Passing Sight Distance 3-TRANPORTATION FACILITY DESIGN PROCESS Solution: From Table 2.4; ¥= 74.0 km/h and (V-m) = 59.0 km/h. Then, using Eqs 2.46 and 2.47; d= 0.278 *4.10* (59.0 + 4.10*2.32/2) = 72.67 m d,=0.278 * 74.0 * 10.4 = 213.95 m dy = 2/3*(213.95) = 142.63 m And it follows Spaditdrtd std, 5S, = 72.67 + 213.95 + 53.0 + 142.63 = 482.25 m ‘Note that, for design purpose ASSHTO rounds up 485m. value and takes 5, s7 Design Process The design process for a transportation facility or transportation systems is a ‘mixture of technical, legal, and political elements. In general, planning refers to the more general and abstract parts of the process and design to the more detailed and concrete; both involve use of rational process to decide how to use the available resources to achieve goals. The overall design process is a coordinated process of information gathering, analysis and decision-making. In most cases, it is open-ended (there is no one right answer, although some answers may be better than others in terms of particular goals), and iterative, so that various alternatives are proposed and evaluated before the final decision. Figure 3.1 The Design Process (Banks, Fig. 3.1, p48)Design Process ‘The basic phases are labeled as * planning, « traffic design, * location * physical design, * and resulting in ultimately construction of the facility. ‘These phases overlap to some extent, and some of them may repeat many times, Design Codes In Turkey General Directorate of Highways (Karayollart Genel Mitdiirligit) establishes the design standards for highways. Municipality roads are under the responsibility of municipalities and there are standards established by Turkish Standards Institute (Tiirk Standartlart Enstitiisii) for certain design features, such as intersections, biking lanes, Pedestrian walkways, etc, but there is no legal system to force municipalities to follow these standards. Design Codes Responsibility for the establishment of design standards varies, depending on the type of facility and country. In the USA, the design standards for the state highways are established by the state departments of transportations, which usually are based on recommended standards of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), The principal source of recommended standards for the geometric design is the AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (often referred to as the “Green Book”) In addition, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has established the ‘minimum design standards for the Interstate System, Design Documents In most cases, the agency owning the facility will contract out its construction. In order to solicit bids from potential contractors or to enter into contract, it is necessary to document the design, allowable materials, and required construction techniques in detail. Bid documents are often spoken of as including plans, specifications, and estimations. Plans refers to drawings, usually accompanied by notes of various aspects or components of the design Specifications are written instructions detailing how the fa constructed. ility is to be Estimates include cost estimates for various parts of the project and are used to evaluate the acceptability of bids and financial feasibility of the project.Design Documents Design Documents Construction plans for linear transportation projects (highways, railways, runways, etc.) consist of four basic elements: 1) The plan view (or simply the “plan”): the drawing of the facility as it ‘would look to an observer directly above it (See Figure 2) 2) The profile : It has elevation as its vertical axis, and horizontal distance, as measured along the centerline of the facility (or other recognized reference line) as its horizontal axis (See Figure 3) 3) The geometric cross sections: It has elevation as its vertical axis and horizontal distance, measured perpendicular to the centerline, as its horizontal axis (See Figure 4). 4) The superelevation diagram: For curved facilities (in highways or railways), it consists of a graph with roadway or railway cross-slope (vertical axis) versus horizontal distance (horizontal axis). Design Documents Design Documents igure 3.3 Highway profile and superelovation (Banks, Figure 3.4, p. $9) Figure 3.4 A typical road cross sectionDesign Documents # It should be noted that the plan view and the profile are not orthogonal views — horizontal distance in the profile is measured along the centerline, as if the facility were “stretched out” not along the arbitrary x-axis, * The line representing the facility on the profile is called profile grade. For ‘most highway applications, the profile grade represents the elevation of the pavement at the centerline of the facility. For multilane divided highways, it may represent the elevation of the inside edge of the pavement. In other