Are There Benefits of Theatre

ARE THERE BENEFITS OF THEATRE ARTS PROGRAMS IN SCHOOLS?
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment
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DOCTOR OF PSYCHOLOGY
to the faculty of the department
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
at
St. John's University
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by
Dana Santomenna
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Abstract
ARE THERE BENEFITS OF THEATRE ARTS PROGRAMS IN SCHOOLS?
Dana Santomenna
Parents, school administrators, students, and the public value the arts in children's lives
(Stinson, 1993; Welch & Greene, 1995). Yet, arts programs struggle in schools due to
budget cutbacks, lack of awareness of programs, and lack of time in the curriculum
(Berube, 1999). The present study examined the relationship between theatre arts
participation and academic performance, school attendance, social-emotional functioning,
empathy, and appreciation for the arts. A sample of 160 participants in two high schools
that offered both a strong curricular and extra-curricular theatre arts program (TAC) were
compared to 124 students from two high schools that lacked a theatre arts curriculum and
offered fewer extra-curricular opportunities in theatre arts (AVG). Comparisons were
also made within each school between students who did and did not directly participate in
theatre. It was hypothesized that students who participate in and have greater exposure to
theatre arts in school have greater academic, social, and emotional functioning than
students who do not have this level of exposure. The results demonstrated a significant
relationship between enrollment in a TAC school and higher grades, higher levels of
empathy, greater feelings of self-reliance, and greater appreciation for the arts than
students in the AVG schools. Similar results were found for students who directly
participated in theatre arts compared to students who did not participate in theatre arts or
who participated in theatre arts in schools without strong theatre arts programs. The
strengths and limitations of the study as well as the implications for educators and school
professionals for incorporating theatre arts programs into schools are discussed.
ii
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following people for their love, support, and guidance:
My parents
Mark Terjesen
Jeffrey Fagen
John Hogan
Jim Hoare
Cathy Murphy
Lenny Motsinger
Kathy Moran
Jennifer Nolan
Michelle Reccardo
iii
Table of Contents
Chapter I: Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 1
Perceived Public Value of Arts Education 3
Challenges Faced by Supporters of Arts in the Schools 6
Chapter II: Literature Review 8
The Empirical Status of Arts in Education 8
The Problem with Research on the Arts in Education 9
Performing Arts and Instrumental Outcomes 12
Summary and Implications 17
Chapter III: Research Questions 19
Hypotheses 19
Chapter IV: Methods 21
Design 21
Participants 21
Procedure 23
Measures 24
Data Analysis 26
Chapter V: Results 27
Statistical Considerations 27
Introduction 27
Participants 28
Frequency and Value of Theatre Arts Participation 36

iv
Comparing Students in Schools with and without a Theatre Arts Curriculum 40
Comparing Students in Schools with and without a Theatre Arts Curriculum
on Participation in Theatre Productions 43
Comparing Students in Schools With and Without a Theatre Arts Curriculum
Who Do Not Participate in Theatre 46
Comparing Students Who Are and Are Not Enrolled in a Theatre Arts
Curriculum in Schools that Offer a Theatre Arts Curriculum 48
Comparing Students in Schools without a Theatre Arts Curriculum on Theatre
Arts Participation 50
Exploratory Analysis 65
Summary of Results 79
Chapter VI: Discussion 83
Summary of Purpose 83
Explanation of Findings and Integration with Past Literature 83
Strengths, Limitations, and Methodological Issues 92
Future Directions 94
Summary and Implications for Educators 94
Chapter VII: Implications for the Practice of School Psychologists 96
References 99
Appendices 106
Appendix A: Assent Form 106
Appendix B: Consent Form 107
Appendix C: Student Survey Form A: Average Theatre Arts Program 108

V
Appendix D: Student Survey Form B: Schools with Sequential
Theatre Curriculums Ill
Appendix E: Catholic School Administrator Survey 114
Appendix F: Public School Administrator Survey 115

vi
List of Tables
1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Two-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
for Effects of Type of School and Presence of Theatre Arts Curriculum on
Sixteen Dependent
Variables 34
2. Frequencies and Percentages of Theatre Arts Participation 38
3. Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples Mest for Effects of
Enrollment in Theatre Arts School (TAC) on Eighteen Dependent
Variables 54
Participation in Theatre Arts Productions on Twenty-one Dependent
Variables 56
Non-Participation in Theatre Arts Productions on Eighteen Dependent
Variables 59
Non-Participation in Theatre Arts Curriculum in the TAC Schools on
Eighteen Dependent Variables 61
Participation in Theatre Arts in AVG Schools on Eighteen Dependent
Variables 63
Vll
8. Means, Standard Deviations, and One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
for Effects of Theatre Arts Participation on Sixteen Dependent
Variables 68
9. Likelihood of Taking Honors and Advanced Placement Courses Among
Theatre Arts Participants and Non-Participants in the TAC Schools 73
Participants and Non-Participants in Theatre Arts Productions in the
AVG Schools 73
Participants and Non-Participants in Theatre Arts Classes in the
AVG Schools 74
Participation on Honors and Advanced Placement Courses
within the TAC Schools 74
Participation on Honors and Advanced Placement Courses
within the AVG Schools 75
14. Responses to Administrator Survey 78

