high.
68
The major advantages of this type of layout are:
1. Helps in job enlargement and upgrades the skills of the operators.
2. The workers identify themselves with a product in which they take interest and
pride in doing the job.
3. Greater flexibility withthistypeoflayout.
4. Layout capital investmentislower.
69
Fig. 2.9 Group layout or Cellular layout
AdvantagesofGroupTechnologyLayout
GroupTechnologylayoutcanincrease—
1. Component standardization andrationalization.
2. Reliability of estimates.
3. Effective machine operation andproductivity.
4. Customer service.
It can decrease the—
1. Paperwork and overallproductiontime.
2. Work-in-progress and workmovement.
3. Overallcost.
70
Limitations of Group Technology Layout
This type of layout may not be feasible for all situations. If the product mix is
completely dissimilar, then we may not have meaningful cell formation.
72
6. Evaluate the efficiency of the balance derived using the
formula Sum of task times(T)
Efficiency=
73
3. Determine the theoretical minimum number of workstations required (the actual
number may begreater)
T
N =
4. Select
195seconds
t
assignmentrules. C
50.4seconds
(a)Prioritize tasks in order of the largest number of following tasks:
Station Task Task time Remaining Feasible Task with Task with
(in sec) unassigned remainin most longest ope-
time (in sec) g tasks followers ration time
Station 1 A 45 5.4 Idle None
Station 2 D 50 0.4 Idle None
Station 3 B 11 39.4 C, E C, E E
15 24.4 C, H, I C
E
9 15.4 F, G, H, F, G, H, F, G, H,
C
I I I
F
12 3.4 idle None
Station 4 G 12 38.4 H, I H, I H, I
12 26.4 I
H 12 14.4 J
I
J 8 6.4 idle None
Station 5 K 9 41.4 idle None
6. Calculate the efficiency.
74
T 195
Efficiency = = = .77 or77%
Na C 5 × 50.4
7. Evaluate the solution. An efficiency of 77 per cent indicates an imbalance or idle
time of23percent(1.0–.77)across theentireline.
In addition to balancing a line for a given cycle time, managers must also consider
four other options: pacing, behavioural factors, number of models produced, and cycle
times.
Pacing is the movement of product from one station to the next after the cycle time
has elapsed. Paced lines have no buffer inventory. Unpaced lines require inventory
storage areas to be placed between stations.
BEHAVIOURAL FACTORS
The most controversial aspect of product layout is behavioural response. Studies have
shown that paced production and high specialization lower job satisfaction. One study
has shown that productivity increased on unpaced lines. Many companies are exploring
job enlargement and rotation to increase job variety and reduce excessive specialization.
For example, New York Life has redesigned the jobs of workers who process and
evaluate claims applications. Instead of using a production line approach with several
workers doing specialized tasks, New York Life has made each worker solely responsible
for an entire application. This approach increased worker responsibility and raised morale.
In manufacturing, at its plant in Kohda, Japan, Sony Corporation dismantled the conveyor
belts on which as many as 50 people assembled camcorders. It set up tables for workers to
assemble an entire camera themselves, doing everything from soldering to testing. Output
per worker is up 10 per cent, because the approach frees efficient assemblers to make more
products instead of limiting them to conveyor belt’s speed. And if something goes wrong,
only a small section of the plant is affected. This approach also allows the
linetomatchactualdemandbetterandavoidfrequentshutdownbecauseofinventorybuildups.
NUMBER OF MODELS PRODUCED
A mixed-model line produces several items belonging to the same family. A single-
model line produces one model with no variations. Mixed model production enables a
plant to achieve both high-volume production and product variety. However, it
complicates scheduling and increases the need for good communication about the
specific parts to be produced at each station.
CYCLE TIMES
A line’s cycle time depends on the desired output rate (or sometimes on the maximum
number of workstations allowed). In turn, the maximum line efficiency varies
considerably with the cycle time selected. Thus, exploring a range of cycle times makes
sense. A manager might go with a particularly efficient solution even if it does not
match the output rate. The manager can compensate for the mismatch by varying the
number of hours the line operates through overtime,
extendingshifts,oraddingshifts.Multiplelinesmightevenbetheanswer.
75
For process layouts, the relative arrangement of departments and machines is the
critical factor because of the large amount of transportation and handling involved.
PROCEDURE FOR DESIGNING PROCESS LAYOUTS
Process layout design determines the best relative locations of functional work centres.
Work centres that interact frequently, with movement of material or people, should be
located close together, whereas those that have little interaction can be spatially
separated. One approach of designing an efficient functional layout is described below.
1. Listanddescribeeachfunctionalworkcentre.
2. Obtainadrawinganddescriptionofthefacilitybeingdesigned.
3. Identifyandestimatetheamountofmaterialandpersonnelflowamongworkcentres
4. Usestructuredanalyticalmethodstoobtainagoodgenerallayout.
5. Evaluateandmodifythelayout,incorporatingdetailssuchasmachineorientation,storag
e area location, and equipmentaccess.
The first step in the layout process is to identify and describe each work centre. The
description should include the primary function of the work centre; drilling, new
accounts, or cashier; its major components, including equipment and number of
personnel; and the space required. The description should also include any special access
needs (such as access to running water or an elevator) or restrictions (it must be in a clean
area or away from heat).
For a new facility, the spatial configuration of the work centres and the size and
shape of the facility are determined simultaneously. Determining the locations of special
structures and fixtures such as elevators, loading docks, and bathrooms becomes part of
the layout process. However, in many cases the facility and its characteristics are a given.
In these situations, it is necessary to obtain a drawing of the facility being designed,
including shape and dimensions, locations of fixed structures, and restrictions on
activities, such as weight limits on certain parts of a floor orfoundation.
Work
centre
A B C D E F G H I
A - 25 32 0 80 0 30 5 15
- - 20 10 30 75 0 7 10 Daily
B flows
C
- - - 0 10 50 45 60 0 Between
D
- - - - 35 0 25 90 120 Work
E - - - - - 20 80 0 70 centres
F
- - - - - - 0 150 20
G
- - - - - - - 50 45
H - - - - - - - - 80
I
- - - - - - - - -
2. Flow-costMatrix
A basic assumption of facility layout is that the cost of moving materials or people
between work centers is a function of distance travelled. Although more complicated cost
functions can
beaccommodated,oftenweassumethattheperunitcostofmaterialandpersonnelflowsbetween
work centresis proportional to the distance between the centres. Sofor each type of
flow betweeneachpairofdepartments,iandj,weestimatethecostperunitperunitdistance,cij.
77
Flow-cost Matrix Table
Work
centre
A B C D E F G H I
A - 25 32 0 80 0 30 5 15
B - - 40 10 90 75 0 7 10 Daily cost
C - - - 0 10 50 45 60 0 for flows
D
- - - - 35 0 50 90 240 between
E - - - - - 20 80 0 70 workcentres
F
- - - - - - 0 150 20 (Rs per day
G
- - - - - - - 150 45 per 100 ft)
H - - - - - - - - 80
I
- - - - - - - - -
3. ProximityChart
Proximity charts (relationship charts) are distinguished from flow and flow-cost
matrices by the fact that they describe qualitatively the desirability or need for work
centres to be close together, rather than providing quantitative measures of flow and cost.
These charts are used when it is difficult to measure or estimate precise amounts or costs
of flow among work centres. This is common when the primary flows involve people and
do not have a direct cost but rather an indirect cost, such as when employees in a
corporate headquarters move among departments (payroll,
printing,informationsystems)tocarryouttheirwork.
78
Fig. 2.12 Service layout for car servicing
79
A. Design of the Building
The building should designed so as to provide a number of facilities—such as lunch
rooms, cafeteria, locker rooms, crèches, libraries, first-aid and ambulance rooms,
materials handling facilities, heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, etc. Following factors
are considerations in the designing of a factory building:
1. Flexibility: Flexibility is one of the important considerations because the building
is likely to become obsolete and provides greater operating efficiency even when
processes and technology change. Flexibility is necessary because it is not always
feasible and economical to build a new plant, every time a new firm is organised or the
layout is changed. With minor alternations, the building should be able to accommodate
different types of operations.
2. Product and equipment: The type of product that is to be manufactured,
determines column-spacing, type of floor, ceiling, heating and air-conditioning. A
product of a temporary nature may call for a less expensive building and that would be a
product of a more permanent nature. Similarly, a heavy product demands a far more
different building than a product which is light in weight.
3. Expansibility: Growth and expansion are natural to any manufacturing
enterprises. They are the indicators of the prosperity of a business. The following factors
should be borne in mind if the future expansion of the concern is to be provided for:
(i) The area of the land which is to be acquired should be large enough to provide for
the future expansion needs of the firm and accommodate current needs.
(ii) The design of the building should be in a rectangular shape. Rectangular shapes
facilitate expansion on any side.
(iii) If vertical expansion is expected, strong foundations, supporters and columns
must be provided.
(iv) If horizontal expansion is expected, the side walls must be made non-load-bearing
to provide for easy removal.
4. Employee facilities and service area: Employee facilities must find a proper
place in the building design because they profoundly affect the morale, comfort and
productivity. The building plan should include facilities for lunch rooms, cafeteria, water
coolers, parking area and the like. The provision of some of these facilities is a legal
requirement. Others make good
workingconditionspossible.Andagoodworkingconditionisgoodbusiness.
Serviceareas,suchasthetoolroom,thesupervisor’soffice,themaintenanceroom,receiving
and dispatching stations, the stock room and facilities for scrap disposal, should also be
included in the building design.
B. Types of Buildings
Industrial buildings may be grouped under three types:
1. Single-storeybuildings,
2. Multi-storeybuildings
The decision on choosing a suitable type for a particular firm depends on the
manufacturing process and the area of land and the cost of construction.
1. SINGLE-STOREYBUILDINGS
Mostoftheindustrialbuildingsmanufacturingwhicharenowdesignedandconstructedaresingl
e storeyed, particularly where lands are available at reasonable rates. Single-storey
buildings offer several operating advantages. A single-storey construction is preferable
when materials handling is difficult because the product is big or heavy, natural lighting
is desired, heavy floor loads are required andfrequentchangesinlayoutareanticipated.
Advantages
Advantages of single-storey building are:
80
1. There is a greater flexibility inlayoutandproductionrouting.
2. The maintenance cost resulting from the vibration of machinery is reduced
considerably because of the housing of the machinery on the ground.
3. Expansioniseasilyensuredbytheremovalofwalls.
4. The cost of transportation of materials is reduced because of the absence of
materials handling equipment betweenfloors.
5. All the equipment is on the same level, making for an easier and more effective
layout supervision andcontrol.
6. Greaterfloorload-bearingcapacityforheavyequipmentisensured.
7. Thedangeroffirehazardsisreducedbecauseofthelateralspreadofthebuilding.
Limitations
Single-storey buildings suffer from some limitations. These are:
1. Highcostofland,particularlyinthecity.
2. Highcostofheating,ventilatingandcleaningofwindows.
3. Highcostoftransportationformovingmenandmaterialstothefactorywhichisgenerally
located far from thecity.