words, unless otherwise specified, for a straight section, profile grade represents the highest point on the surface of the facility. HIGHWAY DESIGN PROCESS Design Documents Locations along the centerline are identified by stations * Distances along the centerlines may be measured in distances or stations. A distance of 1024.5 m will be 1+024.50 station, * Elevations are in meters above some datum * Grades (longitudinal slopes) are expressed as decimal fractions (m/m) * Cross-slopes are normally specified in m/m or in percentage HIGHWAY DESIGN PROCESS Highway design process requires the determination of a variety of design elements. The geometric design features of a highway can be listed as, geometric class of the number of lanes, lane shoulder width, ‘median if available, - elements of horizontal and vertical ali - acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes. Pavement structure and accessories such as retaining walls, drainage guardrails, fences and similar can also be counted as components to They require special attention considering both structural and traffic safety aspects.HIGHWAY DESIGN PROCESS, Initial step in highway design is the decision making process, generally called as feasibility study, which requites a compact research covering extensive surveys, future traffic estimations, a preliminary design and economic analysis. During this phase of the process the location, the geometric class and the functional category of the highway to be designed are fixed and thus the design standards to be applied are also selected. ‘The design standards for different classes of highways are developed considering the demand level at one hand and road-vehicle-driver system at the other. In this chapter, highway location and geometric design elements and design criteria for highways and highway design standards will be discussed. General Considerations in Locating Highways ‘There are two types of control points. 8) Major Control Points: A location where the highway must serve definitely. The origin and destination of the highway (a mining area, a railroad station or a harbor, a resort area, cities and similar) and the ‘other locations between origin and destination which the highway must serve are major control points. Such control points cannot be avoided. b) Minor Control Points: Minor control points also affect the locations of a highway, but they can be avoided when necessary. Low lying areas object to flooding, swamps, wooded areas, educational and medical centers, historical buildings, entrances to cities are among, minor control points. General Considerations in Locating Highways ‘There are many operational, environmental and social factors that affect and/or control the location of highways. Strategies are developed to consider these factors through defining control points to achieve proper highway location. A control point is a locality which determines directly or indirectly the origin and destination, and the physical route between these two points. General Considerations in Locating Highways There are several items to be considered in detecting major and minor control points and will be helpful in selection of highway location. 1+ The highway should be able to serve the development of a convenient, continuous, and free-flow of traffic 2+ Grades and amount of curvatures should be as low as possible. 3- Avoid sudden changes in the sight distance. 4- Avoid having a horizontal curve on o adjacent to a vertical curve. 5- In urban areas, locate the highway on undeveloped areas rather than highly developed expensive areas. (sce Part 3_ Handout 1 for more )Surveys for Highway Location ‘The determinant of the alignment may be done either by conventional ground survey methods, or by aerial photogrammetry. While the other simpler techniques are still used for small projects, the use of photogrammetric surveys on big projects is almost universal and becoming more frequent on smaller projects. Adaptation of photogrammetric techniques to computer operators has enabled substantial savings over conventional methods in terms of time and money. Survey work can be divided into three basic sequential groups: a) Reconnaissence b) Preliminary Survey ©) Final Location Survey Surveys for Highway Location survey is The final location survey serves the dual purpose of permanently establishing the centerline and collecting information necessary for the preparation of plans for construction, Centerline status is placed at lected intervals and curves are staked out. Bench marks are established and cross sections are taken at selected intervals. This information is necessary for accurate determination of existing grade line, design of drainage structures, computation of earth work quantities, and in general, and estimation of work to be done. Here again the use of photogrammetric methods can effect