1
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the problem
Theatre arts have traditionally been incorporated into educational settings in three
ways. First, theatre education can involve the use of drama as "an intentional teaching
strategy to enhance a particular curricular area" (Wagner, 1998, p.5). For example,
teachers may use role playing in the classroom to help increase reading comprehension.
The second way in which theatre arts has been used in educational settings is the
teaching of a separate subject in theatre with the purpose of increasing skills and
appreciation for the art. Lastly, theatre arts can also be incorporated into educational
settings as an after-school activity in which theatrical productions are rehearsed and
performed for an audience.
Although differing in its uses in schools, theatre arts involves some kind of role
playing or imaginative play at its basic level. Theorists such as Lev Vygotsky and Jean
Piaget have provided theories of learning which suggest that imaginative play is integral
to children's cognitive and social development (Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky, 1978). For
example, Vygotsky defined the zone of proximal development as an element of activity
that enables a child to act slightly above his or her physical developmental level
(Vygotsky, 1978). According to Wagner, drama "catapults the child into a level beyond
his or her chronological age," as it allows a child to take on for the first time the language
and the qualities of characters that are perhaps beyond his or her years (p.26). In addition,
when children engage in symbolic play together, they must work as a group to create a
single image of their play, thus thrusting them into their zone of proximal development
2
for social interactions (Wagner, 1998). Although interesting in theory, Wagner's
application of Vygotsky and Piaget's viewpoints to theatre arts is not empirically driven.
Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences also makes room for the potential
importance of theatre in students' education. Gardner has argued that there are many
types of intelligences, including logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, and musical intelligence (Gardner, 1983). Gardner
criticized the American educational system, however, for valuing only the subjects that
teach the linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences and neglecting the other types
of intelligences. Students who lack skills in the linguistic and logical-mathematical areas
may struggle in school because they are not being evaluated based on other intelligences
in which they might excel (Darby & Catterall, 1994; Gardner, 1983). Gardner proposed
that schools offer students more experiences that will engage different kinds of
intelligences, and in doing so, increase their access to knowledge and skills. Wagner
(1998) posited that theatre arts involve at least four of Gardner's intelligences, including
interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, and linguistic intelligence. Thus, by
offering a theatre arts curriculum, schools can address these other types of intelligences
and help students increase their ability to learn and develop new skills both in school and
in life. An additional potential benefit is that this may make students more engaged in the
school environment.
Piaget, Vygotsky, Gardner, and Wagner all suggest the potential role that
imaginative play and, as an extension, theatre arts instruction may have on student's
cognitive, social, and academic success; however, it appears that theatre arts does not
always receive the support in schools that it may deserve. That is, many schools do not
3
offer sufficient or adequate programs in theatre (National Center for Education Statistics,
2002). The typical American school most likely offers a course in theatre arts as well as
a theatrical production during the school year. Given the potential benefit of a theatre
arts curriculum, however, there may be an increasing need and a benefit from the level of
exposure students have to theatre arts, either as participants or as spectators, and to
improve the quality of instruction in theatre arts. The present study investigates the
potential benefits of participation in a theatre arts curriculum on American high school
students.
Perceived Public Value of Arts Education
Before advocating for an increase in the number and quality of theatre arts
curriculums in schools, one must examine whether theatre arts education is valued. The
perceived importance and benefit of arts education has been examined over the last 20
years. Overall, parents, school administrators, and the general public seem to agree that
arts participation, in general, is important for students (Welch & Greene, 1995). In
regards to theatre arts specifically, 90% of respondents in a recent survey of a random
sample of residents in five communities across the United States believed that theatre arts
helps adults to be life-long learners. A majority of respondents reported that theatre arts
helps them to better understand other cultures—an important consideration as American
schools continue to become more diverse (Ingram, King, & Paulson, 2004). In addition,
approximately 67% of respondents "strongly agreed" that theatre arts participation
contributes to children's education and development. Despite the perceived importance
of arts education by the American public, surveys are limited in that they do not directly
assess the benefit of arts education. Just because the general public values performing arts
does not mean that it has a direct impact on students' education and development. The
lack of data to support the direct impact of theatre arts may be a noticeable barrier to
implementation and, as such, will be examined in the present study.
Consistent with public opinion, students also report positive attitudes towards the
arts. Stinson (1993) interviewed 36 high school students and inquired about their dance
class experiences in school. He found that students believed that their conventional
academic classes were "boring" and "stifling" and that their teachers did not care about
them. In contrast, these students reported that their dance class helped them form positive
relationships, was a place where their teachers really cared about them, and helped them
understand themselves, others, and the world in ways not offered in traditional academic
classes (Stinson, 1993).
As the school is the environment where theatre arts education often occurs, it
seems important to examine the perceptions and practices of teachers with regards to the
arts. Purnell and Gray (2004) found that 100% of the 75 teachers they surveyed reported
that they believed using the arts to supplement their academic curriculum improves their
ability to access students' different learning styles, whereas 94% of those teachers
believed the arts helps improve the overall academic achievement of their students. In
addition, about half of the teachers surveyed felt that integrating the arts into the school
curriculum resulted in reduced absenteeism.
Although there exists strong support and regard for the arts by the general public,
students, and teachers, it appears that beliefs do not always follow actual practices when
implementing arts in education, particularly theatre arts. Upitis and colleagues reported
that 99% of teachers surveyed reported that they believed the arts are a major component
5
to high quality learning, but only 18.5% responded that they use the arts as a frequent
teaching method (Upitis, Smithrim, Patteson, & Meban, 2001). Furthermore, according to
a 2002 report by the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES), fewer than half
of the 686 public secondary schools that were studied offered instruction in theatre and
dance. Out of those schools that did offer theatre and dance instruction, approximately
half of those schools had dedicated spaces with special equipment in which to teach
theatre whereas even fewer had appropriate spaces and equipment to teach dance (NCES,
2002).
The frequency of theatre arts courses and co-curricular offerings of theatre
programs was further investigated by Seidel (1991). Seidel randomly surveyed United
States high schools and found that although 88% of schools offered at least one theatre
course or co-curricular theatre program, only 59% offered both. This limits the
opportunities for students to gain exposure to theatre arts and its potential benefits.
Furthermore, 60% of the schools reported they had organizations or clubs dedicated to
theatre arts and that primary funding for theatre arts came from ticket sales, fundraising,
and advertising. School budget allocations were considered secondary sources of funding.
Over half of the schools reported that they allocated 6% of funds to arts programs, of
which 1% (or approximately $2,000) was granted specifically to theatre (Seidel, 1991). In
addition, more than half of the theatre teachers reported that their theatre class was not
their primary subject of expertise and that they taught theatre as a "secondary
assignment" (Seidel, 1991). This may underscore the fact that despite frequent legislative
actions supporting the arts, the enthusiasm for the arts may not be met through budgetary
allocations, course assignments, or perhaps even recruitment of professionals whose

6
expertise is in the teaching of the arts. Although not the main focus of the present
investigation, these issues will be examined in the study, as well.
Challenges Faced by Supporters of Arts in the Schools
As seen by the low percentage of theatre arts programs previously described, it
appears that although the community values arts education, the actual implementation of
sufficient and high quality arts programs continues to be a challenge. Frequently
identified barriers to implementation of art-based programs in schools include high
turnover rates of teachers and administrators, severe cutbacks in the budget, and
inadequate time to train teachers in the arts prior to the start of the schoolyear (Greer,
1993). Additional challenges for arts programs, in general, include competition for time
in the curriculum, lack of funding, negative stereotypes about the arts, lack of adequately
trained teachers, lack of leadership in the school or community, and lack of knowledge
about how to include the arts in education (Oreck et al., 2000; Upitis et al., 2001). In
addition, Purnell and Gray (2004) reported that more than half of the teachers they
surveyed believed that they did not have enough access to arts-based materials to use in
their classrooms. These barriers are unfortunate, as schools with stronger arts programs
reported greater levels of teacher affiliation, a more supportive administration, greater
level of student support, and teachers who were considered more innovative and more
involved in professional development activities (Burton, Horowitz, & Abeles, 1999).
Ironically, despite the good intentions of federally funded and supported acts
such as No Child Left Behind (NCLB), which established the arts as a core subject in
schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2001, Subpart 15 section), some believe that
such legislative acts have created greater problems for the arts. For example, opponents
of NCLB claim that because the law holds schools responsible for the achievement of its
students in reading and mathematics, many schools have less time for instruction in other
subjects, including the arts (Americans for the Arts, 2007; Purnell & Gray, 2004).
Furthermore, when a school needs to reduce the budget, subjects such as math and
reading often remain intact because students must pass state and national exams in those
subjects, leaving subjects such as theatre arts more vulnerable to removal (Woodson,
2004). Arts supporters, therefore, believe that they must work harder to demonstrate the
arts' effectiveness toward the students' well-being out of fear that their programs will be
cut (Luftig, 1994).

8
Chapter II
Literature Review
The Empirical Status of Arts in Education
As supporters for the arts have fought for a place in American schools,
researchers have claimed enormous benefits for students who participate in the arts,
including social, cognitive, and academic gains. For example, Aschbacher and Herman
(1991) reported that students in 36 schools involved in a program that included an
incorporation of arts in the regular curriculum were less likely to drop out of school, had
higher class attendance, and wrote higher quality written assignments compared to
control students. In addition, inclusion of the arts into the school curriculum has been
shown to be related to greater student achievement on report cards and standardized tests
(Fiske, 1999; Luftig, 1994; Rose, Parks, Androes, & McMahon, 2000). It is important to
note that these studies are correlational in design, and the causality of participation in the
arts and its direct effect on learning should be considered with caution.
In addition to looking at the impact on more global achievement and participation
across many disciplines of fine arts, studies have also shown that participation
specifically in theatre arts benefits students in different academic areas. Wagner (1998)
offered a comprehensive review on the effects of educational drama on learning.
Thirteen of the 19 causal studies she reviewed on reading achievement reported greater
improvement on reading measures and/or attitudes toward reading when students
participated in creative drama exercises. Similar benefits to writing skills have also been
reported for students who engaged in drama and drawing activities in the classroom
(Moore & Caldwell, 1993; Wagner, 1998).