2. MULTI-STOREYBUILDINGS
Schools, colleges, shopping complexes, and residences, and for service industries like
Software, BPOetc.multi-storeystructuresaregenerallypopular,particularlyincities.Multi-
storeybuildings are useful in manufacture of light products, when the acquisition of land
becomes difficult and expensiveandwhenthefloorloadisless.
81
Advantages
When constructed for industrial use, multi-storey buildings offer the following
advantages:
1. Maximum operating floor space (per sq. ft. of land). This is best suited in areas
where land is verycostly.
2. Lowercostofheatingandventilation.
3. Reduced cost of materials handling because the advantage of the use of gravity
for the flow ofmaterials.
Limitations
Following are the disadvantages of multi-storey building:
1. Materials handling becomes very complicated. A lot of time is wasted in moving
them betweenfloors.
2. Alotoffloorspaceiswastedonelevators,stairwaysandfireescapes.
3. Floor load-bearing capacity is limited, unless special construction is used, which
is very expensive.
4. Natural lighting is poor in the centres of the shop, particularly when the width of
the building is somewhatgreat.
5. Layoutchangescannotbeeffectedeasilyandquickly.
Generally speaking, textile mills, food industries, detergent plants, chemical industries
and software industry use these types of buildings.
II. LIGHTING
Itisestimatedthat80percentoftheinformationrequiredindoingjobisperceivedvisually.Good
visibility of the equipment, the product and the data involved in the work process is an
essential factor in accelerating production, reducing the number of defective products,
cutting down waste and preventing visual fatigue and headaches among the workers. It
may also be added that both inadequatevisibilityandglarearefrequentlycausesaccidents.
Inprinciple,lightingshouldbeadaptedtothetypeofwork.However,thelevelofillumination
, measured in should be increased not only in relation to the degree of precision or
miniaturization of the work but also in relation to the worker’s age. The accumulation of
dust and the wear of the light sources cut down the level of illumination by 10–50 per
cent of the original level. This gradual drop in the level should therefore be compensated
for when designing the lightingsystem.
Regularcleaningoflightingfixtureisobviouslyessential.
Excessive contrasts in lighting levels between the worker’s task and the
generalsurroundings should also be avoided. The use of natural light should be
encouraged. This can be achieved by installing windows that open, which are
recommended to have an area equal to the time of day, the distance of workstations from
the windows and the presence or absence of blinds. For this reason it is essential to have
artificial lighting, will enable people to maintain proper vision and will ensure that the
lighting intensity ratios between the task, the surrounding objects and the general
environment aremaintained.
CONTROL OF LIGHTING
In order to make the best use of lighting in the work place, the following points should be
taken into account:
1. Foruniformlightdistribution,installanindependentswitchfortherowoflightingfixture
s closest to the windows. This allows the lights to be switched on and off
depending on whetherornotnaturallightissufficient.
2. Topreventglare,avoidusinghighlyshiny,glossyworksurfaces.
3. Uselocalizedlightinginordertoachievethedesiredlevelforaparticularfinejob.
82
4. Cleanlightfixturesregularlyandfollowamaintenanceschedulesoastopreventflickerin
g ofoldbulbsandelectricalhazardsduetowornoutcables.
5. Avoid direct eye contact with the light sources. This is usually achieved by
positioning themproperty.Theuseofdiffusersisalsoquiteeffective.
III. CLIMATICCONDITIONS
Control of the climatic conditions at the workplace is paramount importance to the
workers health and comfort and to the maintenance of higher productivity. With excess
heat or cold, workers may feel very uncomfortable, and their efficiency drops. In addition,
this can lead to accidents. This human body functions in such a way as to keep the central
nervous system and the internal organs at a constant temperature. It maintains the
necessary thermal balance by continuous heat exchange with the environment. It is
essential to avoid excessive hear or cold, and wherever possible to keep the climatic
conditions optimal so that the body can maintain a thermal balance.
WORKING IN A HOT ENVIRONMENT
Hotworkingenvironmentsarefoundalmosteverywhere.Workpremiseintropicalcountriesma
y, on account of general climatic conditions, be naturally hot. When source of heat such
as furnaces, kilns or hot processes are present, or when the physical workload is heavy,
the human body may also have to deal with excess heat. It should be noted that in such
hot working environments sweating is almost the only way in which the body can lose
heat. As the sweat evaporates, the body cools. There is a relationship between the amount
and speed of evaporation and a feeling of comfort. The more intense the evaporation,
the quicker the body will cool and feel refreshed.
Evaporationincreaseswithadequateventilation.
WORKING IN A COLD ENVIRONMENT
Workingincoldenvironmentswasoncerestrictedtonon-
tropicalorhighlyelevatedregions.Now as a result of modern refrigeration, various groups
of workers, even in tropical countries, are exposedtoacoldenvironment.
Exposure to cold for short periods of time can produce serious effects, especially
when workers are exposed to temperatures below 10°C The loss of body heat is
uncomfortable and quickly affects work efficiency. Workers in cold climates and
refrigerated premises should be well protected against the cold by wearing suitable
clothes, including footwear, gloves and, most importantly, a hat. Normally, dressing in
layers traps dead air and serves as an insulation layer, thus keeping the workerwarmer.
Introduction to Material Management :
Materials management is a function, which aims for integrated approach towards the
management
ofmaterialsinanindustrialundertaking.Itsmainobjectiveiscostreductionandefficienthandlin
g of materials at all stages and in all sections of the undertaking. Its function includes
several
importantaspectsconnectedwithmaterial,suchas,purchasing,storage,inventorycontrol,mate
rial handling, standardisationetc.
84
effective control on inventory is a must for smooth and efficient running of the
production cycle with least interruptions.
5. Other relatedactivities
(a) 3S
(i) Standardization: Standardization means producing maximum variety of products
from the minimum variety of materials, parts, tools and processes. It is the process of
establishing standards or units of measure by which extent, quality, quantity, value,
performance etc. may be compared andmeasured.
(ii) Simplification: The concept of simplification is closely related to
standardization. Simplification is the process of reducing the variety of products
manufactured. Simplification is
concernedwiththereductionofproductrange,assemblies,parts,materialsanddesign.
(iii) Specifications: It refers to a precise statement that formulizes the requirements
of the customer.Itmayrelatetoaproduct,processoraservice.
Example: Specifications of an axle block are Inside Dia. = 2 ± 0.1 cm, Outside Dia. = 4
± 0.2 cm and Length = 10 ± 0.5 cm.
(b) Value analysis: Value analysis is concerned with the costs added due to inefficient
or unnecessary specifications and features. It makes its contribution in the last stage of
product cycle, namely, the maturity stage. At this stage research and development no longer
make positive contributions
intermsofimprovingtheefficiencyofthefunctionsoftheproductoraddingnewfunctionstoit.
(c) Ergonomics (Human Engineering): The human factors or human engineering
is concerned with man-machine system. Ergonomics is “the design of human tasks, man-
machine system, and effective accomplishment of the job, including displays for
presenting information to human sensors, controls for human operations and complex
man-machine systems.” Each of the abovefunctionsaredealtindetail.
85
4.3.1 Techniques of Material Planning
One of the techniques of material planning is bill of material explosion. Material planning
through bill of material explosion is shown below in Fig. 4.2.
4.4 PURCHASING
Purchasing is an important function of materials management. In any industry purchase
means buying of equipments, materials, tools, parts etc. required for industry. The
importance of the purchase function varies with nature and size of industry. In small
industry, this function is performed by works manager and in large manufacturing
concern; this function is done by a separate department. The moment a buyer places an
order he commits a substantial portion of the finance of the corporation which affects
the working capital and cash flow position. He is a highly responsible person who
meets various salesmen and thus can be considered to have been contributing to the
public relations efforts of the company. Thus, the buyer can make or mar the
company’simagebyhisexcellentorpoorrelationswiththevendors.
86
4.4.1 Objectives ofPurchasing
The basic objective of the purchasing function is to ensure continuity of supply of raw
materials, sub-contracted items and spare parts and to reduce the ultimate cost of the
finished goods. In other words, the objective is not only to procure the raw materials at
the lowest price but to reducethecostofthefinalproduct.
The objectives of the purchasing department can be outlined as under:
1. To avail the materials, suppliers and equipments at the minimum possible
costs: These are the inputs in the manufacturing operations. The minimization of
the input cost
increasestheproductivityandresultantlytheprofitabilityoftheoperations.
2. To ensure the continuous flow of production through continuous supply of raw
materials,components,toolsetc.withrepairandmaintenanceservice.
3. To increase the asset turnover: The investment in the inventories should be kept
minimum in relation to the volume of sales. This will increase the turnover of the
assets andthustheprofitabilityofthecompany.
4. To develop an alternative source of supply: Exploration of alternative sources
of supply of materials increases the bargaining ability of the buyer, minimisation
of cost of materials andincreasestheabilitytomeettheemergencies.
5. To establish and maintain the good relations with the suppliers: Maintenance
of good relations with the supplier helps in evolving a favourable image in the
business circles. Such relations are beneficial to the buyer in terms of changing
the reasonable price,preferentialallocationofmaterialincaseofmaterialshortages,etc.
6. To achieve maximum integration with other department of the company: The
purchase function is related with production department for specifications and
flow of material, engineering department for the purchase of tools,
equipmentsand machines, marketing department for the forecasts of sales
and its impact on procurement of materials, financial department for the
purpose of maintaining levels of materials and estimating the working capital
required, personnel department for the purpose of manning and developing
the personnel of purchase department and maintaining good vendorrelationship.
7. To train and develop the personnel: Purchasing department is manned with
varied types of personnel. The company should try to build the imaginative
employee force through training anddevelopment.
8. Efficient record keeping and management reporting: Paper processing is
inherent in the purchase function. Such paper processing should be standardised
so that record keeping can be facilitated. Periodic reporting to the management
about the purchase activitiesjustifiestheindependentexistenceofthedepartment.
88
89
6. RIGHTATTITUDE
Developing the right attitude, too, is necessary as one often comes across such statement:
‘Purchasing knows the price of everything and value of nothing’; ‘We buy price and not
cost’; ‘When will our order placers become purchase managers?’; ‘Purchasing acts like a
post box’. Therefore, purchasing should keep ‘progress’ as its key activity and should be
future-oriented. The purchase manager should be innovative and his long-term objective
should be to minimise
thecostoftheultimateproduct.Hewillbeabletoachievethisifheaimshimselfwithtechniques, such
as, value analysis, materials intelligence, purchases research, SWOT analysis, purchase
budgetleadtimeanalysis,etc.
7. RIGHTCONTRACTS
The buyer has to adopt separate policies and procedures for capital and consumer items.
He should be able to distinguish between indigenous and international purchasing
procedures. He should be aware of the legal and contractual aspects in international
practices.
8. RIGHTMATERIAL
Right type of material required for the production is an important parameter in
purchasing. Techniques, such as, value analysis will enable the buyer to locate the right
material.
9. RIGHTTRANSPORTATION
Right mode of transportation have to be identified as this forms a critical segment in the
cost profile of an item. It is an established fact that the cost of the shipping of ore, gravel,
sand, etc., isnormallymorethanthecostoftheitemitself.