economies in the final location. Surveys for Highway Location © The term “reconnaissance” may be defined as an exhaustive preliminary study of an area in which the improvement is to be made. ‘The first step in any reconnaissance is to procure all available pertinent data: These data ‘may be in the form of maps, aerial photographs, charts, or graphs and so ‘on, and may require the application of a large variety of engineering and economic knowledge. » The purpose of a preliminary survey is to gather information about all the physical features which affect the tentatively accepted route, and to prepare a preliminary map upon which the final location survey can be made, The most likely route selected is the one that best satisfies the directness, the suitability to the terrain encountered, and the adequacy and the ‘economy of crossings at water courses and other transportation routes. GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS. Highway alignment is originally a 3-dimensional problem. The photograph in Fig.3.5 clearly indicates the three dimensional feature of a highway. Fig, 3.6 also illustrates three dimensional character of a two-lane highway from a deriver’s perspective.Figure 35 View of two-lane highway Figure 3.6 Highway Alignment in three dimensions (ref. 1) However, highway alignment is generally treated as a combined problem of a 2-dimensional problem on plan and a 2-dimensional problem on profile, due to complexity of design computations in three dimensions. Cross-section elements [ sna | Figure 3.8 A typical cross-section for a two-lane highway Components of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment ‘The horizontal alignment is presented on a plan view whereas the vertical alignment is drawn as a profile view as shown in Fig,3.7. a Figure 3.7 Highway alignment in two-dimensional views. (rf. 1) Cross-section elements Figure 3.9 Cross section of a divided 2x2 highwayHorizontal Alignment © Constructing the horizontal alignment is simply the task of locating the centerline of the proposed highway with due consideration of design standards. However it is a complex process since there are no deterministic ‘methods to achieve the best and the most feasible route. © The zero line method might be used to provide a guidance to locate the centerline of the highway between two successive topographic control points. © The purpose of zero line method is to develop a route with selected grades not exceeding the maximum such that the amount of excavation or embankment is negligible along the centerline. Even though the final alignment will certainly deviate from the zero line, the zero line will be guideline to construct the alignment such that the amount of earthwork will be minimized as much as possible. Construct zero line by starting from one of the points by applying the grade (G) sequentially from one contour line to the next until reaching nearby the next point, * By applying the calculated grade “G” as it is may not result with a 2e0 we reaching nearby the second point since the path traversed by the zero tne application will not be a straight line but a combination of broken lines as seen in Fig. 3.10. If the topography is highly imegular then zero line might diverge away from the target point. For this reason, as the first trial grade it is better to select a milder slope (G’) than the one calculated for straight path (i. when you calculate G as 5.0 % by Eq. 3.1 take G* as 4.5% or even smaller). Zero-line Method © The first step: select two topographic control points such that the topographic characteristics of the area between these points do not change considerably and the final route is expected to be continuously rising or falling. © The second step: measure the aerial distance, AL, between these points. Then the uniform grade (G) that will satisfy a straight line route ig these points will be calculated as follows: G= 100 AHIAL GB.) Where, AH= Elevation difference between start and end points of zero line (m) AL crial distance between start and end points of zero line (m) Zero-line Method * After selecting the trial grade G” the distance required to traverse from one contour line to the next is calculated by: d= 100 WG" G2) where, d = horizontal distance from one contour line to the next (m) +h = contour interval, elevation difference between two successive contour lines (m) G* = selected trial gradient (%) Divider opening (D0) to be applied on a given map of scale S is calculated by: =100dS © Construct zeroline on the given map by applying the di 0 ‘one contour line to the next in a stepwise manner until the contour line nearby the point on the other ends is reached as shown in Fig, 3.10.Figure 3.10 Demonstration of ero line application on a sample topographic map Elements of Horizontal alignment ignment of a highway is represented by the centerline route which is normally constructed by combining straight lines and horizontal curves © The alignment formed by only straight lines without curves polygonal alignment. called the we 3.11 A sample polygonal alignment Example 3.1 For the zero line application demonstrated on Fig. 3.10, if the scale of the map (8) is 1/2000, calculate the divider opening (DO) for the values that can be read from the map. ‘Solution: ‘The following data is readily obtained from the map: AL=280.m H, = 100 m (Elevation of point A) 14 m (Elevation of point B) 1.0m Hy—H) = 114.0 100.0 (OO*AHIAL = 100 *14/280 = 5. 