9
Drama has also been shown to benefit oral language skills in students (Wagner,
1998), as 18 of the 25 quasi-experimental studies that Wagner reviewed showed
significant effects for drama on oral language skills. In a meta-analysis of the impact of
drama in the classroom, Podlozny (2000) found that drama was positively related to
verbal skills such as story understanding (oral and written), reading achievement, reading
readiness, oral language, and writing.
The Problem with Research on Arts in Education
Although the research described shows potential benefits of participation in the
arts for students on almost every academic factor imaginable, there are still some flaws in
the research and its applications. For example, a large majority of the research on theatre
arts has focused on "arts integration," in which theatre arts is used as a conscientious
teaching tool within the classroom, with the goal of directly improving a specific aspect
of subject material such as reading comprehension (Rabkin & Redmond, 2006). The
research, however, does not appear to examine the impact of theatre arts programming
that is independent of academic instruction. Thus, the following questions must be asked:
Can art as a teaching tool in the classroom even be considered art? In addition, does
participation in theatre arts instruction in its own right and after school theatre arts
programs, indirectly transfer learning and enhance achievement in core academic
subjects? Finally, how do theatre arts as an independent subject benefit students
academically? The latter two questions are among the areas of this study that will be
investigated.
Few researchers have sought to answer some of these questions. Catterall et al.
(1999) discovered that students who were highly involved in the arts had higher academic
10
achievement than those students with little involvement, and their academic performance
greatly increased over time as students gained more experience in the arts. Researchers
even reported that students who participated in the arts achieved higher scores on the
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) than those students with little or no participation in the
arts (Murfee, 1995). The correlational nature of these results makes inferences of
causality of participation in the arts and its direct impact on learning impossible.
Nevertheless, it is promising to see the relationship of participation in the arts that is
independent of use of arts as a teaching tool and academic performance. This may be an
area that justifiably needs to be further examined.
Although the benefits of the arts appear promising, there are several limitations to
the research that has been conducted that question the validity of many of their claims.
First, research on the arts tends to combine arts participation as participation in all
disciplines of fine arts. Second, from a review of the literature, the amount and quality of
research on theatre arts, in particular, is small. This is evidenced by an early meta-
analysis of 20 years of research by Kardash and Wright (1987) who found only a
moderate effect of creative drama on student achievement, pointing to the small number
of published articles on this topic as a main reason for this finding. Only 2 of 29 journal
articles from 20 years of research included enough data to be able to calculate effect
sizes. Furthermore, the authors noted that approximately 50% of the studies provided no
empirical data and that many did not clearly describe the drama treatments, participant
characteristics, or participant selection criteria. Even over a decade later, Wagner stated
that much of the research on drama education is "faulty in design, does not build on
previous studies, and is not well grounded theoretically" (p. 2).

11
Catterall (2002) and Ingram (2003) have critiqued the widely referenced
compendium on art and education research, Critical Links (Deasy, 2002) in a number of
areas. For example, they described how only 3 of the 19 studies reviewed in the
compendium focused on high school students, limiting the generalizability of results to
that age population. In addition, both critiques noted that the studies have focused mainly
on very specific aspects of reading and language, and have ignored the effect that arts
may have on other subjects such as history. Furthermore, many of the studies available in
the literature have used correlational and qualitative in designs, have failed to use random
assignments and control groups, and have been short in duration (i.e., a few weeks or
less). As such, causal links between arts participation and student benefits cannot be
made. Finally, there are nearly no references to theatre in the studies reviewed by
Critical Links (Catterall, 2002) in terms of drama clubs, productions, or community
theatre companies. An exploration of the possible benefits that these kind of theatre arts
programs offer to children and schools is greatly ignored in the research.
In another critique of the literature, including the widely referenced Schools,
Communities, and the Arts: A Research Compendium (Welch & Greene, 1995), Eisner
(1998) pointed out that many of the studies that were reviewed did not come from peer-
reviewed journals, perhaps reflecting the current status of arts education as an empirical
science. Eisner argued that it is difficult to know the basis for which claims are made on
behalf of the arts, as conclusions are often made without supporting evidence in the text.
In addition, many studies on drama have focused on a specific population, such as
handicapped preschoolers or remedial readers, making generalizabilty nearly impossible
(Eisner, 1998).
12
There seems to be a trend in research to place greater emphasis on specific
academic areas of study in relation to ability and achievement, and to overlook art classes
as an individual subject. Research has demonstrated relationships between drama and
arts exposure in the classroom and higher scores on standardized tests, improved reading,
writing ability, and oral language skills in students (Fiske, 1999; Luftig, 1994; Moore &
Caldwell, 1993; Podlozny, 2000; Rose et al., 2000; Wagner, 1998). The research,
however, has focused largely on outcomes for specific academic areas of study, and has
paid little attention to theatrical productions or art classes as an independent subject.
Those studies that have addressed art classes as an independent subject have showed
similar benefits through the relation to a student's academic success as studies on the
integrated arts do; however, these studies have been few in number and have not
specifically addressed the impact of theatre arts participation. Hence, although the
research on the benefits of the arts appears to be promising, poorly designed studies
weaken the claims that researchers make.
Performing Arts and Instrumental Outcomes
It appears that the arts have struggled to find their rightful place in American
schools. Budget cutbacks, lack of awareness, and competition for curriculum time have
caused supporters of the arts to fight for its existence (Greer, 1993; Oreck et al., 2000;
Upitis et al., 2001). What has invariably resulted is a body of research that is flawed at
points and that claims enormous academic benefits for those who study the arts. An
important question to ask is: Why do the arts need to work so hard to prove themselves
worthy of inclusion in a child's education? A successful study of the arts is not
considered an accomplishment in the art-form itself but rather in higher grades in another
13
subject or improved scores on the SAT's (Eisner, 1998). At the same time, supporters of
the arts may claim too much—what happens if and when the arts fail to succeed in the
promises they make? When we justify the arts only in terms of what they can do for other
subjects, we may be setting the arts up for failure. It is conceivable and very possible that
if a teacher wanted to improve an academic skill, that a more direct and effective method
will be found than some art based approach. When this happens, the arts may no longer
be deemed valuable (Eisner, 1998; Hetland & Winner, 2001).
Hetland and Winner (2001) also urged us to stop asking the arts to demonstrate
their value compared to other subjects. People do not question whether a school sport
such as baseball should be cut for budgetary reasons because "schools believe sports are
inherently good for kids" (Hetland & Winner, 2001, p. 5). Therefore, the same argument
should be made for the arts: ".. .the arts are good for our children, irrespective of any
non-arts benefits that the arts may in some cases have" (Hetland & Winner, 2001, p. 5).
Researchers such as Eisner (1998), Hamblen (1993), Hetland and Winner (2001) believe
that we must look for those benefits that the arts teach which are not offered through
other courses. For example, the arts may help students achieve self-confidence, develop
better social and perspective-taking skills, and make education and learning more
enjoyable.
So, although it may be nice to look at the translational impact of the arts in
academic subjects, perhaps we should narrow our focus and ask what important lessons
do the arts teach that that are not taught by other subjects? Eisner (1998) proposed that
arts education teaches students how to "imagine possibilities," "explore ambiguity," and
"recognize and accept the multiple perspectives and resolutions that work in the arts
14
celebrate" (p. 7). These qualities, however, are difficult to operationally define and it may
be even more challenging to relate them to their impact on student development.
Reviewing case studies and qualitative research conducted on students'
participation in the arts may offer some additional ideas about what unique benefits the
arts have to offer. For example, Yassa (1999) examined high school students' perceptions
of participating in theatre independent of specific academic coursework, and how that
participation influenced their social interactions. Using observations and student and
teacher interviews, Yassa determined several themes among students involved in the
creative arts. For example, students believed that drama improved their self-confidence
and helped them become more assertive and regulate their emotions. In addition,
students and teachers thought that creative drama helped students deal better with
differences, approach problems with others more democratically, and communicate better
in social interactions. Finally, Yassa also described themes of respect, empathy,
flexibility, and tolerance that are an outgrowth of participation.
To further understand the non-academic correlates with theatre arts participation,
Catterall, Chapleau, and Iwanaga (1999) used a database of over 25,000 high school
students and found that students with high theatre arts involvement had higher self-
concept, displayed greater levels of empathy and tolerance, and had more positive
relationships with other races than students with low theatre arts involvement. Three
hypotheses for why these differences may exist: 1) theatre arts students must often
assume the perspective of different people in their characters in order to create their art,
2) students involved in theatre may have an increased opportunity to interact with peers,
15
and 3) students who already have these qualities are more likely to get involved in theatre
arts.
Additional research has found associations between participation in theatre arts
and social skills (De la Cruz, Ming-Gon, & Morreau 1998; Wagner, 1998), along with a
number of personal development characteristics such as trust, self-awareness, self-
acceptance, and empowerment (Gourgey, Bosseau, & Delgado, 1985). It is difficult to
generalize these results due to the small sample size and the fact that no formal outcome
data was collected. Furthermore, the De la Cruz et al. and Gourgey et al. studies focused
on specific populations, such as learning disabled and low socio-economic students, and
developed the theatre arts programs with the goal of improving specific areas of social
skills and emotional well-being. Nevertheless, the finding that students with high theatre
arts involvement displayed more advanced social skills than their non-participating peers
may, again, be due to the ability of students in the arts to explore and "take on" the
perspective of other people, places, and contexts and to interact more with their peers.
Oreck and colleagues conducted a 2-year long case study with 23 children in
grades four through six who participated in weekly arts classes as part of a youth talent
program. The authors found that these students were able to self-regulate their emotions
and behaviors in their personal and academic lives, felt satisfied with themselves, their
goals and their values, and described how the arts enabled them to overcome obstacles
and challenges in their personal lives (Oreck et al., 2000). This is an important and often
under-investigated benefit of participation in a performance arts program, as it does not
directly link to a specific academic skill but rather to an important life skill.
16
Unfortunately, consistent with many other theatre arts research, there was no comparison
group in this study. This limitation will be remedied in the present investigation.
Similarly, Heath (1999) observed three types of after-school organizations,
including community service groups, athletic-academic groups, and arts-based groups
(technical, visual, musical, and dramatic arts) and then compared those groups to national
data on high school students not involved in those organizations. Heath reported that the
dramatic arts group presented itself as different from the other two groups. For example,
the researchers found that students in the dramatic arts-based group had more
opportunities to express their ideas in multiple ways and engaged in more strategizing
and "what-if' thinking: "This abundance and intensity of practice for these types of
language uses is rarely available to them in any other setting" (Heath, 1999, p. 25). It
appears that the results of the dramatic arts-based group are consistent with the theory
that theatre arts help students learn valuable communication skills and strategies for
solving problems and developing plans.
The above qualitative studies, although promising, are limited in that cause and
effect factors are difficult to determine and results cannot be generalized to other
students. Nevertheless, these studies give support to a theory that higher levels of
thinking and communication skills are prevalent in students when they participate in the
arts. Fineberg (1993) examined critical thinking skills in an artist-residence program.
Although the author's findings on whether student participants showed higher levels of
thinking were inconclusive, he found that students applied what they learned in academic
subjects to their arts projects, rather than apply skills they learned in the arts to
academics, as he hypothesized. This observation suggests that the arts may open new
17
avenues for students to explore and use information learned in other core subject areas,
creating a transfer of learning in the opposite direction that many arts supporters believed.
Thus, arts programs may provide valuable opportunities for students to apply what they
have learned in other academic subjects and even expand upon their knowledge through
creative activities.
The arts appear to offer its participants ways of thinking, knowing, and expression
that is not typically offered through other areas of academic life. Hamblen (1993)
believes that the arts are a kind of "Pandora's box" that allows students to become
actively involved in creating meaning for themselves, to interpret and question, to
investigate, problem-solve, evaluate, and critique. Whether or not these skills directly
transfer to higher academic grades or standardized test scores should not be the primary
goal of participation. What matters is whether or not art is valuable to the student, and
teaches them in ways that other subjects do not.
Summary and Implications
The present study examines the potential benefits of theatre arts participation in
high school students. Parents, school administrators, and the general public appear to
value the arts in children's and the community's lives (Ingram et al., 2004; Welch &
Greene, 1995), as do students who participate in the arts (Stinson, 1993). Yet, arts
programs struggle to find their place in American schools due to budget cutbacks, lack of
awareness of arts programs and their benefits, and competition for time in the curriculum,
especially in economically disadvantaged schools (Berube, 1999). In addition, although
research has shown a relationship between participation in the arts and academic, social,
and cognitive gains, research in this field has many limitations. For instance, arts
18
participation has generally been viewed as participation across many disciplines of fine
arts, whereas theatre arts participation in particular has been examined less often. Those
studies that have examined the effects of theatre instruction have focused mainly on the
use of drama in the classroom, as integrated within traditional curriculum for
instrumental gains in academic subjects, such as reading. There is little research on the
benefit of theatre instruction as an independent subject or as a function of participation in
a theatrical production, with little research also examining non-academic gains. Other
limitations of the research in this area include poorly designed studies, small sample
sizes, lack of a comparison group, and a limited focus on younger children.
Given these limitations in the research, the present study examines the
relationship between theatre arts instruction and participation and student academic,
social, and emotional outcomes. Specifically, theatre arts participation was examined in
relationship to academic performance, students' social-emotional development, school
attendance, and students' level of appreciation for the arts. The present study is a
correlational design and examines the differences in the above factors between students
in schools that have a strong educational commitment to theatre arts education (i.e., the
presence of a sequential, theatre-arts curriculum as part of the general education) and
students in schools that have a typical, or average educational commitment to theatre arts
education (i.e., the school does not offer a sequential theatre-arts curriculum). These
differences were also examined within the schools for students that do and do not directly
participate in theatre arts.