10. RIGHT PLACE OFDELIVERY
Specifyingtherightplaceofdelivery,likeheadofficeorworks,wouldoftenminimizethehandlin
g and transportationcost.
91
Follow-up procedure should be employed wherever the costs and risks resulting from the
delayed deliveries of materials are greater than the cost of follow-up procedure, the
follow-up procedure tries to see that the purchase order is confirmed by the supplier and
the delivery is promised. It is also necessary to review the outstanding orders at regular
intervals and to communicate with the supplier in case of need. Generally, a routine urge
is made to the supplier by sending a printed post card or a circular letter asking him to
confirm that the delivery is on the way or will be made as per agreement. In absence of
any reply or unsatisfactory reply, the supplier may be contact
throughpersonalletter,phone,telegramand/orevenpersonalvisit.
5. RECEIVING AND INSPECTION OF THEMATERIALS
The receiving department receives the materials supplied by the vendor. The quantity are
verified and tallied with the purchase order. The receipt of the materials is recorded on
the specially designed receiving slips or forms which also specify the name of the vendor
and the purchase
ordernumber.Italsorecordsanydiscrepancy,damagedconditionoftheconsignmentorinferiorit
y of the materials. The purchase department is informed immediately about the receipt of
the materials.Usuallyacopyofthereceivingslipissenttothepurchasedepartment.
6. PAYMENT OF THEINVOICE
When the goods are received in satisfactory condition, the invoice is checked before it is
approved for the payment. The invoice is checked to see that the goods were duly
authorised to purchase, they were properly ordered, they are priced as per the agreed
terms, the quantity
andqualityconfirmtotheorder,thecalculationsarearithmeticallycorrectetc.
7. MAINTENANCE OF THERECORDS
Maintenance of the records is an important part and parcel of the efficient purchase
function. In the industrial firms, most of the purchases are repe In the industrial firms,
most of the purchases are repeat orders and hence the past records serve as a good guide
for the future action. They are very useful for deciding the timings of the
purchasesandinselectingthebestsourceofthesupply.
8. MAINTENANCE OF VENDORRELATIONS
The quantum and frequency of the transactions with the same key suppliers provide a
platform for the purchase department to establish and maintain good relations with them.
Good relations develop mutual trust and confidence in the course of the time which is
beneficial to both the parties. The efficiency of the purchase department can be measured
by the amount of the goodwill it has with itssuppliers.
Methods of Purchasing :
1. The categorical plan: Under this method the members of the buying staff related
with the supplier like receiving section, quality control department, manufacturing
department etc., are requiredto assess the performance of each supplier. The rating sheets
are provided with the record of the supplier, their product and the list of factors for the
evaluation purposes. The membersof the buying staff are required to assign the plus or
93
minus notations against each factor. The periodic meetings, usually at the interval of one
month, are held by senior man of the buying staff toconsider the individual rating of each
section. The consolidation of the individual rating is done on the basis of the net plus value
and accordingly, the suppliers are assigned the categories such as ‘preferred’, ‘neutral’ or
‘unsatisfactory’. Such ratings are used for the futureguidance.
94
This is a very simple and inexpensive method. However, it is not precise. Its quality
heavily depends on the experience and ability of the buyer to judge the situation. As
compared to other methods, the degree of subjective judgment is very high as rating is
based on personal whim and the vague impressions of the buyer. As the quantitative data
supported by the profits do not exist, it is not possible to institute any corrective action
with the vendor. The rating is done on the basis of memory, and thus it becomes only a
routine exercise without any critical analysis.
2. The weighted-point method: The weighted-point method provides the
quantitative data for each factor of evaluation. The weights are assigned to each factor of
evaluation according to the need of the organization, e.g., a company decides the three
factors to be considered—
quality,priceandtimelydelivery.Itassignstherelativeweighttoeachofthesefactorsasunder:
Quality ……… 50points
Price ……… 30points
Timely delivery ……… 20points
The evaluation of each supplier is made in accordance with the aforesaid factors and
weights and the composite weighted-points are ascertained for each suppliers—A, B and
C— are rated under this method. First of all the specific rating under each factor will be
made and thentheconsolidationofallthefactorswillbemadeforthepurposeofjudgment.
Quality rating: Percentage of quantity accepted among the total quantity is called
quality rating. In other words, the quality of the materials is judged on the basis of the
degree of acceptance and rejections. For the purpose of comparison, the percentage
degree of acceptance will be calculated in relation to the total lots received. Price rating
is done on the basis of net price charged by the supplier. Timely delivery rating will be
done comparing with the average delivery schedule of the supplier.
3. The cost-ratio plan: Under this method, the vendor rating is done on the basis of
various costs incurred for procuring the materials from various suppliers. The cost-ratios
are ascertained delivery etc. The cost-ratios are ascertained for the different rating
variables such as quality, price,timelydeliveryetc.Thecost-
ratioiscalculatedinpercentageonthebasisoftotalindividual cost and total value of
purchases. At the end, all such cost-ratios will be adjusted with the quoted price per unit.
The plus cost-ratio will increase the unit price while the minus cost-ratio will decrease the
unit price. The net adjusted unit price will indicate the vendor rating. The vendor with the
lowest net adjusted unit price will be the best supplier and so on. Certain quality costs can
be inspection cost, cost of defectives, reworking costs and manufacturing losses on
rejected items etc. Certain delivery costs can be postage and telegrams, telephones and
extra cost for quick delivery etc.
95
Vendor C: Finished ‘42’ lots, ‘4’ were defective, ‘5’ were delayed
deliveries. Give 40 for quality and 30 weightageforservice.
SOLUTION: Formula:
Qualityaccepted
Quality performance (weightage40%) = × 40
Total quantitysupplied
Delivery performance:
X Adherence to time schedule (weightage 30%)
No. of delivery made on the scheduled date× 30
=
Total no. of scheduled deliveries
Y Adherence to quantity schedule (weightage 30%)
No. of correct lot size deliveries× 30
=
Total no. of scheduled deliveries
Total vendor rating = X + Y
53 54 × 30 = 66.78
Vendor A =
56 56
Vendor B = × × 30=65.52
36 35
38 38 × 30=62.62
Vendor C = ×
38 37
42 42
Vendor ‘A’ is selected with the best rating.
ILLUSTRATION 2: The following information is available from the record of the
incoming material department of ABC Co. Ltd.
Vendor No. of No. of list Proportion Unit Fraction of
code lots accepted defectives in price delivery
submitted lots in Rs. commitmen
t
A 15 12 0.08 15.0 0.94
0
B 10 9 0.12 19.0 0.98
0
C 1 1 – 21.0 0.90
0
The factor weightage for quality, delivery and price are 40%, 35% and 25% as per
the decision of the mar. Rank the performance of the vendors on the QDP basis interpret
the result.
SOLUTION: Formula:
Total vendor rating = Quality performance + Delivery performance rating + Price rating
12
Vendor A 15 × = 89.90
= 25
15 15
9 × 40 × 25 = 90.036
Vendor B = 15
10
19
96
Vendor C = × 25 = 89.357
15
21
97
Formalmode:
No. of lots ×weightage for quality
accepted
=
No. of lots
submitted
No. of acceptedlots × (weightage for delivery )
+
No. of lots submitted with
time
Lowest price
+ × (weightage for price
) Price of lot
Vendor B is selected with higher rating.
98
of one is the finished products of another. Alternatively, the system could work well if
the seller holds the inventory and if the two parties work in close coordination.
However, the price per item in this system will be slightly higher as the supplier will
include the inventory carrying cost in the price. In this system, the buyer need not lock
up the capital and so the purchasing routine is reduced. This is also significantly reduces
obsolescence of inventory, lead time and clerical efforts in paper work. Thus, the seller
can devote his marketing efforts to other customers and production scheduling
becomeseasy.
5. RATECONTRACT
Thesystemofratecontractisprevalentinpublicsectororganizationsandgovernmentdepartme
nts. It is common for the suppliers to advertise that they are on ‘rate contract’ for the
specific period. After negotiations, the seller and the buyer agree to the rates of items.
Application of rate contract has helped many organizations to cut down the internal
administrative lead time as individual firms need to go through the central purchasing
departments and can place orders directly with the suppliers. However, suppliers always
demand higher prices for prompt delivery, as rate difficulty has been avoided by
ensuring the delivery of a minimum quantity at the agreed rates. This procedure of
fixing a minimum quantity is called the running contract and is being practised by the
railways. The buyer also has an option of increasing the quantity by 25% more
thantheagreedquantityunderthisprocedure.
6. RECIPROCITY
Reciprocal buying means purchasing from one’s customers in preference to others. It is
based on the principle “if you kill my cat, I will kill your dog”, and “Do unto your
customers as you would have them do unto you”. Other things, like soundness from the
ethics and economics point of view being equal, the principles of reciprocity can be
practiced. However, a purchasing executive should not indulge in reciprocity on his
initiative when the terms and conditions are not equal with other suppliers. It is often
sound that less efficient manufacturers and distributors gain by reciprocity what they are
unable to gain by price and quality. Since this tends to discourage competition and
might lead to higher process and fewer suppliers, reciprocity should be practised on a
selectivebasis.
7. SYSTEMSCONTRACT
This is a procedure intender to help the buyer and the sellers to reduce administrative
expenses and at the same time ensure suitable controls. In this system, the original
indent, duly approved by competent authorities, is shipped back with the items and
avoids the usual documents like purchase orders, materials requisitions, expediting
letters and acknowledgements, delivery period price and invoicing procedure,
Carborandum company in the US claims drastic reduction in
inventoryandeliminationof40000purchaseordersbyadoptingthesystemcontractingprocedu
re. Itissuitableforlowunitpriceitemswithhighconsumption.
99
UNIT II MCQs
Q.1 Which of the following industries should be located near the vicinity of raw
materials?
a. Cycles
b. Televisions
c. Sewing machines
d. Steel mills
(Ans:d)
Q.3 If all the processing equipment and machines are arranged according to the
sequence of operations of a product the layout is known as
a. Product layout
b. Process layout
c. Fixed position layout
d. Combination layout
(Ans:a)
Q.5 The following type of layout is preferred for low volume production of non
standard products
a. Product layout
b. Process layout
c. Fixed position layout
d. Combination layout
(Ans:b)
100
Q.7T his chart is a graphic representation of all the production activities occurring on
the shop floor
a. Operation process chart
b. Flow process chart
c. Templates
d. All of the above
(Ans:b)
a. Indirect Material
b. Direct Material
c. Finished Material
d. Standard Parts
Ans:b
Q.9 The first activity of Purchasing cycle is _____________
d. Inspection of goods
Ans. (c )
Q.10 ________ is the time that elapses between issuing replenishment order and
receiving the material in stores.
a. Replenishment time
b. Lead time
c. Idle-time
Ans. (b)
Q.11 _________ is the scientific technique for planning the ordering and usage of
materials at various levels of production and for monitoring the stocks during these
transactions.
a. MPS
b. MRP
101
c. BOM
Ans. (b)
Q.12 _________ is the task of buying goods of the right quality, in the right quantities,
at the right time and at the right price.
a. Supplying
b. Purchasing
c. Scrutinizing
Ans. (b)
a. Seasonal Buying
c. Scheduled Buying
d. Tender Buying
Ans. (c )
Q.14 Buying of the annual requirements of an item during its season is called _______
a. Seasonal Buying
c. Scheduled Buying
d. Speculative Buying
Ans. (d)
a. Strategic
b. Long-term
102
c. Non-repetitive
Ans. (d)
Q.16 The need for the selection of the location may arise under which of the following
conditions:
b. In some cases, the facility or plant operations and subsequent expansions are
restricted by a poor site thereby necessitating the setting up of the facility at a new site.