7 is applied as the first trial grade, the horizontal distance to be traversed from one contour line to the next will be: 100* A/G = 100*1.0/5.0= 20 m (00 *d*S = 100*20.0* (1/2000) = 1.0 em Elements of Horizontal alignment Figure 3.12 Elements of horizontal alignment with circular eurves, « For most of highways and streets horizontal curves will be circular. * The route will be marked at stations having definite distances in between and every station will be addressed by its station km with respect to the starting point of the project.Elements of Horizontal alignment * The successive stations are normally labeled by numbers (1, 2, 3 etc). If needed, some stations can be labeled by capital letters (A, B ete.) to indicate special reference points. ‘* Some specific points on the centerline route like starting and end points of a curve are labeled by definite abbreviations of the naming of those points. For example, the starting point of a simple circular curve is called as “Point of Curve” and labeled as “PC” point, and the ending point is called as “Point of Tangent” and labeled as “PT”. Straight portions of the alignment are also referred to as tangents. The remaining parameters in Fig. 3.11 and 3.12 are as follows: PI = point of intersection A = Intersection angle (degrees or grads) PC = point of curve PT = point of Tangent Circular curves Figure 3.13 Blements of a simple circular horizontal curve Cireular curves © Circular curves used in horizontal alignment are simply a portion of a circle of radius (R) subtended by the central angle (4), ‘© Since this portion of the circle is located in between two successive straight lines (tangent lines) and the circle is tangent to these lines, the central angle of the circle and the intersection angle at that point are exactly the same and both are labeled by “A”. Cireular curves In Fig. 3.13, A =central angle or intersection angle) (in degrees: A°, in radians: A’ ) R = radius of the curve (m) curve length (m) PI point of intersection PC = beginning point of horizontal curve (point of curve) of horizontal curve (point of tangent) T = tangent length (m) E = External distance (m) middle ordinate (m) ong chord (m) any are length (m) any cord length (m) = central angle subtending any arc length J, (m) M K 4 a BBasic Relations for circular highway eurves Degree of Curve (curvature): the central angle subtended by unit length of are (1 m or 100 m) of a circle. For | m are length and curve radius R: 1 180 D o =D G4) Where, D = degree of curve (in radians) D? = degree of curve (in degrees) Curve length: peer L=RS or 180 G5) Basic Relations for circular highway curves f= G.10) LR oy Gully K,=2Rsin(f,/2) 4, k, =2Rsin(l,D/2) G.12) Basic Relations for circular highway curves Tangent length: Pee aia r ~new( 4) 66) External distance: «Asay on M = R(\-cos(A/2)) (3.8) Long chord: K = 2Rsin(4/2) G9) Stationing (Polygonal and true station kilometers) ‘© The stations are marked on the centerline route * The station kilometer (St. Km.) of any point on the project is expressed in the format of Hi¥ + #iH#.4# where the digits before “+” gives the Kilometer, three digits after “+” indicates meters and two digits after “.” icate centimeters. * For polygonal alignment the stationing is based on lengths of straight lines forming the polygon. © The reference points for a polygonal alignment are starting and ending points of the project and the intersection points in between,Stationing (Polygonal and true station kilometers) Example 3.2 ‘The intermediate distances between reference points of the polygonal alignment shown in Figure 3.11 are given as follows: = 298.00 m = 306.20 m =272.20m =331.72m B =373.13m Determine the polygonal stations of all reference points taking station km of point A (St. A) as 0+000.00. Stati ing (Polygonal and true station kilometers) * Stationing for a horizontal alignment with circular curves runs along the centerline route of the highway formed by straight lines (tangent lines) and circular curves. * For this case the particular stations for the horizontal alignment will be the points A, PCy, PTs, PC, PT and so on. * In order to determine the true station kilometers of these stations, it is necessary to calculate curve lengths (L,’s), and tangent lengths (7s) of the curves. Then true stations of succeeding reference points can be calculated in sequential manner starting from a given reference station. Stationing (Polygonal and true station kilometers) ‘Solution; P.St.PI=P.St.A+ 4-2, =(0+000.00) + 298.00 =0 + 298.00 P. St. P= P. St. Pl; + (0 + 298.00) + 306.20 = 0 + 604.20 P. St. Pl =P. St. Ply + (0 + 604.20) + 272.20 = 0 + 876.40 P. St. Ply=P. St. Ply + (0+ 876.40) + 331.72 = 1 +208.12 P.St.B =P. St. Ply + 1 +208.12) 4373.13 =1+581.25 joning (Polygonal and true station kilometers) Example 3.3 Calculate the true stations of reference points (PC), PT;, PC, PT:, PCs, PT:) of the alignment shown in Fig. 3.12 for the same polygon of Example 3.1 and the below given data. Radius (Ri) Int. Angle (Aj) 250.00 m 45.00" 200.00 m. 60.00" 250.00 m 35.00"Stationing (Polygonal and true station kilometers) Sol ‘Curve Lengths and tangent Lengths: Curve] Rm) | A° [T= R tan(G/2)|7 = A” R(wW/180) | 1 |250.00|45.00| 103.553 m 196,350 m. 2 |200.00/60.00| 115.470 | _209.440 m ~3_[250.00/35.00) 78.825 m 152.716 m Distances of straight portions: PG, = 298.00 — 103.553 =194,447 m PI =PC, = 7-7, 306.20 103.553 — 115,470 =87.177m 7—Ph,-T,-T, =272.00—115.470— 78.825 = 77.705 m ‘Transition curves * When a vehicle moving on a straight enters a circular curve of radius (R,) and continues to move on curved path, it is affected by the centrifugal force. * This force tends to push the vehicle out of its course and also to overturn the vehicle. In such cases the driver is forced to either slow down the vehicle or leave its course, # For most curves, drivers can follow a suitable transition path within the limits of normal lane width. + However, high speeds and small radii lead to longer transition paths 1g in shifts in lateral positions and sometimes encroachment on ing lanes which may be quite dangerous. Then, St Km. PC; t. Km. A+ APC, =(0 + 000.00) + 194.447 = 0+ 194.447 St. Km. PT;= St. Km. PC, +L; = (0+ 194.447) + 196.350 = 0 + 390.796 St Km, PC;= St. Km. PT; + Pl,—PC; = (0 +390.796) + 87.177 0 + 477.973 St. Km, PT;= St. Km, PC; + Lz (0+ 477.973) + 209.440 =0 + 687.412 St Km. PCs= St. Km, PT, + PL,=PC, = (0 + 687.412) + 77.105 =0+765.317 St. Km. PT;= St. km. PCs+L5 = (0+ 765.317) + 152.716= 0 + 918.033 ‘Transition curves © Two precautions may be taken to limit the adverse effects of the centrifugal force: a) Superelevate the curve (will be seen later) b) Place a transition curve between the straight and the circular curve ion curve is a curve with radius decreasing through its length from infinity down to the radius (R.) of the circular curve. This provides ‘opportunity to driver to adjust and adopt the centrifugal foree gradually. © The principle advantages of transition curves in horizontal alignments of highways are: 1. A properly designed transition curve minimizes encroachment of vehicles on adjoining traffic lanes and simulates the natural turning path of the vehicle.2. The transition curve length provides a suitable location for the superelevation. 3. A transition curve also facilitates curve widening, 4. The appearance of the highway or street is enhanced by the appli of tran: + There are three different curve types commonly used as tran: in horizontal alignment, a) Lemniscate, ) Cubic parabola ) Clothoid (Euler's spiral), ‘Samples of these curves are shown in figures 3.14, 3.15 and 3.16. + Because of its analytical simplicity and relatively easier application at site, among the transition curves mentioned above the most commonly used one in highway design is the clothoid (Euler's spiral). * For spirals the radius of the curvature varies as the inverse of the distance along the curve measured from its beginning, ‘Transition curves Figure 3.14 Lemniscate Figure 3.15 Cubic Parabola curve in horizontal alignment is shown in Fig. 3.17, where “Zs” is the length of spiral used at both ends of the inner circular curve. Figure 3.17 Spiral ~ circular curve spiral application ata highway bent‘Transition curves ‘The parameters of such a symmetric spiral ~ circular curve ~ spiral application shown in figure 3.17 are: itersection angle (A': in radians, A°: in degrees) ‘A.