19
Chapter III
Research Questions
Hypotheses
Given the literature in this area, the following hypotheses are proposed:
1. Differences in the educational and social-emotional functioning of students will
be greatest between theatre arts students in high schools with a strong educational
commitment to theatre arts and students in high schools that have an average
theatre arts program as measured by:
a. higher academic grades
b. lower levels of absenteeism
c. higher interpersonal relations as measured by T-scores on Behavior
Assessment System for Children—Second Edition (BASC-2).
d. higher self-esteem as measured by T-scores on BASC-2
e. higher self-reliance as measured by T-scores on BASC-2
f. lower attitude to school as measured by T-scores on BASC-2
g. lower attitude to teachers as measured by T-scores on BASC-2 and
h. lower social stress as measured by T-scores on BASC-2
i. lower sense of inadequacy as measured by T-scores on BASC-2
j. higher empathy/perspective-taking, as measured by scores on the
Interpersonal Reactivity Index
k. greater perceived value of the arts, as measured by scores on several self-
reported questions
20
2. In comparison to high school students who participate in theatre arts in schools
that have an average theatre arts program, high school students who participate in
a theatre arts program from a school with a strong educational commitment to
theatre arts will have more adaptive educational and social functioning as
measured by factors (a-k) above.
3. In comparison to all students in schools that have an average theatre arts program,
students who attend a high school with an educational commitment to theatre arts
but who do not participate in a theatre arts curriculum will show more adaptive
functioning as assessed by the same factors (a-k) above.
4. In high schools that have a strong educational commitment to theatre arts,
students who participate in a theatre arts curriculum will show more adaptive
functioning than students who do not participate in the theatre arts curriculum as
assessed by the same factors (a-k) above.
5. In a school that has an average theatre arts program, students who participate in
theatre either within or outside of school will have more adaptive functioning than
students who do not participate as assessed by the same measures (a-k) above.
21
Chapter IV
Methods
Design
This study is a between group correlational design measuring differences between
students attending schools with a strong educational commitment to theatre arts, and
students attending schools with average theatre arts programs. In addition to examining
differences between the groups, within group differences were evaluated in all schools.
Specifically, differences between students enrolled who participated in theatre arts and
those who do not.
Participants
Two hundred eighty seven juniors and seniors from four suburban high schools,
two public and two Catholic, located within proximity to a major metropolitan area, were
recruited for participation. One hundred sixty one students participated in the schools
with a theatre arts curriculum whereas 126 students participated in schools without a
theatre arts curriculum. Student age ranged from 15 to 18, with the majority (39.7%)
being 17 years of age. Females made up two-thirds of the participants (67.2%). All of the
participants voluntarily participated. Informed consent from the parents/guardians of
students with detailed information about the study was given and assent obtained from
the students prior to initiation of the study (see Appendices A and B).
For the present study, inclusionary criteria for identifying a high school with an
educational commitment to theatre arts (TAC) included the offering of a formal, theatre
arts curriculum that provided a sequence of theatre arts classes throughout each of the
grades as well as courses in stagecraft, dance, or both. Because theatre arts instruction
22
and production almost always involve movement and set design, dance and stagecraft are
considered important elements of high quality theatre arts instruction. In addition,
instructors in the theatre arts program had certification to teach theatre arts and belonged
to the New York State Theatre Education Association (NYSTEA), which offers teachers
resources in which to advance their teaching of theatre curricula, promotes theatre in
schools and communities, and focuses on state mandates for school curricula,
assessments, standards in the arts, and certification/licensure. Within the Catholic school,
seven staff members were specifically trained to teach theatre/performing arts and four
were members of NYSTEA. Within the public school, three staff members were trained
in theatre/performing arts and one was a member of NYSTEA. These schools also
presented three or more theatrical productions each year. Specifically, the Catholic school
presented approximately five main stage productions and five smaller-scale productions
each year, whereas the public school presented three main stage productions and various
smaller projects throughout the year.
The "average" theatre arts schools (AVG) were considered schools that do not
offer a sequential theatre-arts curriculum, and offered two or fewer theatre classes each
year as electives. In addition, these schools produced two or fewer theatre arts
productions each year. Specifically, the Catholic school presents one musical production
each year and does not offer theatre classes in school. The public school presents
opportunities for students to participate in two main stage theatre productions each year,
offers a drama class for one semester each year, and there is no structured theater
curriculum. Instructors were general education teachers who also taught theatre and/or
were directors of theatrical productions in addition to their regularly assigned courses.