Ans. (d)
b. Nearness to Market
c. Transport Facilities
Ans. (d)
(a) Optimum
(b) Cheap
(c ) Minimum
(d ) Suitability
Ans. ( a)
103
(b) Type of product
(c ) Employees
(d ) Type of Machinery
Ans. (e)
(c ) Principle of usage
(d ) Principle of integration
Ans. (e)
(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a)
(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a)
(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a)
104
(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a)
(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a)
Subjective Questions:
Q.1 What is meant by plant location? Discuss the steps to be taken in choosing a
location for the plant.
Q.2 Enumerate and explain the major factors governing plant location.
Q.4 Discuss the meaning of plant layout. What are the objectives of a good layout.
(c ) Static Layout
Q.6 What do you mean by assembly line balancing? Describe the steps in line balancing.
Q.7 What is Material Management. Explain the objectives and importance of material
management.
Q.8 What are the factors which are responsible for providing economy in Material
management. Discuss the steps in purchasing procedure.
Q.9 When does a need for layout arise? Also discuss the importance of plant layout.
Q.10 Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of an urban site and a rural site.
105
Q.11 “ A city location is preferable for small plants. Suburban locations are best suited
for medium-sized plants. A country location is best suited for very large plants.” Do you
agree? Why? Give examples.
Suggested Readings :
5. Jacobs F. Robert and Chase Richard, Operations and Supply Chain Management, McGraw
Hill Education.
106
Unit-III
Unit-III: Topics:
Inventory Management & JIT: Inventory management and analysis, Inventory Control,
Essentials of a good Inventory Control System, Factors affecting Inventory Control Policy,
Models / Methods of Inventory Control- EOQ, Re-order Level, ABC analysis, VED analysis,
SDE analysis, HML analysis and FSN analysis. Just in Time Implementation Requirements.
107
Inventory Management and Analysis
Inventory management is a very important function that determines the health of the
supply chain as well as the impacts the financial health of the balance sheet. Every
organization constantly strives to maintain optimum inventory to be able to meet its
requirements and avoid over or under inventory that can impact the financial figures.
Inventory is always dynamic. Inventory management requires constant and careful evaluation
of external and internal factors and control through planning and review. Most of the
organizations have a separate department or job function called inventory planners who
continuously monitor, control and review inventory and interface with production,
procurement and finance departments.
Inventory management refers to the process of ordering, storing, and using a company's
inventory. These include the management of raw materials, components, and finished
products, as well as warehousing and processing such items.
Defining Inventory
Inventory is an idle stock of physical goods that contain economic value, and are held in
various forms by an organization in its custody awaiting packing, processing, transformation,
use or sale in a future point of time.
Any organization which is into production, trading, sale and service of a product will
necessarily hold stock of various physical resources to aid in future consumption and sale.
While inventory is a necessary evil of any such business, it may be noted that the
organizations hold inventories for various reasons, which include speculative purposes,
functional purposes, physical necessities etc.
From the above definition the following points stand out with reference to inventory:
All organizations engaged in production or sale of products hold inventory in one
form or other.
Inventory can be in complete state or incomplete state.
Inventory is held to facilitate future consumption, sale or further processing/value
addition.
All inventoried resources have economic value and can be considered as assets of the
organization.
108
various stocking points or with dealers and stockiest until it reaches the market and end
customers.
Besides Raw materials and finished goods, organizations also hold inventories of spare
parts to service the products. Defective products, defective parts and scrap also forms a
part of inventory as long as these items are inventoried in the books of the company and
have economic value.
1. Raw materials
2. Work in process
3. Finished goods
4. Merchandise
Raw materials represent various materials a company purchases for its production process.
These materials must undergo significant work before a company can transform them into a
finished good ready for sale.
Works-in-process represent raw materials in the process of being transformed into a finished
product. Finished goods are completed products readily available for sale to a company's
customers. Merchandise represents finished goods a company buys from a supplier for future
resale.
109
Sales Promotion & Sample
Stocks
First of all, some of the reasons why Inventory Analysis is so important is because it
contributes a lot to an Inventory Manager’s decision on what steps to take in protecting
valuable assets. Additionally, an Inventory Analysis, along with the classification of your
products, can help improve your policies for better Inventory Control.
Furthermore, the most significant benefit businesses can achieve from Inventory Analysis is a
better R.O.I. or Return on Investment. Lastly, for many, if not all businesses, the R.O.I. is the
deciding factor of whether a company meets its money rules and if it is still worth continuing
its operations.
1. Purchasing: This can mean buying raw materials to turn into products, or buying
products to sell on with no assembly required
2. Production: Making your finished product from its constituent parts. Not every
company will get involved in manufacturing — wholesalers, for instance, might skip this
step entirely
3. Holding stock: Storing your raw materials before they’re manufactured (if required),
and your finished goods before they’re sold
4. Sales: Getting your stock into customers’ hands, and taking payment
5. Reporting: Businesses need to know how much it is selling, and how much money it
makes on each sale.
110
Inventory Control
Inventory control is the process of keeping the right number of parts and products in stock
to avoid shortages, overstocks, and other cost problems. Inventory control focuses on
cutting the number of slow-selling products a company purchases while also increasing the
number of high-selling products.
Inventory control is the processes employed to maximize a company’s use of inventory. The
goal of inventory control is to generate the maximum profit from the least amount of
inventory investment without intruding upon customer satisfaction levels. Given the impact
on customers and profits, inventory control is one of the chief concerns of businesses that
have large inventory investments, such as retailers and distributors.
Some of the more common areas in which to exercise inventory control are:
Raw materials availability. There must be enough raw materials inventory on hand to
ensure that new jobs are launched in the production process in a timely manner, but not
so much that the company is investing in an inordinate amount of inventory. The key
control designed to address this balance is ordering frequently in small lot sizes from
suppliers. Few suppliers are willing to do this, given the cost of frequent deliveries, so a
company may have to engage in sole sourcing of goods in order to entice suppliers into
engaging in just-in-time deliveries.
Finished goods availability. A company may be able to charge a higher price for its
products if it can reliably ship them to customers at once. Thus, there may be a pricing
premium associated with having high levels of finished goods on hand. However, the
cost of investing in so much inventory may exceed the profits to be gained from doing
so, so inventory control involves balancing the proportion of allowable backorders with a
reduced level of on-hand finished goods. This may also lead to the use of a just-in-time
manufacturing system, which only produces goods to specific customer orders (which
nearly eliminates inventory levels).
Work in process. It is possible to reduce the amount of inventory that is being worked
on in the production process, which further reduces the inventory investment. This can
involve a broad array of actions, such as using production cells to work on
subassemblies, shifting the work area into a smaller space to reduce the amount of
inventory travel time, reducing machine setup times to switch to new jobs, and
minimizing job sizes.
Reorder point. A key part of inventory control is deciding upon the best inventory level
at which to reorder additional inventory. If the reorder level is set very low, this keeps
the investment in inventory low, but also increases the risk of a stockout, which may
interfere with the production process or sales to customers. The reverse problems arise if
the reorder point is set too high. There can be a considerable amount of ongoing
adjustment to reorder levels to fine tune these issues. An alternative method is to use
a material requirement planning system to order only enough inventory for expected
production levels.
111
output. Inventory control can involve placing an inventory buffer immediately in front of
the bottleneck operation, so that the bottleneck can keep running even if there are
production failures upstream from it that would otherwise interfere with any inputs that it
requires.
Inventory control can also involve decisions to outsource some activities to suppliers,
thereby shifting the inventory control burden to the suppliers (though usually in
exchange for a reduced level of profitability).
It makes sense that having too little inventory is a detriment to a business. Customers become
frustrated when the items they’re looking for aren’t available on the shelf or through your
website. At least some of those customers will go elsewhere for the missing item. This runs
the risk that those frustrated consumers may never return.
Some businesses go the other way, though, and overstock items “just in case.” While you’re
sure to always have the items, your customers are looking for, the risk with this strategy is
bleeding money from your business. Not only does excess inventory tie up valuable cash
flow, but it also costs more to store and track.
The answer to effective inventory management lies somewhere between these two extremes.
While it requires more work and planning to achieve an efficient management process, your
profits will reflect your effort.
Here you’ll find the 10 essential tips to effectively manage your inventory for increased
profitability and cash flow management.
112
you do it, make it a point to physically count your inventory regularly to ensure it matches
up with what you think you have.
7. Track sales
Again, this seems like a no-brainer, but it goes beyond simply adding up sales at the end of
the day. You should understand, on a daily basis, what items sold and how many, and
update inventory totals. But more than that, you’ll need to analyze this data. Do you know
when certain items sell faster or drop off? Is it seasonal? Is there a specific day of the
week when you sell certain items? Do some items almost always sell together?
Understanding not just your sales totals but the broader picture of how things look is
important to keeping inventory under control.
113
10. Use technology that integrates well
Inventory management software isn’t the only technology that can help you manage stock.
Things like mobile scanners and POS systems can help you stay on track. When investing
in technology, prioritize systems that work together. Having a POS system that won’t talk
to your inventory management software isn’t the end of the world, but it might cost you
extra time to transfer the data from one system to another, making it easy to end up with
inaccurate inventory counts.
Various factors affect inventory control policies, including the organization’s management,
the type of product managed and product cost and lead time.
1. Product Type
The type of product greatly influences the inventory control policies assigned to
manage the product. For example, products with short shelf lives, such as perishable
foods, require a different policy than men’s dress shirts. Short shelf life products must
rotate based on expiration date. Although it seems like a first in/first out (FIFO) policy
works in this case, if at any time goods come into the warehouse out of expiration date
sequence, a FIFO policy will fail to manage the inventory properly.
2. Product Cost
Many companies employ additional inventory control policies for high-value products.
For example, many warehouses that inventory expensive audio-video equipment keep
some of the most expensive equipment secured in cages; only a few of the warehouse
personnel have access to this equipment. Along with having the products caged, most
companies require a signature from authorized personnel before high-value products
move from one location within a facility to another. Depending on the value of the
product, a security guard may accompany the movement or transfer.
3. Lead Time
A major factor that affects inventory control policies is product lead time–the time from
receipt of an order to the time of delivery. Some industries and products have
extraordinarily long lead times. For example, most of a retailer’s furniture no longer is
produced in North Carolina but is made overseas in China and Vietnam. When
furniture was made in North Carolina, the furniture retailer could order furniture from
its supplier and have it delivered within two to four weeks. This short lead time reduced
the amount of inventory the retailer needed to carry because he could get more within a
114
fairly short notice. When production moved to China, the lead time increased from two
to four weeks to 90 to 120 days. This completely changed the retailer’s inventory
policies. He now has to warehouse more inventory because of the increased lead time.
