SE.TABLE BY ROT/ Superelevation (Example Problem) TON ARO Superelevation (Example Problem) ‘SETABLE BY ROTATION AROUND CENTERLINE: [Superelevation| Ev. DIE [Supereiovation] Elv. Diff (4) |ws.t CL (m)| Elevation (m) (4) [ws cL (mm)| Elevation (m) [Distance] ‘Outor Inner Outor|Genter- inner [Diatanco| Outer | Taner [Outer] Inner Outer |Conter- Inner POINT () edge | edge edge | tine_| edge | PONT (a) edge | edge| edge | tine | edge [START G 0 0.08 [0.08 [374,96 375.0@]3749] START 0 0.08 | -0.08 | 374,96) 375.04)374.96] am 0.06 |-0.08 | 375.07] 378.14|375.06| 3.00 $0.06 | 0.08 | 375.07, 375.14) 375.06 13.80 1-001 [0.08 |375.37| 375.39]370.31 1380 0.0% | 0.08 | 375.37) 375.39) 375.31 lena, e z [Est fa + ozo) 1600 0.00 | 008 75.44] 375.44 375.36 eat 18.00 v.00] -0.08] 376.44) a7eel375 20 [2 260,00) 25.80, 0.04 |-0108 |375.67| 375.64) 575.55 2380. 0.04 | 0.08 | 376.67 375.64|375.55 iz 268.20) 52.00, 0.08 | -0.08 | 375.92] 375.64]375.76] 32.00) 0.08 |-0.08 | 375.92] 375.84|375.76) [2+ 270,00) 33.60 0.09-|-0.09 | 375.97|-375.89)375.60 7 33.80. 0.09-|-0.09 375.89) 375.80 fz 280,00) 43.00, (0:14 | -0.t4 [376.27] 376.t4]376.00) - 0,00) 43.0 0.14 |-0.14 [376.27] 376.14|376.00 [2+ 290 00)—53.60 0:19"|-0.19 | 376.57) 376.39)376.20 "2 200,00) 63.80 0:10"|-0.19 | 376.57] 376.39|378.20 FC [2 + 200,60|—54.40 (0:19 |-0.19 | 376.59) 876.40)376.21 [Poa = za0.60) 54.40 0:19 |-0.19 376.59) 376.40|576.21 [2 300,00) 65.80, (0:24 |-024 [376.871 376.64}376 40 '2 00,00) 63.00 0:26 |-0.28 [376.87] 376.64|376 40 ENDLS [2+ s09.80|73.60 (0.29"|-029 [377.17] 376.88) 376.59 [ENO LS 2 + 300,80) 73.60 (0.29 |-0.29] 377.17) 376.86|376.59) Superelevation (Example continued) ‘Compound Curves h Compound curve is the combination of two circular curves of different ais [ontecedge radii, It is shown in Figure 3.27. L 020m Such curves are normally not used in horizontal alignment of highways. = cent Compound curves are not desirable on highway due to its abrupt 20% 20% ——To08m 029m Inner ole syo72% Superelevation diagram (rotation around CENTERLINE). appearance, difficulty in superelevation transition and possible deception Of drivers to the sharpness of the curve. Compound curves may be acceptable if the difference in radius is small and if they occur in one-way roadway when radius increases in the direction of travel, ‘They are generally acceptable in intersections and at highway ramps.Compound Curves 2 oe ions 629) 30) G3) 32) tind 2 sing B33) Figure 3.27 Compound curve Reverse Curves © Two simple circular curves separated by a sort common tangent and having centers on opposite sides of the common tangent, The distance between P7 point of the first curve and the PC point of the second curve (PT,=PC, ) is controlled by the placement of L, lengths. © Turkish practice: PPC, = 23 (Lsy+Ls3). nth nee a \/ Figure 3.29: Reverse Curves (Turkish Practice) Broken-back Curve + Two curves in the same direction separated by a short tangent a | ™ ® S a Figure 3.28 Broken-back Curve © Such curves are not desirable and should be replaced by a single larger radius curve. Reverse Curves + For the limiting case, in other words when Pf ~PC, =2/3(Us, +Ls;), the superelevation application between the first curve and the second curve will be as shown in Figure 3.30 tiie (Over 00) —— ight (otc oe) vem ae a i contre er Fe, conning — a —! wens Lon ogee ie Ft es ren) So SR Oe it | Bla 2otn pte tty Figure 3.27: Superclevation diagram between reverse curves (Turkish Practice for limiting case, Le. PT; to PC; distance is equal to 2/3(La:+La))Reverse Curves * Similar full platform rotation is applied between the curves if 2X + lg) SPH PC < 213, + yp) by + Ly © Superelevation application of the curves will be independent when PR=PC, ® 203 lay + Lig) Ly +n Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves © The available sight distance to the driver is measured along the horizontal curve from the center of the inner lane (from the assumed location of the driver's line of sight). (Figure 3.31) 1% lr lerane (m) Ww stein shoud wth he: Assumed hig of ne of tight of th iver’ aye (84m) ight often) Figure 3.31 Lateral elearance due to eut slope Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves Adequate sight distance must be provided in the design of horizontal curves for stopping and passing operations. Sight distance restrictions ‘on horizontal curves occur when obstructions are present close to the inner edge of the highway. Horizontal sight restrictions may occur where there is a cut slope on the of the curve, For the 1080-mm [3.5-fi} eye height and the 600-mm [2.0-ft] object height used for stopping sight distance, a height of 840 mm [2.75 ft] may bbe used as the midpoint of the sight line where the cut slope usually obstructs sight. (Figure 3.31) In some instances, retaining walls, concrete median safety barriers, and. other similar features constructed on the inside of curves may be sight obstructions and should be checked for stopping sight distance. Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves For stopping sight distance (S,): There are two different cases; A) Curve length measured along the center of the inner lane (L,) is greater than or equal to S,, B) Lm is less than S, A) Case 1 (Ln>S;) - The lateral clearance M, (the middle ordinate of a curve that has an are length of equal to the stopping sight distance) should be available so that sufficient distance for stopping is provided within the line of| sight of the driver. ~ This condition is shown in Fig. 3.32Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves Sient Cites! Higheay ese ane igure 3.32 Stopping sight distance consideration on horizontal curve (Lx.> S,) Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves From Fig, 3.32 Ae = 3.34) M,=R, G35) Inserting Eq, 3.34 in Eq, 3.35 636) 37) Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves In Figure 3.32, R= radius measured to the centerline of the road (m). Ra= radius to the vehicle's traveled path (measured along the centerline of the inner lane) 4 = central angle or intersection angle of the curve A, = angle subtended by an are equal to required 5, (m) Zn= length of the curve along the centerline of inner lane (m) S, = stopping sight distance (m) M,= Lateral clearance due to sight obstruction (m) Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves Example 3.9: What should be the minimum side clearance (M,) at a circular horizontal curve of a two lane highway if the curve radius (R) is 500 m, intersection angle (A) is 30° lane width is 3.50 m and stopping sight distance (Sis 155 m? Solution: Ry =R-w/2 = 500—3.5/2 = 498.25 m Ly = 30 1/180) * 498.25 = 260.88 m > S,, thereforeSight Distance on Horizontal Curves B) Case 2 (Lu 55) 3.43) G44) 3.46) a1, 2Ma= Mn) Max(S,)= by + Gan) General Controls for Horizontal Alignment (AASHTO 2004) ~ In general, the number of short curves should be kept to a minimum. - Winding alignment composed of short curves should be avoided because it usually leads to erratic operation. = Although the aesthetic qualities of curving alignment are important, Jong tangents are needed on two-lane highways so that sufficient passing sight distance is available on as great a percentage of the highway length as practical. In alignment developed for a given design speed, the minimum radius of curvature for that speed should be avoided wherever practical, The designer should attempt to use generally flat curves, saving the minimum radius for the most critical conditions. In general, the central angle of each curve should be as small as the physical conditions permit, so that the highway will be as directional as practical.General Controls for Horizontal Alignment (AASHTO 2004) * Consistent alignment should always be sought. Sharp curves should not be introduced at the ends of long tangents, Sudden changes from areas of flat curvature to areas of sharp curvature should be avoided, Where sharp curvature is introduced, it should be approached, where practical, by a series of successively sharper curves. For small deflection angles, curves should be sufficiently long to avoid the appearance of a kink ~ Curves should be at least 150 m [500 ft] long or a central angle of 5 degrees, and the minimum length should be increased 30 m [100 ft] for each I-degree decrease in the central angle. General Controls for Horizontal Alignment (AASHTO 2004) * Abrupt reversals in alignment should be avoided. Such changes in alignment make it difficult for drivers to keep within their own lane. It is also difficult to superelevate both curves adequately, and erratic operation may result, - The distance between reverse curves should be the sum of the superelevation runoff lengths and the tangent runout lengths or, preferably, an equivalent