23
None of the instructors belonged to the New York State Theatre Education Association
(NYSTEA). Other information obtained from each high school in order to determine the
strength of theatre arts in the school were budget allocation to the performing arts and the
number of teachers and staff members who are trained in theatre arts education. All four
schools were similar in regards to student enrollment, cost of tuition and expenditure per
student, socio-economic status, and ethnicity.
Procedure
Before the study began, informed consent was received by the parents of all
participants and informed assent was received by the students. Parents and students were
blind to the hypothesis of the study until their participation was completed.
Junior and senior high school students in all four high schools were surveyed on
factors pertaining to self-concept, attitude towards school and teachers, social/peer
relationships, and perspective-taking. Demographic information was obtained through a
brief survey including gender, grade-point average, school attendance, ethnicity,
participation in school-affiliated after-school activities other than theatre arts, and
perceived value of and appreciation for the arts (see Appendix C). Students enrolled in a
theatre arts curriculum answered additional questions about their experiences in the
theatre arts curriculum (see Appendix D). In addition, school administrators were given a
brief survey that asked general demographic information about the school to determine
inclusionary criteria, including the number of students enrolled, the grades taught, the
ethnic distribution of the student body, and average family income. Other information
obtained included budgetary allocations to the performing arts, administrator perceptions
and value of the arts, and perceived barriers to the arts (see Appendices E and F). Data
24
were collected by the primary researcher of this study and by graduate student research
assistants.
Measures
Grade Point Average (GPA). School records were reviewed in order to assess the
overall GPA of student participants. Students were asked to self-report their GPA.
Research has shown that high school students' self-reports of grades is accurate enough
to be used in research concerning educational decisions of groups of students (Schiel &
Noble, 1991)
Absenteeism. School records were obtained in order to assess the rate of absences
of student participants. In addition, students were asked to self-report the approximate
number of days they were absent from school the previous year.
Behavior Assessment System for Children—Second Edition (BASC-2). The
BASC-2 consists of a comprehensive set of ratings scales that use a multi-dimensional
approach to measure the feelings, attitudes, and behaviors of children and adolescents
(Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004). The BASC-2 is strongly based in theory and may be
administered to individuals ages 2 through 21. The BASC-2 has three main forms—the
Parent Rating Scales (PRS), the Teacher Rating Scales (TRS), and the Self-Report of
Personality (SRP). The SRP takes approximately 30 minutes to administer in its entirety
(Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004). In addition, the SRP assesses a child or adolescent's
perceptions with both 2-point (True/False) response formats and 4-point
(Never/Sometimes/Often/Almost always) response formats (Reynolds & Kamphaus,
2004). Total raw scores are converted into T-scores for each scale, in which high T-
scores (60 or higher) are considered at-risk or clinically significant indicators. The value
25
of T-scores for scales such as Self-Esteem, Self-Reliance, and Interpersonal Relations,
however, are opposite of the other scales in that higher T-scores indicate higher
functioning. Internal consistency reliabilities for the above subscales of the SRP are
generally high, ranging from .70 to .83. The SRP measures that were included in this
study were Attitudes to School, Attitudes to Teacher, Interpersonal Relations, Social
Stress, Self-Esteem, Sense of Inadequacy and Self-Reliance.
Perspective-taking and/or empathy measure. Students completed the
Interpersonal Reactivity Index, a 28-item self-report measure that assesses four different
areas of interpersonal reactivity, made up of seven-items each. There are five response
options for each item in Likert format, ranging from "does not describe me well" to
"describes me very well" (Miville et al., 1999). Perspective taking (PT) measures the
extent to which individuals are able to take the perspective of others; Fantasy (FS)
measures the extent to which individuals identify with fictional characters, such as in
movies and books; Empathic Concern (EC) is the extent to which individuals feel
compassion and concern for others; and Personal Distress (PD) is the level of discomfort
or anxiety experienced by individuals as a result of negative experiences of others
(Miville et al., 1999). Higher scores indicate higher empathic attitudes. Alpha coefficients
range from .76-.84.
Perceived Value of the Arts. There does not appear to be any known measure of
arts appreciation or perceived value of the arts; therefore, perceived value of the arts was
assessed by five questions created by this researcher and given to all respondents. For
example, two questions were asked regarding students' attendance at theatre productions,
both within and outside of school. Two questions were also asked in Likert format: how
26
important students think the arts are to society and how important the arts are to one's
education? Additional questions were asked of those students who reported that they
were enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum or participated in theatre classes and/or
productions. These questions included: how much they enjoyed their participation in the
arts, and how valuable they feel their theatre experiences were to their education and to
their personal life (see Appendices C and D).
Data Analysis
Internal reliability was assessed for all outcome measures. To test the hypotheses,
a series of independent samples Mests were conducted on each of the outcome variables
under investigation. More specifically, these were done to evaluate the effects of
attending a school with an educational commitment to the theatre arts on self-report of
grade point average (GPA), school absences, self-report on the BASC-2 for the subscales
Attitudes to School, Attitudes to Teacher, Interpersonal Relations, Social Stress, Self-
Esteem, Sense of Inadequacy, and Self-Reliance, on a measure of Perspective-taking
and/or empathy measure, and finally on a Value of the Arts/Arts Appreciation measure.
There are two levels of type of school (strong educational commitment to theatre arts and
average educational commitment to theatre arts) and two levels of participation
(participant in a sequential theatre arts program and non-participant).