The increased amount of inventory also increases the workload associated with
managing the inventory, such as cycle counting, yearly physical inventory and general
warehouse maintenance.
This length is called “economic order quantity” and an economic order quantity is one
which permits lowest cost per unit and is most advantages.
Q = √2AS/I
I: stand for inventory carrying cost per unit per year in rupees.
Every business has to maintain a certain level of raw materials or finished goods in its
store. This is done in order to sustain the continuity of production in case of raw materials
and the continuity of sales in case of finished goods. For this purpose, the business must
set a specific level at which it should place a new order with the suppliers of inventory.
Formula:
The two formulas used to calculate the re-order level are given below:
115
1. When the business does not need to maintain safety stock:
Maximum demand or usage (in days, weeks or months) × Maximum lead time (in days,
weeks or months)
[Maximum demand or usage (in days, weeks or months) × Maximum lead time (in days,
weeks or months)] + Safety stock.
In some scenarios, it may be unlikely that the reorder level could be estimated accurately.
This is because the demand and the lead time of the goods could differ than the usual
trends and in that case the business may run out of stock. So, a level of safety stock is set
to avoid such a condition. It is also known as buffer stock.
3. ABC Analysis
In order to exercise effective control over materials, A.B.C. (Always Better Control)
method is of immense use. Under this method materials are classified into three categories in
accordance with their respective values. Group ‘A’ constitutes costly items which may be
only 10 to 20% of the total items but account for about 50% of the total value of the stores.
A greater degree of control is exercised to preserve these items. Group ‘B’ consists of items
which constitutes 20 to 30% of the store items and represent about 30% of the total value of
stores.
A reasonable degree of care may be taken in order to control these items. In the last category
i.e. group ‘C’ about 70 to 80% of the items is covered costing about 20% of the total value.
This can be referred to as residuary category. A routine type of care may be taken in the case
of third category.
This method is also known as ‘stock control according to value method’, ‘selective value
approach’ and ‘proportional parts value approach’.
If this method is applied with care, it ensures considerable reduction in the storage expenses
and it is also greatly helpful in preserving costly items.
4. VED Analysis
Vital essential and desirable analysis is used primarily for the control of spare parts. The
spare parts can be divided into three categories:
116
(i) Vital
(ii) Essential
(iii) Desirable
(i) Vital: The spares the stock out of which even for a short time will stop
production for quite some time and future the cost of stock out is very high
are known as vital spares.
(ii) Essential: The spare stock out of which even for a few hours of days and
cost of lost production is high is called essential.
(iii) Desirable: Spares are those which are needed but their absence for even a
week or so will not lead to stoppage of production.
The criterion for this analysis is the availability of the materials in the market. In industrial
situations where certain materials are scarce (specially in a developing country like India) this
analysis is very useful and gives proper guideline for deciding the inventory policies.
D: Stands for difficult items, items which are not readily available in local markets and
have to be procured from faraway places, or items for which there are a limited number
of suppliers; or items for which quality suppliers are difficult to get.
6. HML Analysis
H-M-L analysis is similar to ABC analysis except the difference that instead of “Annual
Inventory Turnover”, cost per unit criterion is used.
The items under this analysis are classified based on their unit prices. They are
categorized in three groups, which are as follows:
117
Determine the frequency of stock verification
To keep control over the consumption at the department level
To evolve buying policy, to control purchase
To delegate the authority to different buyer
7. FSN Analysis:
Here the items are classified into fast-moving (F), slow-moving (S) and Non-moving (N)
items on the basis of quantity and rate of consumption. The non-moving items (usually,
not consumed over a period of two years) are of great importance. It is found that many
companies maintain huge stocks of non-moving items blocking quite a lot of capital.
Moreover, there are thousands of such items. Scrutiny of these items is made to determine
whether they could be used or to be disposed of. The classification of fast- and slow-
moving items helps in arrangement of stocks in stores and their distribution and handling
methods.
8. Just-in-Time Management
Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing originated in Japan in the 1960s and 1970s; Toyota
Motor Corp. contributed the most to its development. The method allows companies to
save significant amounts of money and reduce waste by keeping only the inventory they
need to produce and sell products. This approach reduces storage and insurance costs, as
well as the cost of liquidating or discarding excess inventory.
There are a variety of options available to help you manage inventory, ranging from a
fully integrated Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems to more affordable software
products.
Here are some other tips on how to implement just-in-time inventory management.
118
Be upfront about how you manage inventory and your lead-time requirements to
meet their orders. “You might feel you’ll lose a client if you can’t deliver on the
spot. But if you have a quality product and good relationship with them, you’ll retain
their loyalty.”
A total approach to quality is the current thinking of today; which is popularly called total
quality management (TQM).
119
Advantages of TQM
Limitations of TQM
120
(i) Waiting for a Long Time
Launching of TQM and acceptance of the philosophy of TQM requires a long waiting for
the organization. It is not possible to accept and implement TQM overnight.
(i) Top management – The upper management is the driving force behind TQM.
The upper management bears the responsibility of creating an environment to
rollout TQM concepts and practices.
(ii) Training needs – When a TQM rollout is due, all the employees of the company
need to go through a proper cycle of training. Once the TQM implementation
starts, the employees should go through regular trainings and certification process.
(iii) Customer orientation – The quality improvements should ultimately target
improving the customer satisfaction. For this, the company can conduct surveys
and feedback forums for gathering customer satisfaction and feedback
information.
(iv) Involvement of employees – Pro-activeness of employees is the main
contribution from the staff. The TQM environment should make sure that the
employees who are proactive are rewarded appropriately.
(v) Techniques and tools – Use of techniques and tools suitable for the company is
one of the main factors of TQM.
(vi) Corporate culture – The corporate culture should be such that it facilitates the
employees with the tools and techniques where the employees can work towards
achieving higher quality.
(vii) Continues improvements – TQM implementation is not one-time exercise. As
long as the company practices TQM, the TQM process should be improved
continuously.
121
Phases of quality control
Quality control is a process employed to ensure a certain level of quality in a product or
service. It may include whatever actions a business deems necessary to provide for the
control and verification of certain characteristics of a product or service. The basic goal of
quality control is to ensure that the products, services, or processes provided meet specific
requirements and are dependable, satisfactory, and sound. Essentially, quality control
involves the examination of a product, service, or process for certain minimum levels of
quality. The goal of a quality control team is to identify products or services that do not
meet a company‘s specified standards of quality. If a problem is identified, the job of a
quality control team or professional may involve stopping production temporarily.
Depending on the particular service or product, as well as the type of problem identified,
production or implementation may not cease entirely.
In this phase the main focus is on collection of data. Data is the main input requirement of
any successful project information system and therefore the project.
Preparing a suitable plan for data analysis after the data has been gathered.
Obtaining necessary commitment from management and team members to participate
actively and take actions on findings.
Ensuring that every project member gives his or her commitment to participate and
deliver the service/product in the project.
Ensuring that review is planned for every stage of the project.
Preparing schedule for each project review.
In this phase, the review is conducted as a planned in the preceding phase. The review
leader is the project manager. The steps to conduct the review include:
Preparing an agenda before the review. The agenda should be well structured in terms
of time and content.
Making necessary arrangements to gather inputs for the review.
Incorporating points, which are external to the project. These external points have to be
well structured to be reviewed.
Documenting key points of the meeting. A reporter should be designated for this job.
Formulating an automated checklist for the session. Make use of flipcharts to collect
data from participants.
In this phase, a project team takes actions on the findings of the review meeting. The
steps to follow in this phase include:
122
Determining the points which are critical to the project and its performance.
Having brain storming sessions to discuss critical points.
Making a list of all such items discussed and items suggested.
Grouping the data into categories and then prioritise, either by group discussion or
voting.
Identifying action items
Assigning the task to a project member or a team.
Setting expectations of scope, investment, time, for each item and send a copy to the
team
Following up all the actions.
Placing review reports in the project documents file, in the quality/productivity
departments and in the library.
Making reports available to managers of the life process for similar projects.
4. Do continuous improvement
It is necessary that a company identifies critical factors in a project. These factors may
slacken the project if not focused. Some of these success factors are discussed below.
Routine tasks may be assigned to lower level team members as this may relieve the
project team from wasting their skill set on routine matters. In terms of project delivery,
the project office can relieve project managers of tasks, like filling forms and templates,
getting these forms signed off, mailing, receiving and checking items.
The project office can also help the project manager in the project scope definition,
project kick-off preparation and planning tasks, through mentoring and coaching
services. Regarding project quality reviews, the project management office adds value
123
providing processes, tools and project management experience but any quality review
process can be implemented by the team without sponsorship from the management
level.
These are the combining strengths that make the project manager move forward and
achieve the project success. It is necessary to identify all the critical success factors.
One of the critical success factors for the project quality review process implementation
is to convince and sell the benefits to the management team of the organisation. The
team should exhibit better control of their project portfolio a and then demonstrate
better control about business profitability.
The main benefits of the project quality review are that project status is formally visible
to the whole organisation. It creates awareness and room for improvement. Through
reviewing, in a detailed manner, we can have a clear idea about the lack of knowledge
mistakes, errors, deviations, and their reasons.
The project quality reviews help the project manager to make the necessary adjustments
and take the actions needed to finish the project on time, scope and budget. The entire
project team including the project manager, the customer and the sponsor benefit from
project quality reviews.
Specification of Quality
Quality specifications are detailed requirements that define the quality of a product, service
or process. Quality includes tangible elements such as measurements and intangible elements
such as smell and taste. The following are illustrative examples of quality specifications.
Food
Precise definitions that are used to sort food into quality grades. For example, apples
might be sorted according to size, ripeness, colour, symmetry and condition to offer a
premium and non-premium grade.
Manufacturing
A bicycle manufacturer performs automated quality control testing on all units before
shipping based on specifications such as detailed measurements designed to ensure that a
bicycle’s tire is properly aligned to its assembly.
Infrastructure
A solar panel manufacturer guarantees the conversion efficiency of its modules over time.
This is based on a specification of rated power output and percentage of that output that
can be expected as the panels approach end-of-life, often 25 years.
Formulations
The amount of a high-quality ingredient in a product. For example, a beverage that is 30%
organic pineapple juice.
Materials
124
Material quality such as the thread count of a fabric.
Software
Specifications for the performance of a software service such as a 99.99% availability rate.
Services
A hotel chain defines detailed specifications of what it means for a room to be clean. This
is used to define processes for cleaning services and quality control checks.
Quality at Source
Quality at the source is a lean manufacturing principle which defines that quality output is
not only measured at the end of the production line but at every step of the productive
process and being the responsibility of each individual who contributes to the production
or on timely delivery of a product or service. In a practical sense it would involve each
operator checking his or her own work before the part/component or product is sent to the
next step in the process. This practice when first implemented within the workforce will be a
challenging change to company culture but will highlight the relevance of the product’s or
service’s conformance to customer requirements and standards, thus also imparting the
importance of quality standards and customer satisfaction within the workforce.