length with spiral curves, - If sufficient distance (i.c., more than 100 m [300 fi]) is not available to permit the tangent runout lengths or preferably an equivalent length with spiral to retum to a normal crown section, there may be a long length where the centerline and the edges of roadway are at the same elevation and poor transverse drainage can be expected. In this ease, the superelevation runoff lengths should be increased until they adjoin, thus providing one instantaneous level section General Controls for Horizontal Alignment (AASHTO 2004) = The minimum length for horizontal curves on main highways, Lenin should be about three times the design speed (V) expressed in km/h Leg 3V 48) - On high-speed controlled-access facilities that use flat curvature, for aesthetic reasons, the desirable minimum length for curves should be about double the minimum length described above, or Lenin = 6V (3.49) Sharp curvature should be avoided on long, high fills. Caution should be exercised in the use of compound circular curves. General Controls for Horizontal Alignment (AASHTO 2004) The "broken-back" or "flat-back" arrangement of curves (with a short tangent between two curves in the same direction) should be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-of-way conditions make other alternatives impractical To avoid the appearance of tent distortion, the horizontal alignment should be coordinated carefully with the profile design. General controls for this coordination are discussed in the section of this chapter on "Combinations of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment.’Vertical Alignment Introduction: '* Vertical curves provide the transition of roadway elevations between two grades with an acceptable level of driver safety, driver comfort and proper surface Srainage from rainfall cunoft. ‘The points in a vertical curve are defined by their station kilometers and elevations even ia horizontal alignment overlaps with the vertical alignment as Indicated by Fig. 3.33 below. Figure 3.33 Vertical alignment overlapped with a horizontal alignment Gy ag Verteat Cuvos Figure 3.34 Crest vertical curves (ontop) and Sag vertical cures at bottom) Vertical Alignment ‘Vertical alignments are classified in two categories 1) Crest vertical curves and 2) Sag vertical curves, according to the AASHTO 2004 guidelines. ‘+ Avertical curve defines the station klometers and elevation of points along the curve length (U) between the points PVC and PVT with an intersection point of PVI as shown in Fig. 3.35, ‘Vertical curves are designed in a way that half ofthe curve length (1/2) is positioned before the point PVI while the other half after the point PVI (called equabtangent vertical curve) as shown in Fig. 3.34, Vertical Curve Fundamentals intial roadway grade in percent or (r/m) (this grade is also referred to as the initial tangent grade, viewing profiles in Fig 3.34 from left to right), final roadway (tangent) grade in percent or (ra/m), ‘A= absolute value of the difference in grades (initial minus final, usually expressed Inpercent), length of the curve in stations or (m) measured in a constant-elevation horizontal plane. PVC: point of the vertical curve {the intial point ofthe curve), PV point of vertical intersection intersection of initial and final grades), and PVT= point of vertical tangent, which isthe final point of the vertical curve (the point ‘where the curve returns to the final grade or, equivalently, the final tangent).Parabolic Vertical Curves * Vertical curves are defined by a mathematical relationship correlating elevations. “with the corresponding stations kilometer points. * The most common mathematical relation used for vertical alignments is the parabolic equations due to such reasons as © They provide constant rate of change of slope hence providing smooth transition from one grade to another © They are mathematically simple to calculate and lay out in the field ‘© They have good sight distance properties ‘Details ofa typical parabolic vertical curve are shown in Fig. 3.35, Parabolic Vertical Curves = initial roadway grade in percent or (m/m) (this grade is also referred to as the inital tangent grade, viewing Fig. 3.35 from left to right), G_= Afinal roadway tangent) grade in percent or (m/m), Y= offset at any distance x from the PVCin (m), Y= mid-curve offset in (rn), Y= offset