27
Chapter V
Results
Statistical Considerations
Alpha level. All statistical analyses used an alpha level of .05. Only results that
reached statistical significance are reported in the text. Complete data are reported in the
corresponding tables.
Internal Reliability. Internal consistency for the Interpersonal Reactivity Index
(IRI) in both the schools with a strong educational commitment to theatre arts and those
schools without theatre arts curriculums and was .79 and .80, respectively indicating that
this is a reliable measure with these samples. The Behavior Assessment System for
Children—Second Edition (BASC-2) is a widely used and respected research measure
with good internal consistency, ranging from .70 to .83 (BASC-2 Manual, 2004).
Calculation of internal consistency coefficients was not practical for the present study
given the method of data entry.
Introduction
The results section is divided into three sections. The first section presents
descriptive characteristics of study participants in each type of school. These two school
types are the schools with the theatre arts curriculum (TAC) and the "average" schools
without a theatre arts curriculum (AVG). Going forward they will be referred to as TAC
and AVG. The second section presents analysis of the hypothesized differences between
participants in each type of school (TAC and AVG) as well as the differences between
participants within each type of school (TAC and AVG). The third section presents
28
analysis of exploratory hypotheses that were not of direct interest to the research
questions but that add knowledge and information to the main topics of interest.
Participants
Theatre Arts Curriculum schools (TAC). The sample consisted of 161 students (41
in the 11th grade and 120 in the 12th grade) with females constituting 64.6% of all
participants. The mean age of the participants was 16.88 years (SD = .66) and the
participants ranged in age from 15 to 18 years. The ethnic diversity of the participants
was as follows: Caucasian (69.5%), African American (15.5%), Hispanic (5.6%), Asian
American (1.9%), and Other (7.5%). According to administrator responses within the
public school, 60% of the entire student body is Caucasian, 23.56% is African American,
12.43% is Hispanic, 2.86% is Asian American, and .06% is designated as "Other."
Within the Catholic school, administrators reported that 68% of the entire student body is
Caucasian, 14% is African American, 7% is Hispanic, and 11% is Asian American.
Participants- Average schools without Theatre Arts Curriculum (AVG). The
sample consisted of 126 students (24 in the 11th grade and 102 in the 12th grade) with
females constituting 70.6% of all participants. The mean age of the participants was
16.96 years (SD = .59) and the participants ranged in age from 16 to 18 years. The ethnic
diversity of the participants was as follows: Caucasian (61.1%); African American
(9.5%), Hispanic (11.9%), Asian American (6.4%), and Other (11.1%). According to
administrator reports within the public schools, 66% of the entire student body is
considered Caucasian, 12% is African American, 11% is Hispanic, 10% Asian American,
and 1% of students were designated as "Other." Within the Catholic school, 52% of
29
students were reported to be Caucasian, 19% are African American, 12.2% are Hispanic,
13% are Asian American, and 4% are considered to be "Other."
Two-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). A two-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was conducted to evaluate whether the presence of a theatre arts curriculum
(TAC) had an impact on the measures under investigation and whether it might be
differentially effective for Catholic verses public schools. The TAC condition had two
groups: presence of a theatre arts curriculum or absence of a theatre arts curriculum.
Means and standard deviations for each group are shown in Table 1. In regards to grade
point average (GPA), the ANOVA showed a significant difference between presence of a
theatre arts curriculum, F (1, 246) = 19.31, p < .001 and between type of school (Catholic
verses public), F = (1, 246) = 10.89,/? = .001, with the TAC schools having higher
GPA's than the non-TAC schools and the Catholic schools having higher GPA's than the
public schools. There was no significant interaction between the presence of a TAC and
school type, p = .124. As can be seen in Table 1, students in the Catholic TAC school had
a slightly higher GPA than students in non-TAC schools; however, in the public school
setting condition, students in the public TAC school had higher GPA's than those
students in public schools without a theatre arts curriculum.
In regards to the subscale Self-Reliance, the ANOVA showed a significant
difference for presence of a TAC, F (1, 283) = 9.72, p = .002, with students in the TAC
schools having more favorable scores than students in schools without a TAC. No
significant differences were found for type of school and no significant interaction effects
were found.
30
In regards to the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), the ANOVA showed a
significant difference for presence of a TAC, F (1, 275) = 36.50, p < .001, with the
students in schools with a theatre arts curriculum having higher total scores than students
in schools without a theatre arts curriculum. There was also a significant difference for
type of school, F (1, 275) = 4.01, p = .046, with students in the Catholic schools having
higher empathy scores than students in the public schools. No significant interaction
effects were found. In regards to the Fantasy subscale, the ANOVA showed a significant
difference between presence of a theatre arts curriculum, F (1, 283) = 51.10, p < .001,
with the students in a TAC school having higher Fantasy scores than students in schools
without a TAC. There was no significant difference found for type of school and no
interaction effects were found between presence of a theatre curriculum and school type.
In regards to the subscale Empathic Concern, the ANOVA showed a significant
difference between presence of a theatre arts curriculum F (1, 280) = 20.06, p <.001, with
students in schools with a TAC having higher empathy scores than students in schools
without a TAC. There was no significant difference between type of school and
interaction effects were found. For Perspective Taking, a significant difference was found
for presence of a TAC, F (1, 279) = 5.94, p = .015, with students in the TAC schools
having higher perspective taking scores than students in schools without a theatre arts
curriculum. No significant difference was found for type of school and there was no
significant interaction effect. For Personal Distress, no significant differences were found
for presence of a theatre arts curriculum or school type. In addition, no significant
interaction effects were found.

31
Significant differences were found for students' value of the arts in society
between presence of a theatre arts curriculum, F (1, 152) = 55.49, p < .001 and between
type of school, F (1, 152) = 7.90, p = .006, with students in the TAC schools reporting
greater value than students in schools without a TAC and students in the Catholic schools
reporting greater value than students in the public schools. In addition, a significant
interaction was found between presence of a theatre arts curriculum and type of school, F
(1, 152) = 9.56, p < .001. As can be seen in Table 1, within the Catholic school
condition, students in schools with a TAC reported greater value for the arts than students
in schools without a TAC. Within the public school condition, students in schools with a
TAC also reported greater value for the arts than students in schools without a TAC.
Similar results were found for students' value of the arts in education. The ANOVA
showed significant differences between presence of a theatre arts curriculum, F (1, 151)
= 72.72, p <.001 and between type of school, F{\, 151) = 6.46, p = .012, with students
in schools with a TAC reporting greater value than students in schools without a TAC
and students in Catholic schools reporting greater value than students in public schools.
In addition, a significant interaction was found for presence of a theatre arts curriculum
and type of school, F ( l , 151) = 5.62, p = .019.
Skewness and kurtosis indices were used to assess the normality of the data and
the distribution of each dependent variable under investigation. Skewness variables
greater than .3 were considered significant and several variables of interest were found to
be significantly skewed in the sample. In order to control for the non-normality of the
distribution, the data was transformed using either square root or log transformations.
Transformed variables were then examined to see if the normality and heteroscedasticity
32
improved. For data values that were negative, a constant of 100 was added. The
following variables represent the results two-way ANOVA's after the data had been
transformed using this method.
In regards to the number of absences from school, the ANOVA did not indicate a
significant difference between type of school or between presence of a theatre arts
curriculum. In addition, no significant interaction between presences of a theatre arts
curriculum and school type was found. In regards to the BASC-2, the ANOVA showed a
significant difference for the subscale Attitude to School and the presence of a TAC, F
(1, 283) = 5.66, p = .018, with students in the TAC schools reporting more positive
attitudes than students in schools without a theatre arts curriculum. In addition, the
ANOVA showed significant differences for type of school, F (1, 283) = 4.64, p = .032,
with students in the Catholic schools having more positive attitudes than students in
public schools. No significant difference was found for Attitude to School Self-Reliance
in regards to interactions between presence of a TAC and type of school. Significant
differences between presence of a TAC were found for the subscale Attitude to Teacher,
F ( l , 283) = 1.10,/? = .159. No significant differences were found for type of school and
no significant interaction effects were found. In regards to the BASC-2, no significant
differences were found for presence of a TAC, type of school, or interaction effects were
found for the subscales Sense of Inadequacy, Interpersonal Relations, Self-Esteem, and
Social Stress.
In regards to students' value of the arts and its role in society, the ANOVA
showed a significant difference for presence of a theatre arts curriculum, F (1, 281) =
53.02, p < .001, with students in the TAC schools valuing the arts more than students in
33
schools without a theatre arts curriculum. No significant difference was found for type of
school and no significant interactions were found between type of school and presence of
a TAC. Similarly, in regards to student's value of the arts and its role in education, the
ANOVA showed a significant difference for presence of a theatre arts curriculum, F (1,
281) = 56.31, p < .001, with students in the TAC schools valuing the arts more than
students in schools without a theatre arts curriculum. No significant difference was found
for type of school and no significant interaction effects were found.

Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Two-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Effects of Type of School and Presence of Theatre Arts
Curriculum on Sixteen Dependent Variables
TAC-Catholic TAC-Public AVG-Catholic AVG-Public ANOVA
Variable M SD M SD M SD M SD F E
Grade Point Average3 89.89 6.43 88.18 7.98 87.11 6.77 82.39 6.61 2.38 .124
Days Absent from School3 4.71 3.81 5.80 5.13 5.50 4.41 8.61 7.54 1.20 .275
BASC-2 Attitude to Schoolb 45.78 10.04 47.30 10.60 47.21 9.29 51.74 10.10 .65 .422
BASC-2 Attitude to Teachers 48.98 11.43 45.21 8.91 49.86 10.16 49.71 10.13 1.10 .159
BASC-2 Sense of Inadequacy 48.93 8.68 48.61 8.27 47.77 8.80 49.66 10.83 .39 .580
BASC-2 Interpersonal Relations 52.84 7.39 53.33 7.91 53.81 7.57 53.29 6.86 .10 .753
BASC-2 Self-Esteem 50.13 9.43 51.68 8.46 50.86 9.80 50.07 8.79 .37 .545
BASC-2 Social Stress 48.42 8.63 47.75 7.21 48.29 9.32 47.52 8.88 .71 .400
BASC-2 Self Reliance 56.31 9.84 54.73 8.19 54.73 8.34 52.87 7.94 2.19 .140
IRI Total 0 73.53 9.40 72.36 10.06 66.26 10.98 61.38 12.60 1.51 .220
-1^
(Table 1 Continued)
TAC-Catholic TAC-Public AVG-Catholic AVG-Public ANOVA
Variable M SD M SD M SD M SD F E
IRI Perspective Taking 18.53 4.58 17.73 5.52 16.66 4.81 16.44 4.69 .21 .651
IRI Fantasy 21.07 4.90 20.48 5.30 16.25 5.32 15.13 5.48 .15 .701
IRI Empathic Concern 22.22 3.59 22.00 3.79 20.57 3.99 18.76 4.43 2.13 .146
IRI Personal Distress 11.71 4.51 12.15 4.35 12.65 4.86 11.05 3.86 2.92 .089
Value of Arts to Society11 4.69 .51 4.73 .57 4.09 .92 3.29 1.23 3.07 .081
Value of Arts to Educationd 4.56 .56 4.53 .67 3.67 .99 2.97 1.20 3.06 .081
* = p_< .05. **p_<.01. ***p_<.001.