In order to make the cultural shift within an operation’s workforce to embrace quality at the
source the following items should be considered:
The advantages of quality at the source are many, including: better informed
employees, cultural awareness of the importance of quality to the customer, reduction in
rework expenses, reduction in production waste, improvement in plant and process OEE , and
most importantly the empowerment of employees in achieving the desired quality standard
required by customers.
Zero Defect
Zero Defects – The Theory and Implementation.
Zero defects theory ensures that there is no waste existing in a project. Waste refers to all
unproductive processes, tools, employees and so on. Anything that is unproductive and does
125
not add value to a project should be eliminated, called the process of elimination of waste.
Eliminating waste creates a process of improvement and correspondingly lowers costs.
Common with the zero defects theory is the concept of “doing it right the first time” to
avoid costly and time-consuming fixes later in the project management process.
Zero defects theory is based on four elements for implementation in real projects.
Nonetheless, a zero defects goal could lead to a scenario where a team is striving for a
perfect process that cannot realistically be met. The time and resources dedicated to
reaching zero defects may negatively impact performance and put a strain on employee
morale and satisfaction. There can also be negative implications when you consider the
full supply chain with other manufacturers that might have a different definition of zero
defects.
In the end, the quest for zero defects is an admirable objective in itself, and most
companies find that the pros outweigh the cons. By striving for stringent but accepted
standards of defects, companies can build better processes and create an environment of
continuous service improvement.
Cost of Quality
The “cost of quality” isn’t the price of creating a quality product or service. It’s the cost of
NOT creating a quality product or service.
Every time work is redone, the cost of quality increases. Obvious examples include:
126
The reworking of a service, such as the reprocessing of a loan operation or the replacement of
a food order in a restaurant.
External Failure Cost: Cost associated with defects found after the customer receives the
product or service. Example: Processing customer complaints, customer returns, warranty
claims, product recalls.
Internal Failure Cost: Cost associated with defects found before the customer receives the
product or service. Example: Scrap, rework, re-inspection, re-testing, material review,
material downgrades
Prevention Cost: Cost incurred to prevent (keep failure and appraisal cost to a minimum)
poor quality. Example: New product review, quality planning, supplier surveys, process
reviews, quality improvement teams, education and training.
Kaizen can be roughly translated from Japanese to mean “good change.” The philosophy
behind kaizen is often credited to Dr. W. Edwards Deming. Dr. Deming was invited by
Japanese industrial leaders and engineers to help rebuild Japan after World War II. He was
honoured for his contributions by Emperor Hirohito and the Japanese Union of Scientists and
Engineers.
In his book “Out of the Crisis,” Dr. Deming shared his philosophy of continuous
improvement: -
Deming has given his views on management and its relationship with quality in his 14 points
for management.
127
These points are summarized as under
1. Create consistency of purpose towards improvement of product and service with an aim
to become competitive and thus to stay in business and to provide jobs.
2. Adopt the new philosophy for economic stability. Management needs to take leadership
for change and we no longer live with delays, mistakes, defective materials and
defective workmanship.
3. Eliminate the need for mass inspection by building quality into the product in the first
place.
4. End the practice of awarding business on price tag alone. Rather total cost should be
minimized. Select a single supplier for any item on a long term relationship of trust and
loyalty.
5. Improve constantly the system of production and service, to improve quality and
productivity and thus leading to the decrease in cost.
6. Institute better methods of training and education for all the employees including
management to make effective use of all the employees.
7. Adopt and institute better leadership to help the people to perform a job in a better way.
8. Drive out fear so that everyone works for the company effectively without any tension.
9. Break down barriers between different departments. People in different departments
must work as a team to tackle the problems of production that may be encountered with
the product or service.
10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations and numerical targets for the workforce. They never
help the workers to do the job in a better way. Let the workers develop their own
slogans and work accordingly.
11. Eliminate work standards and numerical quotas. Eliminate management by objectives
and also eliminate management by numbers. These are usually a guarantee of
inefficiency and high costs. A person, in order to hold a job, will try to meet a quota at
any cost including doing damage to his company.
12. Remove barriers in taking pride in workmanship. Usually, incompetent supervisors,
defective materials and faulty equipment’s are stumbling blocks in the way of good
performance. These barriers must be eliminated.
13. Introduce a vigorous programme of education and self-development. Both the
management and the work force will have to be educated in the new knowledge and
understanding, including teamwork and statistical techniques.
14. Take proper action to accomplish the transformation. Top management has to constitute
a team with a plan of action to carry out the quality mission.
Benchmarking
“Benchmarking is the process through which a company measures its products, services, and
practices against its toughest competitors, or those companies recognized as leaders in its
industry.” Benchmarking is one of a manager's best tools for determining whether the
company is performing particular functions and activities efficiently, whether its costs are in
line with those of competitors, and whether its internal activities and business processes need
improvement. The idea behind benchmarking is to measure internal processes against an
external standard.
The goal of benchmarking is to identify the weaknesses within an organization and improve
upon them, with the idea of becoming the "best of the best." The benchmarking process helps
128
managers to find gaps in performance and turn them into opportunities for improvement.
Benchmarking enables companies to identify the most successful strategies used by other
companies of comparable size, type, or regional location, and then adopt relevant measures to
make their own programs more efficient. Most companies apply benchmarking as part of a
broad strategic process. For example, companies use benchmarking in order to find
breakthrough ideas for improving processes, to support quality improvement programs, to
motivate staffs to improve performance, and to satisfy management's need for competitive
assessments.
Benchmarking targets roles, processes, and critical success factors. Roles are what define the
job or function that a person fulfills. Processes are what consume a company's resources.
Critical success factors are issues that company must address for success over the long-term
in order to gain a competitive advantage. Benchmarking focuses on these things in order to
point out inefficiencies and potential areas for improvement.
Levels of Benchmarking
What benefits have been achieved by the organizations that have successfully completed
their benchmarking programs?
1. Cultural Change
2. Performance Improvement
3. Human Resources
129
(A) Cultural Change: Benchmarking allows organizations to set realistic,
rigorous new performance targets, and this process helps convince people of
the credibility of these targets. It helps people to understand that there are
other organizations who know and do job better than their own organization.
(B) Performance Improvement: Benchmarking allows the organization to
define specific gaps in performance and to select the processes to improve.
These gaps provide objectives and action plans for improvement at all levels
of organization and promote improved performance for individual and group
participants.
(C) Human Resources: Benchmarking provides basis for training. Employees
begin to see gap between what they are doing and what best-in-class are
doing. Closing the gap points out the need of personnel to be trained to learn
techniques of problem solving and process improvement.
Organizations that benchmark, adapt the process to best fit their own needs and culture.
Although number of steps in the process may vary from organization to organization, the
following six steps contain the core techniques:
Poka-Yokes
Poka-yoke is a Japanese term that means "mistake-proofing" or "inadvertent error
prevention". A poka-yoke is any mechanism in any process that helps an equipment operator
avoid mistakes. Its purpose is to eliminate product defects by preventing, correcting, or
drawing attention to human errors as they occur.
Poka-yoke is a technique for avoiding simple human error in the workplace. The idea is to
take over repetitive tasks that rely on memory or vigilance and guard against any lapses in
focus.
Dr. Shigeo Shingo, a renowned authority on quality control and efficiency, originally
developed the mistake-proofing idea. Realizing its value as an effective quality control
technique, he formalized its use in Japanese manufacturing as the poka-yoke system.
Today, this concept is in wide use in Japan. Toyota Motor Corporation, whose production
system Shingo helped design, averages twelve poka-yoke devices per machine in their
manufacturing plants, thus validating the concept as beneficial to industry.
130
decreased set-up times with associated reduction in production time and improved
production capacity
simplified and improved housekeeping
increased safety
lower costs
lower skill requirements
increased production flexibility
improved operator attitudes.
Poka Yokes ensure that the right conditions exist before a process step is executed, and thus
preventing defects from occurring in the first place. Where this is not possible, Poka Yokes
perform a detective function, eliminating defects in the process as early as possible.
Poka Yoke technique could be used whenever a mistake could occur or something could be
done wrong – meaning everywhere. It can be successfully applied to any type of process in
manufacturing or services industry, preventing all kinds of errors:
Processing error: Process operation missed or not performed per the standard
operating procedure.
Setup error: Using the wrong tooling or setting machine adjustments incorrectly.
Missing part: Not all parts included in the assembly, welding, or other processes.
Improper part/item: Wrong part used in the process.
Operations error: Carrying out an operation incorrectly; having the incorrect
version of the specification.
Measurement error: Errors in machine adjustment, test measurement or
dimensions of a part coming in from a supplier.
ISO 9000 is a set of international standards on quality management and quality assurance
developed to help companies effectively document the quality system elements to be
implemented to maintain an efficient quality system. They are not specific to any one
industry and can be applied to organizations of any size.
ISO 9000 can help a company satisfy its customers, meet regulatory requirements, and
achieve continual improvement. However, it should be considered to be a first step, the base
level of a quality system, not a complete guarantee of quality.
ISO 9000 refers to a generic series of standards published by the ISO that provide quality
assurance requirements and quality management guidance. ISO 9000 is a quality system
standard, not a technical product standard. The ISO 9000 series currently contains four
standards – ISO 9001, ISO 9002, ISO 9003 and ISO 9004. Firms select the standard that is
most relevant to their business activities. However, these four standards will be revised in late
2000. More information is provided later in this paper under ISO 9000:2000.
131
ISO 9000 Series standards
The ISO 9000:2015 and ISO 9001:2015 standards are based on seven quality
management principles that senior management can apply for organizational
improvement:
Customer focus
Understand the needs of existing and future customers
Align organizational objectives with customer needs and expectations
Meet customer requirements
Measure customer satisfaction
Manage customer relationships
Aim to exceed customer expectations
Leadership
Establish a vision and direction for the organization
Set challenging goals
Model organizational values
Establish trust
Equip and empower employees
Recognize employee contributions
Engagement of people
Ensure that people’s abilities are used and valued
Make people accountable
Enable participation in continual improvement
Evaluate individual performance
Enable learning and knowledge sharing
Enable open discussion of problems and constraints
Process approach
Manage activities as processes
Measure the capability of activities
Identify linkages between activities
Prioritize improvement opportunities
Deploy resources effectively
Improvement
132
Improve organizational performance and capabilities
Align improvement activities
Empower people to make improvements
Measure improvement consistently
Celebrate improvements
Relationship management
Identify and select suppliers to manage costs, optimize resources, and create value
Establish relationships considering both the short and long term
Share expertise, resources, information, and plans with partners
Collaborate on improvement and development activities
Recognize supplier successes
There are several benefits to implementing this series in your company. There is also a strong
belief that having a documented quality procedure gives a firm a strong advantage over its
competitors. For example, it will guide you to build quality into your product or service and
avoid costly after-the-fact inspections, warranty costs, and rework.
Most importantly, more contractors are working with ISO certified customers every year as
the certifications are more widely used and accepted in the United States.
ISO14000
ISO 14000 is a family of standards related to environmental management that exists to help
organizations:
(a) minimize how their operations (processes, etc.) negatively affect the environment (i.e.
cause adverse changes to air, water, or land);
(b) comply with applicable laws, regulations, and other environmentally oriented
requirements; and
(c) continually improve in the above.