= central angle of inner circular curve TS= tangent to spiral SC= spiral to curve cs TS = spiral to tangent curve to spiral 8, = maximum spiral angle (6: in radians, 82 : in degrees) R, = radius of inner circular curve Y, X, = Local coordinates of SC with respect to point TS Setting out horizontal circular curves # It is necessary to locate points (stations) along the centerline of the horizontal alignment. * It is straightforward to locate stations along the straight portions of the alignment. On the other hand, in order to locate the stations along a circular curve ial treatment involving some calculations and special site work are + The process is called as either setting out or staking out the curve, + In practice today, this work is very simple with the use of available precise surveying instruments. * However, in order to understand the basic calculations necessary to develop data tables needed for use of such instruments it is valuable to study two old fashioned method commonly called as deflection angles ‘method and coordinates method. ‘Transition curves * The use of spiral transition is found to increase safety and obtain operational benefits only when they are used for radii less than some suggested maximum values ® Table 3.1 gives the maximum radii above which the safety benefits of spiral curve transitions are likely to be negligible. ‘Table 3.1 Maximum Radius for Use of Spiral Transition (AASHTO 2004) ‘Dig Sed) Mason ra) Deflection angles method PI As va Figure 3.18 Deflection angles method.Deflection angles method © In the figure, d,= deflection angles 1,=are lengths 4, = central angle subtending arc lengths /,s * Deflection angles are readily calculated as follows: D +h )= Gths * The relation for deflection angle can be generalized as: D 4d G.13) Deflection angles method Example 3.4 The following circular curve will be set by staking the centerline at regular stations. Calculate deflection angles and cord lengths for the stations on the ‘curve to set the curve. (Note: use 20m even stations) 10+210.10 Deflection angles method * For a given circular curve the steps for staking out the points on the curve with known {distances inbetween are as follows: = Calculate dj and k, ~ Set thedolite on PC, sight P/ with angle 0.00 reading - Turn theodolite by angle d;, measure k, distance along line of sight, set, first point (1) ~ Complete angle to d, measure kp from point (1), sight and distance ky is point (2) itersection of line of ~ Repeat the process for all remaining points. * Generally, the curves are staked out at regular stations of project unless otherwise indicated. For /; less than 0.12 than &, can be taken equal to /, to facilitate computations. Deflection angles method Solution Fa A” = 75 150.00"38.00 =99.48%m 180 St. PP=StPC +L 10:+210.10) + 99.48 = 10 + 309.58 =0.381972 Calculations in tabular form: ‘Station ‘Km, h a ‘k= 2Rsin(l,D/2) | @ (=) Fo_| ora] 0 —| 0 — 1 | 10+ 22000] 9590 | 990 390 | 2—[108-240,00| 20.00 | 2950 1999 3 | 10-260. —20.00[49.90 1999] 4—|10280,00| 20.00 | 69.50 199 5—| —10-+ 300.00 20.00 [$9.90 19.9 (er “10+ 309.58| 9.58 [99a 958Coordinates method @ In this method, PC point is selected as the origin of local x-y coordinate system as shown in Figure 3.19, Fig. 3.19 Setting out circular curve by coordinates method. Coordinates method And x coordinates are calculated as follows: x, = R(L—cos 8) = Rll —cos(l,D)] 2, = Rfl-cos(f, + 2,)]= R[l-c0s DG, +/,)] R[l-cos(f, + A; + B:)]= Rll cos DU, +1, +1,)] a =aft-so(03:]| @.15) Coordinates method * xy coordinates of the stations on the curve are calculated with respect to the seleceted coordinate system as shown in Figure 3.19. Then, y coordinates are measured along the tangent and x coordinates (offsets) are ‘measured perpendicular to tangent Line to lay out, «© Referring Fig. 3.19, y coordinates are calculated as follows: Y= Rsin(f,)= Rsin(,D) yy, = Rsin(B +B) = Rsin{, +40] y= Rsin(B, + By + B,)= Rsin[(, +, +4)D] ‘Thus, s(Z10) 6.10) Coordinates method Example 3.5 curve, calculate and tabulate local coordinates for setting, - (Note: use 20 m even stations) Pc 24 +422,Coordinates method St. PT=St PC + L = (24+ 422.00) + 76.79 = 24 + 498,79 180_ 180 p= = 0.28648" AR *200.00 eae Calculations in tabular form: Ea =~ 200.00*22.00=76.79m 80 [Station] “StKm. | 1 | 37, . cm | qm |” {x00} (m) PC_| 24+422.00| 0 | 0 0 1 | 24+ 440.00|18.00]78.00] 17.96 2_| 24+ 460.00]20.00/38.00| 37.77 3_| 24+ 480.00|20.00|58.00| 57.19 PY | 24+ 498.79|18.79|76.79| 74.92 Superelevation Figure 3.18 Force diagram for superctevation, Superelevation © The superelevation (or banking) is applied on highway curves to facilitate the turning of vehicles round a curve. * The term superelevation indicates that the outside edge of the highway follows a path at higher elevation when compared to the path of the inner edge. * Some portion of the centrifugal force developed during tu turning, Superelevation In Figure 3.18, R= radius of the curved path of the vehicle (m) a =angle of incline in degrees ¢ = superelevation rate (vertical rise per unit horizontal distance in transverse direction) W =weight of the vehicle in (N) W,, = vehicle weight normal to the roadway surface (N) W, = vehicle weight parallel to the roadway surface (N) F, = side frictional force (N) F, = centrifugal force (N) Fea = centrifugal force acting normal to roadway surface (N). Fey = centrifugal force acting parallel to roadway surface (N). ig is counterbalanced by the superelevated highway surface and smaller curve radii can be used efficiently without decreasing safety while