a
Recorded from school records
b
BASC-2 = Behavior assessment system for children; based on a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10
c
Interpersonal Reactivity Index; higher scores indicate higher empathic attitudes.
d
Likert response range from 1 (not at all important) to 5 (very important).
Frequency and Value of Theatre Arts Participation
With respect to theatre arts participation in the TAC schools, 78 of the
participants were enrolled in the theatre arts curriculum. Fifty-one percent of participants
responded that they had taken a theatre class in school. The mean number of years that
participants have been taking theatre arts classes in school was 3.17 (SD = .81), and the
mean number of theatre classes taken in school was 3.11 (SD = .90). Fifty-five percent of
participants were involved in a theatre arts production in school, whereas 53% responded
that they planned on participating in a theatre arts production within the next 6 months.
The average number of theatre productions that students participated in was 2.58 (SD =
1.17).
Within the AVG schools that do not offer a curricular theatre arts curriculum,
only 4.6% of students had taken any theatre classes in school (M = .04; SD = .20),
whereas 23.4% responded that they participate in theatre arts outside of school.
Seventeen percent of participants were involved in a theatre arts production in school,
whereas 11.1% responded that they planned to participate in a theatre arts production
within the next 6 months. The mean number of theatre productions that students
participated in at school was 1.72 (SD = .90). Table 2 reports the frequencies and
percentages associated with theatre arts participation and attendance at other fine arts
events for both the TAC and AVG schools.
In addition, the frequency with which students attend fine arts events both within
and outside of school was examined. Within the TAC schools, 21.7% of students
responded that they never attend theatre productions in school, 36.6% responded that they
sometimes attend theatre productions in school, and 41.6% responded that they often
37
attend theatre arts productions in school. Comparatively, within the AVG schools, 44.9%
of students responded that they never attend theatre productions in school, 46.5%
responded that they sometimes attend, and 7.9% of students responded that they often
attend theatre productions in school. Outside of school, 21.9% of students responded that
they never attend fine arts events (theatre, dance, visual arts, etc) outside of school,
37.5% responded that they attend between 1 and 2 events per year, 29.4% responded they
attend between 3 and 5 events per year, 7.5% responded they attend between 6 and 10
events a year, and 3.8% responded that they attend 10 or more fine arts events each year.
Within the AVG schools, 25% of students responded that they never attend fine arts
events outside of school, 45.3% responded that they attend between one and two events
each year, 21.1% responded that they attend between three and five events each year,
4.7% responded that they attend between six and ten events, and 3.9% of students
responded that they attend ten or more fine arts events each year.
38
Table 2
Frequencies and Percentages of Theatre Arts Participation
TAC schools (n = 161) AVG schools (n = 126)
Participated in Theatre Arts
Production Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Yes 91 55.9 22 17.5
No 69 43.1 104 82.5
Plan on Participating in a
Theatre Production
Yes 86 53.4 14 11.1
No 75 46.6 112 88.9
Number of Theatre
Productions Participated
1-2 20 22.5 9 50.0
3-4 26 29.2 6 33.3
5-6 14 15.7 2 11.1
More than 6 29 32.6 1 5.6
Taken Theatre Arts Classes
in School
Yes 83 51.6 4.6
No 78 48.4 124 95.4

(Table 2 continued)
TAC schools (n = 161) AVG schools (n = 126)
Participates in Theatre Arts
Outside of School Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Yes 64 39.8 29 23.4
No 96 59.0 95 76.6
Attend Theatre Arts
Productions in School
Never 35 21.7 57 44.9
Sometimes 59 36.6 59 46.5
Often 67 22.3 10 7.9
Attend Fine Arts Events
Outside of School
0 35 21.9 32 25
1-2 60 37.5 58 45.3
3-5 47 29.4 27 21.1
5-10 12 7.5 6 4.7
10 or more 6 3.8 5 3.9
Note. Some participants failed to respond to all items; therefore, N values for individual items may not add
up to total number of participants who completed the survey (N= 287).