ISO 14000 is similar to ISO 9000 quality management in that both pertain to the process of
how a product is produced, rather than to the product itself. As with ISO 9001, certification is
performed by third-party organizations rather than being awarded by ISO directly. The ISO
19011 and ISO 17021 audit standards apply when audits are being performed.
The ISO 14000 series of environmental management standards are intended to assist
organizations manage the environmental effect of their business practices. The ISO 14000
series is similar to the ISO 9000 series published in 1987. The purpose of the ISO 9000 series
is to encourage organizations to institute quality assurance management programs. Although
133
ISO 9000 deals with the overall management of an organization and ISO 14000 deals with
the management of the environmental effects of an organization, both standards are
concerned with processes, and there is talk of combining the two series into one.
Both series of standards were published by ISO, the International Organization for
Standardization. The purpose of ISO is to facilitate international trade and cooperation in
commercial, intellectual, scientific and economic endeavors by developing international
standards. ISO originally focused on industrial and mechanical engineering standards. Now,
it has ventured into setting standards for an organization’s processes, policies, and practices.
The requirements of ISO 14001 are an integral part of the European Union’s Eco-
Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). EMAS’s structure and material are more
demanding, mainly concerning performance improvement, legal compliance, and reporting
duties. The current version of ISO 14001 is ISO 14001:2015, which was published in
September 2015.
ISO 14000 refers to a series of standards on environmental management tools and systems.
ISO 14000 deals with a company’s system for managing its day-to-day operations and how
they impact the environment. The Environmental Management System and Environmental
Auditing address a wide range of issues to include the following:
Six Sigma
Six Sigma is a business management strategy which aims at improving the quality of
processes by minimizing and eventually removing the errors and variations. The concept of
Six Sigma was introduced by Motorola in 1986, but was popularized by Jack Welch who
incorporated the strategy in his business processes at General Electric. The concept of Six
Sigma came into existence when one of Motorola’s senior executives complained of
Motorola’s bad quality. Bill Smith eventually formulated the methodology in 1986.
Quality plays an important role in the success and failure of an organization. Neglecting an
important aspect like quality, will not let you survive in the long run. Six Sigma ensures
superior quality of products by removing the defects in the processes and systems. Six
sigma is a process which helps in improving the overall processes and systems by identifying
and eventually removing the hurdles which might stop the organization to reach the levels of
perfection. According to sigma, any sort of challenge which comes across in an
organization’s processes is considered to be a defect and needs to be eliminated.
Organizations practicing Six Sigma create special levels for employees within the
organization. Such levels are called as: “Green belts”, “Black belts” and so on. Individuals
certified with any of these belts are often experts in six sigma process. According to Six
134
Sigma any process which does not lead to customer satisfaction is referred to as a defect
and has to be eliminated from the system to ensure superior quality of products and
services. Every organization strives hard to maintain excellent quality of its brand and the
process of six sigma ensures the same by removing various defects and errors which come in
the way of customer satisfaction.
The process of Six Sigma originated in manufacturing processes but now it finds its use in
other businesses as well. Proper budgets and resources need to be allocated for the
implementation of Six Sigma in organizations.
DMAIC
DMADV
D – Define the Problem. In the first phase, various problems which need to be
addressed to are clearly defined. Feedbacks are taken from customers as to what they feel
about a particular product or service. Feedbacks are carefully monitored to understand
problem areas and their root causes.
M – Measure and find out the key points of the current process. Once the problem is
identified, employees collect relevant data which would give an insight into current
processes.
A – Analyze the data. The information collected in the second stage is thoroughly
verified. The root cause of the defects are carefully studied and investigated as to find out
how they are affecting the entire process.
I – Improve the current processes based on the research and analysis done in the
previous stage. Efforts are made to create new projects which would ensure superior
quality.
C – Control the processes so that they do not lead to defects.
DMADV Method
135
Unit-3: - MCQ with Answers -
1. Which among the following is a type of inventory system that is used to manage
independent demand items?
A. Order point system
B. Material Requirements Planning
C. Time Phased Order Point
D. Enterprise Resource Planning.
Answer: C
4. Which among the following models is used to calculate the timing of the inventory order?
A. Economic order quantity model
B. Fixed order quantity model
C. Reorder point model
D. Fixed order inventory model.
Answer: C
6. Which among the following is a quantity of a specific item that is ordered from the
supplier and issued as a standard quantity to the production process?
A. Safety stock
B. Lot size
C. Standard deviation
D. Inventory control.
Answer: B
8. Which among the following components is calculated as the sum of the fixed costs that
happen each time an item is ordered?
A. Carrying cost
B. Order cost
C. Holding cost
D. Storing cost.
Answer: B.
9. A company that maintain a sufficient safety margin by having extra inventory against
certain situations are termed as ________.
A. inventory
B. lot size
C. safety stock
D. Lead.
Answer: C
10. Which among the following costs is the expense of storing inventory for a specified
period of time?
A. Purchasing cost
B. Carrying cost
C. Financial cost
D. Storing cost.
Answer: B
12. Manufacturers actually print the labels provided to them and serial numbers to aid in
_______.
A. Quality audit
B. Quality control
C. Auditing process
D. Product quality.
Answer: B
13. The method of item placement that can accidentally substitute an item onto another is
_______.
A. Family grouping
B. Part grouping
C. ABC categorisation
D. Category mapping.
137
Answer: A
14. The movements of stock must be controlled with information regarding _______.
A. Space utilisation
B. Order status
C. Labour utilisation
D. Material protection.
Answer: B
15. The company should be prepared for any future demand from the customer by storing the
_____ in the distribution centres.
A. Delivery stock
B. Strategic stock
C. Safety stock
D. Overhead stock.
Answer: C
16. Which among the following improves the overall performance of the organisation and
helps to achieve efficient distribution and delivery system?
A. Just-in-Time
B. Master Production System
C. Customer responsiveness
D. Lead-time offsetting.
Answer: A
18. Identify the two components that make up the EOQ equation.
A. Order cost, setup cost
B. Quality cost, setup cost
C. Annual usage, carrying cost
D. Quality cost, annual usage.
Answer: C
138
D. None of the above.
Answer: C
Descriptive Questions: -
Question 1.What is Inventory? What is the purpose of Inventory in an organization? Describe
the various costs associated with the Inventory analysis
Question 2.Discuss concept of Inventory Management. Also define the term materials
handling.
Question 3.What is Inventory Control? Explain in detail the various methods of Inventory
control?
Question 4.Write a brief note on Economic Order Quantity. Explain dependent demand and
independent demand with example.
Question 5.Evaluate EOQ as a method of setting length of Production runs. What are its
strengths and Weaknesses?
139
Question 6.What are the assumptions of the basic EOQ Model? Distinguish between a fixed-
order- quantity system and fixed-time-period system.
Question 7.Explain how EOQ and ABC analysis method improves inventory control. What
are its advantages and disadvantages?
Question 8.Explain the ABC, SDE, FSN, VED and HML analysis technique of Inventory
Control.
Question 14.Write a note on ISO and its various series (ISO 9000, ISO 14000) applicable to
operations management.
Question 15.What is Six – Sigma? Write steps for implementing six – sigma.
Suggested Readings:
1. Kale S., Production and Operation Management, McGraw Hill Education.
5. Jacobs F. Robert and Chase Richard, Operations and Supply Chain Management, McGraw
Hill Education.
======================================================
140
Unit-IV
Unit-IV: Topics:
141
Plant Maintenance
1. Breakdown maintenance
2. Preventive maintenance
3. Predictive maintenance
4. Routine maintenance
5. Planned maintenance
Causes of breakdown-
Failure to replace worn out parts
Lack of lubrication
Neglected cooling system
Preventing maintenance-
The word ‘preventive’ refers to preventing breakdowns.
142
Preventive maintenance centres on reducing the risk of equipment failure by conducting routine
maintenance tasks, such as changing the oil or replacing certain parts
Preventive maintenance tasks often are scheduled (every week, month, quarter) or threshold-
based (every 3000 miles).
Predictive maintenance
Predictive maintenance involves predicting the likelihood of equipment failure through monitoring
and testing.
Routine Maintenance
Routine maintenance includes activities like periodic inspection, cleaning, lubricating and repair
of production equipments. These are the activities which occur on regular basis. These are
necessary to keep machine in running situation. Routine maintenance is simple and small in
nature. Simple, small scale activities associated with regular and general upkeep of a building,
equipment, machine, plant or system against normal wear and tear.
Examples of maintenance:
Running maintenance
Shutdown maintenance-when machinery is out of service
143
Benefits-
Increase the life-scan of equipment
This can reduce the need for reactive maintenance program
Routine maintenance are necessary to keep plant and equipments in good conditions leading to
fewer failures, better productivity, higher profitability and improved safety.
Planned maintenance
Planned maintenance is a proactive approach to maintenance in which maintenance work
is scheduled to take place on a regular basis. Process of planning the maintenance makes the tasks
more efficient and eliminates the effect of maintenance on the operations of the facility.
Objectives:
Targets
Zero breakdown
Zero equipment failure
Reduce maintenance cost by 50%
Improve reliability and maintainability by 50%
Ensures availability of spares all the time
144
deterioration and failure of equipment and seek realization of equipment that does not
require maintenance
5- Reliability centered maintenance- Under this maintenance method, a process used to
determine the maintenance requirements of any physical asset in its operating context.
Basically this maintenance methodology deals with some key issues not dealt with by
other maintenance programs.
IT in production management
Introduction
The mechanisms by which information technology (IT) creates business value has been debated
for over 40 years, starting with Leavitt and Whistler (1958). For early IT applications, the
value was generally viewed in terms of labor savings; byusing computers an organization can
automate data storage and retrieval, conduct routine transaction processing and improve
organizational communications. This reduces the need for file clerks, accountants and even
middlemanagersthattraditionallyperformedthosefunctions.Later,massivecomputerizationof
factories and equipment intensive service operations (package delivery, air transport) created
value by reducing the need for capital; computer-based scheduling and routing enable
transport vehicles to be used more effectively, reducing the need to expand fleets.
Manufacturing automation systems boost efficiency and utilization of existing facilities
enabling slower construction of new plants. Moreover, innovations in utilizing information for
supply chain management have enabled substantial reductions in raw materials and finished
goodsinventories.
Recently, the emphasis in IT investment has shifted away from cost savings toward new ways
of creating business value. For example, recent surveys of IT managers have revealed that
cost savings is no longer the primary concern in their technology strategy; improving time to
market, quality, customer service and other intangible, revenue enhancing projects now
145
appear to be the driver of new technology investments (Brynjolfsson and Hitt, 1996).
What is aComplement?
In the mid-1980s a number of authors proposed new work systems to contrast to the
traditional "mass production" style of organization that dates back to the beginning of the
industrial revolution. In batch manufacturing processes such as automobiles, new types of
organization such as flexible specialization (Pioriand Sabel, 1984), high performance work
systems (MacDuffie, 1995; Ichniowski, Prennushi and Shaw, 1996 ), and lean production
(Womack, James and Roos, 1988) have appeared. These general principles have also been
examined by others in broader samples of the economy (Osterman, 1994; Huselid, 1994) and
in more narrowly defined industries such as metalworking (Kelley, 1994). While the exact
description of these practices vary, they generally involve a combination of flexible machinery,
skilled employees, and increased delegation of authority to line workers ("empowerment"),
either through teams or through increased individual discretion.