at the end of the vertical curve in (m), x= distance from the PVC in (m), ‘L= length of the curve in stations or (m), measured in a constant-elevation horizontal plane, PVC=point ofthe vertical curve (the intial point ofthe curve), PVl= point of vertical intersection (intersection of intial and final grades), and 'PVT=point of vertical tangent, which isthe final point of the vertical curve (the point where the curve returns to the final grade or, equivalently, the final tangent) Parabolic Vertical Curves rabolle vertical curve Parabolic Vertical Curves * The basic parabolic equation used for a vertical alignment in Fig. 3.35 is defined ax? torte (350) where y= roadway elevation (m) .x= distance from the beginning of the vertical alignment PVT (m) 4, b= coefficients as defined below c= elevation of the point PVC (when, ) '* To determine the coefficients a and b, the first and the second derivate are used as follows:Parabolic Vertical Curves +» Tocalculate the constant band a, take the frst derivate with respect tox Borax +d esn Since at peint PVC (x =0), the slope is G, then (352) Since at point PVT (x (asa) (asa) (ass) Parabolic Vertical Curves + The parabolic alignments have also other useful properties that can be calculated to easily set them out. These properties are: mid-curve offset (Y,), end-urve offset (1) and the Kvalue «The off-set distances shown in Fig. 3.35 can be calculated from the equal-tangent parabolic curve properties as follows: yaA (357) where A = |G, ~ Gy the absolute value of the differences in grades expressed Inpercent ‘+ Based on Fig. 3.35 and Eg, (3.57), the mid-curve offset can be calculated as: Yu (353) Pi bolic Vertical Curves * For such equal-tangent parabolic curves, the rate of change of slope (d"y/d) Is ‘equal to the average rate of change of slope through the vertical curve: tag = (3.56) where, G,= initial roadway grade; Gy= final roadway grad urve length spanning from PVC to PVT points Note: Care must be taken to ensure that the coefficients @ and b give the unit of (im) when multiplied by x” and x, respectively Parabolic Vertical Curves ++ The end-curve offset can also be calculated ina similar manner a eo 59) * The K-value is another useful property that gives the horizontal distance required to change 1% slope. Since the parabolic equation in Eq, (3.50) gives a constant rate of change n slope, it can be shown that; Ket (3.60) where jorizontal distance required to change 1% slope of the curve, , = curve length (mn), |G, ~ Gal the absolute value ofthe difference in grades (%)Parabolic Vertical Curves ** The K:value can be used to compute the high and low point locations on the crest and sag vertical curves, respectively (i high/low point does not occur on PVC or PVT). * High/low point location can be easily calculated by setting dy/de-0 and solving Eq, (3.51) for x and then replacing the value of a and b as determined from Eq. (3.52) and (3.53) so that; ElG,1 = KIG) (3.61) where x= distance from PVC to the high/low point; K, Gs (%) are as determined before, ‘= The K-values also used to simplify the sight distance calculations, as will be iMstrated inthe subsequent sections. a) Since the curve is an equal-tangent alignment, the station ofthe PVI and PVT wil be: 181.600 + 182.880/2 = 5+273.040 and +181.600 + 182.880 = 5+364.480 {tis given that the inital grade Gy, 3.5% and the fina grade Is G= 10.5%, Then, Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PYC+ Gy (distance from P/C'to PV). Elevation of PVT'= Elevation of PV + GX (distance from PVto PVT. Hence, Elevation of P= 308,800 m_-3.5%x (182.880/2) Elevation of PVT'= 301.600+0.5% x (182,880/2) «Since the G, and G; have opposite signs, the lowest point will be on the curve. ‘Example 3.10: A 182.880 m equal-tangent sag vertical curve has the PVC at station '5+181.600 and elevation 304,800 m. The Initial grade is 3.5%, and the final grade Is. 40.5%. Determine a) the stationing, b) elevation of the PVI, the PVT, and e) the owest point on the curve, Solution; xy IGIK = Gl or From Eq, (3.52), From Eq. (3.54), 0.010936/100 Zooguze0o} Substituting the value of a and b into Eq.(3.51) gives; => y= 160.020 m 2(0.010936/100)xy; + (-35/100) St. Km of lowest point = St. km PVC +x => 5#181,600 + 160,020 = 5+341.620 Elevation of the lowest point y = ax? + bx + 2016755)(160.020)? + (-22) (160.020) + (304.800) = 302.000 m