There are at least two possible explanations for a complementarity between decentralized
organizations, skilled employees and IT. The first arises from the need to better utilize specific
knowledge (Hayek, 1945). Through communications technologies and expert systems, line
workerscanbeprovidedthenecessaryinformationaswellasanalyticalsupporttotakeactionon
specific information that they might posses by virtue of their direct contact with customers or
the production process (Fisher et. al., 1994; Brynjolfsson and Mendelson, 1993. Second, IT
may increase the demand for information processing, creating information overload on key
decision makers (Simon, 1976; Brynjolfsson, 1994). One way in which an organization can
expand its ability to process information is to delegate authority to line workers (Brynjolfsson
and Mendelson, 1993) or by building lateral communication links to enable individual decision
146
makers to be more effective (Galbraith, 1977). As information processing demands increase on
line workers it may also need to be coupled with an increase in the demand for cognitive skills
(Zuboff, 1986). Altogether, this suggests the possibility that IT will be more complementary
to higher skilled labor and those employees that posses high levels of decision authority. For
tasks that can be easily codified though rules or require relatively low level cognitive skills
(information retrieval and storage), IT can be used for automation, substituting for the use of
labor.
There had been a substantial increase in the use of manufacturing and service process
automation over the last twenty years in the form of flexible manufacturing (FMS), materials
resource planning (MRP I), manufacturing requirements planning (MRP II), computer
integrated manufacturing (CIM) and now enterprise resource planning (ERP). Since much of
these flexible production technologies involve embedded computing or other forms of
numerical or computer controls, this raises the possibility of a technical complementarity
between general purpose computing and flexible manufacturing.
These complementarities may explain both the rapid diffusion of ERP technology and the
difficulties many firms have in implementation. For instance, the SAP R/3 system, the most
popularERPsystem,isinstalledinover13,000sitesandSAPboaststhattheyhaveinstallations at
70% of the Fortune 500 (SAP annual report, 1998). However, there are numerous reports of
implementation failures and even litigation (e.g. Foxmeyer’s lawsuit against Andersen
consulting) resulting from both the technological and organizational complexity of
implementing thesesystems.
For this analysis the focus will be on four indicators of the “modern” organizational system:
Age of capital. Firms that utilize newer capital are much more likely to be using flexible
production technology with embedded computer-based controls or other potential
complements to IT. Older equipment is indicative of a mass-production orientation.
Decentralized work practices. Firms that allocate high levels of decision authority to their
workers, utilize self-direct work teams, have team-based incentives and train their workers
more extensively all suggest the use of modern production work practices. We examine both
an overall index of these practices as well as specific practices (e.g. teams) that are indicative
of decentralization. The index we use is based on previous work by Hitt (1996) and Hitt and
Brynjolfsson (1997).
Human Capital. Modern production organizations are likely to employ more skilled workers
as well as have a higher average level of skill and education in the work force. Specificallywe
use the percentage of skilled blue-collar workers to identify a skilled labor force.
Inventories. A related consequence of flexible production is that work in process and finished
goods inventories can be substantially reduced due to reduced need for production buffers.
We thus believe that inventory levels are good indicators of whether a firm has made other
complementary changes necessary to utilize flexible production.
147
In commerce, supply chain management (SCM), the management of the flow of goods and
services, involves the movement and storage of raw materials, of work-in-process inventory,
and of finished goods from point of origin to point of consumption.
Supply-chain management has been defined as the “design, planning, execution, control,
and monitoring of supply chain activities with the objective of creating net value, building a
competitive infrastructure, leveraging worldwide logistics, synchronizing supply with
demand and measuring performance globally.” SCM practice draws heavily from the areas of
industrial engineering, systems engineering, operations management, logistics, procurement,
information technology, and marketing and strives for an integrated approach.
Functions
SCM Processes-
148
Supply chain activities aren’t the responsibility of one person or one company. Multiple
people need to be actively involved in a number of different processes to make it work.
It’s kind of like baseball. While all the participants are called baseball players, they don’t do
whatever they want. Each person has a role – pitcher, catcher, shortstop, etc. – and must
perform well at their assigned duties – fielding, throwing, and/or hitting – for the team to be
successful.
Of course, these players need to work well together. A hit-and-run play will only be
successful if the base runner gets the signal and takes off running, while the batter makes
solid contact with the ball. The team also needs a manager to develop a game plan, put people
in the right positions, and monitor success.
Winning the SCM “game” requires supply chain professionals to play similar roles. Each
supply chain player must understand his or her role, develop winning strategies, and
collaborate with their supply chain teammates.
By doing so, the SCM team can flawlessly execute the following processes:
Planning – the plan process seeks to create effective long- and short-range supply
chain strategies. From the design of the supply chain network to the prediction of
customer demand, supply chain leaders need to develop integrated supply chain
strategies.
Procurement – the buy process focuses on the purchase of required raw materials,
components, and goods. As a consumer, you’re pretty familiar with buying stuff!
Production – the make process involves the manufacture, conversion, or assembly of
materials into finished goods or parts for other products. Supply chain managers
provide production support and ensure that key materials are available when needed.
Distribution – the move process manages the logistical flow of goods across the
supply chain. Transportation companies, third party logistics firms, and others ensure
that goods are flowing quickly and safely toward the point of demand.
Customer Interface – the demand process revolves around all the issues that are
related to planning customer interactions, satisfying their needs, and fulfilling orders
perfectly.
Principle 1: Segment customers based on the service needs of distinct groups and adapt
the supply chain to serve these segments profitably.
Principle 2: Customize the logistics network to the service requirements and
profitability of customer segments.
Principle 3: Listen to market signals and align demand planning accordingly across the
supply chain, ensuring consistent forecasts and optimal resource allocation.
Principle 4: Differentiate product closer to the customer and speed conversation across
the supply chain.
149
Principle 5: Manage sources of supply strategically to reduce the total cost of owning
materials and services.
Principle 6: Develop a supply chain-wide technology strategy that supports multiple
levels of decision making and gives clear view of the flow of products, services, and
information.
Principle 7: Adopt channel-spanning performance measures to gauge collective
success in reaching the end-user effectively and efficiently.
CAD/CAM Systems
CAD/CAM is a term which means computer-aided design and computer- aided
manufacturing. One of the greatest benefits of using computer aided design and drafting
software is the ease of manufacturing. The integration of computer aided design and
computer aided manufacturing (CAD /CAM) greatly reduces the time required for production
planning and allocation of jobs to various resources. Present day CAD and CAM systems
have become very well suited to each other and in many cases they look as a single unit
instead of two different systems. CAD/CAM is the technology concerned with the use of
digital computers to perform certain functions in design and production. Ultimately,
CAD/CAM will provide the technology base for the computer integrated factory of the
future.
Computer-aided design (CAD) can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist
in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. The computer systems
consist of the hardware and software to perform the specialized design functions required
by the particular user firm. The CAD hardware typically includes the computer, one or
more graphics display terminals, keyboards, and other peripheral equipment. The CAD
software consists of the computer programs to implement computer graphics on the
system plus application programs to facilitate the engineering functions of the user
company.
1. Computer monitoring and control: These are the direct applications in which the
computer is connected directly to the manufacturing process for the purpose of monitoring
or controlling the process.
2. Manufacturing support applications: These are the indirect applications in which the
computer is used in support of the production operations in the plant, but there is no direct
interface between the computer and the manufacturing process.
150
1) Designing tools and fixture for the manufacturing: For manufacture of every
component different tools and fixture are required. When designing has been done by
using CAD, and CAM is also integrated with the system, specifying and designing the
tools and fixtures for a particular job becomes very handy since all the drawings
describing dimensions and materials for the job are readily available from the CAD.
2) Programming for manufacturing the job: For manufacturing any job on computer
numerical controlled (CNC) machine, programming is very essential. In the program
for the job all the dimensions of the job and various machining processes that the job
has to undergo and the sequence in which these processes have to be carried out are
all mentioned. During programming process the time required for each machining
process is also considered. The computer controlled machine will carry out all the
machining processes as per the program. This program is in a particular language
similar to other computer languages. The CAD system makes the programming very
easier since all the data related to the materials, dimensions, finish required etc are
mentioned in the final design of the product and it can be directly used in the CAM
system for developing the program.
4) Shorter manufacturing lead times: With CAD various lead times required for
manufacturing are reduced. Making the schedules and forecast becomes much easier
and accurate by using integration of CAD and CAM.
5) Fast and accurate drawings: Waiting for the assembly and parts drawings of the
objects is one of most common reasons for the lost of time between designing and
manufacturing. With fast designing and drawing process using CAD systems, this
time can be reduced substantially. Further, the errors in designing and drawing are
very few so the production engineer does not have to frequently complain about the
mistakes in drawings, dimensions, and various fits.
151
Multi-facilities
Automatic functions
152
MCQs
Q.2 With the increase in cost of preventive maintenance, the breakdown maintenance
cost will ………………
a. Decreases
b. Increases at a faster rate
c. No change
d. Increases
Ans.2 (a)
Q.7 large-scale repairs of machines are a part of which of the following maintenance
activity?
a. Accidental Maintenance
b. Preventive Maintenance
153
c. Routing Maintenance
d. Scheduled Maintenance
Ans. 7(a)
154
B) Employees
C) Customers
D) Database
Answer: D
Q.16 Which of the following occurs when everyone involved in sourcing, producing, and
delivering the company's product works with the same information?
A) Eliminates redundancies
B) Cuts down wasted time
C) Removes misinformation
D) All of the above
Answer: D
Q.17 What are several different types of software, which sit in the middle of and
provide connectivity between two or more software applications?
A) Middleware
B) Enterprise application integration middleware
C) Automated business process
D) e-business infrastructure
Answer: A
Q.20 The initial stage of the supply chain process is the _____________.
A. Sourcing Stage
B. Organizing Stage
C. Planning stage
D. Directing Stage
Answer: C
155
Q.21 The term supply chain management was first coined by ______.
A. Frankel & Paulraj
B. Peter Drucker
C. Keith Oliver
D. Philip Kotler
Answer: C
Q.22 In supply chain management, after planning, the next step involves
______________.
A. Developing
B. Building a strong relationship with suppliers
C. Sourcing
D. All of the above
Answer: D
Answer: D
Unit-4: - Descriptive Questions: -
156
Question 7. Bring out the characteristics of CAD?
Question 12. Discuss the role of information technology in manufacturing and operation
management.
Question 13. Discuss in detail how technology affects operation system of an organisation?
Question 14. Discuss the role of Supply Chain Management in production system.
Suggested Readings:
1. Kale S., Production and Operation Management, McGraw Hill Education.
5. Jacobs F. Robert and Chase Richard, Operations and Supply Chain Management, McGraw
Hill Education.
Key words: CAD, CAM, Supply Chain Management, ERP, Information Technology.
157