In comparison to students who participated in theatre arts productions in the AVG
schools (M= 4.32, SD= .82), students that participated in theatre arts productions in the
TAC schools enjoyed more their overall participation in theatre productions in school
(M= 4.67, SD= .60), t (105) = 2.18, p = .032. Students who participated in a theatre
production in the TAC schools also perceived greater value in their participation in
theatre productions to their education (M= 4.15, SD= .96) than students who participated
in theatre productions in the AVG schools (M= 3.63, SD= .96), t (104) = 2.13, p = .035.
These students also perceived greater importance of their participation in theatre
productions in school to their life in general (M= 4.27, SD= .96) than students in the
AVG schools (M= 3.53, SD= .90), t (105) = 3.11, p = .002.
Similar questions were asked of students in both the TAC and AVG schools
regarding their participation in theatre classes in school. Students in the TAC schools
enjoyed their participation in the theatre curriculum (M= 4.72, SD= .50) more than
students who took theatre classes in the AVG schools (M= 3.4, SD= 1.52). Students in
the TAC schools, also reported that their participation in the theatre arts curriculum
contributes favorably to their learning in other subjects (M= 4.13, 5D= .85). In
comparison, students in the AVG schools held slightly less favorable attitudes regarding
the contribution of their theatre classes to their education (M= 3.67, SD= 1.21) and to
their life in general (M= 3.67, SD= .82).
Comparing Students in Schools with and without a Theatre Arts Curriculum
In order to examine the first hypothesis, a series of independent samples Mests
were conducted to compare differences between students in TAC schools and students in
AVG schools. The students in these schools were compared on measures of grade-point
41
average, school absenteeism, and adaptive measures on the Behavior Assessment System
for Children—Second Edition (BASC-2), empathy measures on the Interpersonal
Reactivity Index (IRI), and value of the arts to education and society. Table 3 reports a
summary of the means, standard deviations, and significance levels from these analyses.
Grade-Point Average and School Absenteeism. Student grade point average
(GPA) was found to be significantly different between students in the TAC schools (M=
87.11, SD= 7.68) and students in the AVG schools (M= 84.78, SD= 6.79), t (248) = 2.53,
p= .012. No significant differences were found for the number of school absences
between the TAC and AVG students, p = .498.
Measures of the BASC-2. Compared to students in AVG schools (M= 51.03, SD=
8.19), students in TAC schools (M= 54.40, SD= 8.66) were found to be significantly
more self-reliant, t (285) = 3.35, p = .001. No differences were found for the subscales
of: Attitude to School (p = .343), Attitude to Teachers (p = .906), Interpersonal Relations
(p = .071), Self-Esteem (p = .782), Sense of Inadequacy (p = .055), and Social Stress (p
= .831). It should be noted that all means for both groups were within the average range
of functioning. On the Student Survey, students were also asked to respond to two
questions regarding how much they like their teachers and how much they like the school
that they attend on a Likert scale from 1 to 5 (1 = Do not like at all, 5 = Like very much).
Despite the failure to find a significant difference on Attitude to Teachers on the BASC-
2, students in the TAC schools (M= 4.01, SD= .89) responded with significantly more
positive attitudes toward their teachers in response to the question, "How much do you
like your teachers?" than students in the AVG schools (M= 3.81, SD= .71), t (282) =
42
2.25, p = .025. No differences were found on their liking of school according to results
from the Student Survey (p = .165).
Empathy and Perspective-Taking. Compared to students in the AVG schools (M=
63.69, SD= 12.26), students in the TAC schools (M= 68.77, SD= 11.42) held higher
empathic attitudes overall (Interpersonal Reactivity Index Total Score), t (277) = 3.56, p
< .001. More specifically, compared to students in the AVG schools (M= 16.35, SD=
4.60), students in the TAC schools (Af= 17.52, SD= 5.00) were able to take the
perspective of others more (Perspective Taking), t (281) = 2.02, p = .045. Students in the
TAC schools (M= 18.18, SD= 5.75) also identified more with fictional characters in
movies and books (Fantasy) than students in the AVG schools (M= 15.77, SD= 5.52), t
(285) = 3.59, p < .001). Measures of Empathic Concern were also found to be
significantly different, with students in the TAC schools (M= 20.98, SD= 4.28) having
higher scores than students in the AVG schools (M= 19.68, SD= 4.11), t (282) = 2.58, p
= .01. The groups did not differ on the level of discomfort or anxiety experienced as a
result of the negative experiences of others (Personal Distress, p = .449).
Perceived Value of the Arts. Perceived value of the arts was measured by asking
students to respond to the following two questions on a Likert scale from 1 to 5 (1 = Not
at all Important, 5 = Very Important): "How important do you think the arts (theatre,
dance, visual arts, music, etc) are to society?" and "How important do you think the arts
(theatre, dance, visual arts, music, etc) are to students' education?" Students in the TAC
schools (M= 4.21, SD= 1.00) perceived significantly greater value of the arts to society
than students in the AVG schools (M= 3.75, SD= 1.10), t (283) = 3.64, p < .001. In
addition, students in the TAC schools (M= 3.94, SD= 1.00) also reported significantly
43
higher appreciation for the arts' influence on a students' education than students in the
AVG schools (M= 3.48, SD= 1.10), t (281) = 3.57, p < .001.
Summary of Results. In examining the differences between students in TAC and
AVG schools, the following hypotheses were supported: in comparison to students in the
AVG schools, students enrolled in the TAC schools had significantly higher GPA's,
higher levels of Self-Reliance, higher scores on measures of empathy and perspective
taking, and a greater appreciation for the arts (as measured by perceptions of the value for
the arts in society and education as well as overall attendance at theatre and fine arts
events both within and outside of school). The hypothesis that students in schools with a
strong educational commitment to theatre arts will have higher educational and socio-
emotional functioning was not supported in regards to frequency of school absences,
Interpersonal Relations, Self-Esteem, Attitude to School, Attitude to Teachers, Social
Stress, and Sense of Inadequacy. Students in the TAC schools, however, reported greater
liking for their teachers than students in the AVG schools. No differences were found in
students' liking of school in general.
Comparing Students in Schools with and without a Theatre Arts Curriculum on
Participation in Theatre Productions
In order to examine the second hypothesis, a series of independent sample Mests
were conducted to compare differences between students in TAC schools who participate
in theatre arts productions in school (but who are not necessarily enrolled in the theatre
arts curriculum) and students in AVG schools that participate in theatre arts productions
in school. These students were compared on measures of grade-point average, school
absenteeism, and adaptive measures on the Behavior Assessment System for Children—
44
Second Edition (BASC-2), empathy measures on the Interpersonal Reactivity Index
(IRI), and value of the arts to education and society. Table 4 presents the means, standard
deviations, and significance levels of these analyses.
Grade Point Average and School Absenteeism. Grade point average (GPA) was
found to be significantly different, with students who participate in theatre arts
productions within the TAC schools having a higher GPA (M= 89.23,SD = 7.05) than
students that participated in theatre arts productions in the AVG schools (M= 85.29, SD
= 7.04), t (94) = 2.22, p = .029. In addition, students who participate in theatre arts
productions in the TAC schools were absent from school significantly less often (M=
5.45, SD= 4.10) than students who participated in theatre arts productions in the AVG
schools (M= 8.27, SD= 5.97) t (95) = -2.23, p = .028.
To further explore participation in theatre productions as it relates to GPA, the
amount of participation in theatre productions was examined to see if there was a
relationship between frequency of participation and grades. A one-way ANOVA was
conducted to compare the GPA's of students in the following four categories: students
who participated in 1 to 2 theatre productions, between 3 and 4 productions, between 5
and 6 productions, and more than 6 theatre productions. Although GPA tended to
increase as student participation increased, these differences were not found to be
statistically significant, p= .093. For students who participated in 1-2 theatre productions,
their average GPA was 86.59 (SD= 7.49). Students who participated between 3 and 4
theatre productions had a mean GPA of 87.75 (SD= 7.08), whereas students who
participated in between 5 and 6 theatre productions had a mean GPA of 90.87 (SD=
45
6.27). Lastly, students who participated in more than 6 theatre productions had a mean
GPAof91.37(5D=6.i2).
Measures of the BASC-2. No statistically significant differences between students
in schools with and without a theatre arts curriculum were found for any of the subscales
of the BASC-2 (Attitude to School, p = .621; Teachers, p = .706; Interpersonal
Relations,/? = .544; Self-Esteem, p = .501; Self-Reliance, p = .134; Sense of Inadequacy,
p = .810; Social Stress, p = .147).Table 4 presents the means and standard deviations for
all subscales of the BASC for both the TAC and AVG schools.
Empathy and Perspective-Taking. Scores on the Fantasy subscale of the IRI were
found to be significantly different, with students who participated in theatre arts
productions in the TAC schools having higher scores (M= 20.30, SD= 5.34) than
students who participated in theatre arts productions in the AVG schools (M= 17.50,
SD= 4.32), t (111) = 2.28, p = .025. No other significant differences on the total score or
other subscales of the IRI were found (Empathic Concern, p = .321; Personal Distress, p
= .746; Perspective Taking, p = .842).
Perceived Value of the Arts. Students who participated in theatre arts productions
in the TAC schools perceived greater value of the arts to society (M= 4.66, SD= .58) than
students in the AVG schools (M= 4.27, SD= .98), t (111) = 1.77, p = .018. Value of the
Arts to Education was also found to be significantly different, with students in the TAC
schools having higher scores (M= 4.48, SD= .67) than students in the AVG schools (M=
4.00, SD= .98), t(H0) = 2.1l,p = .008.
Summary of Results. In examining the differences between students in TAC and
AVG schools and participation in theatre art productions, the following hypotheses were
supported: in comparison to students who participate in theatre arts in AVG schools,
students who participate in theatre arts in TAC schools had significantly higher grade
point averages, fewer school absences, and a greater appreciation for the arts. Support
was found only for the Fantasy subscale on measures of empathy and perspective taking.
The hypothesis was not supported in regards to the following subscales of the BASC-2:
Attitude to School, Attitude to Teachers, Interpersonal Relations, Self-Esteem, Self-
Reliance, Sense of Inadequacy, and Social Stress.
Comparing Students in Schools With and Without a Theatre Arts Curriculum Who Do
Not Participate in Theatre
In order to examine the third hypothesis, a series of independent samples Mests
were conducted to compare differences between students in TAC schools who are not
enrolled in the theatre arts curriculum and students in AVG schools. These students were
compared on measures of grade-point average, school absenteeism, and adaptive
measures on the Behavior Assessment System for Children—Second Edition (BASC-2),
empathy measures on the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), and value of the arts to
education and society. Table 5 reports the means, standard deviations, and significance
levels of these analyses.
Grade-Point Average and School Absenteeism. Grade point average (GPA) was
not found to be significantly different between students in the TAC schools and AVG
schools who did not participate in a theatre arts, p= .953. In addition, differences in the
number of school absences was also not found to statistically significant between students
in the TAC and AVG schools, p = .573. Students who did not participate in the theatre
arts curriculum in the TAC schools, however, estimated significantly greater number of
47
school absences (M= 8.11, SD= 6.92) than students in the AVG schools (M= 6.21, SD=
5.87), t (189) = 2.03, p = .044.
Measures of the BASC-2. No statistically significant differences were found
between groups on measures of the BASC-2 (Attitude to School, p = .721; Attitude to
Teachers,/? = .430; Interpersonal Relations,/? = .103; Self-Esteem,p = .734; Self-
Reliance,/? = .051; Sense of Inadequacy, p = .098; Social Stress,/? = .513). Table 5
presents the means and standard deviations for all subscales of the BASC for those who
did not participate in the theatre arts curriculum in the TAC and AVG schools.
Empathy and Perspective-Taking. No statistically significant differences were
found between groups on measures of empathy and perspective taking, as measured by
the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Empathic Concern,/? = .666; Fantasy,/? = .752;
Personal Distress,/? = .382; Perspective Taking,/? = .450). Table 5 presents the means
and standard deviations for all subscales of the IRI for those who did not participate in
the theatre arts curriculum in the TAC and AVG schools.
Perceived Value of the Arts. No statistically significant differences were found
between groups on measures of perceived value of the arts to society (/? = .905) and
students' education (/? = .455). Table 5 presents the means and standard deviations for
this item for those who did not participate in the theatre arts curriculum in the TAC and
AVG schools.
Summary of Results. In examining the differences between students who do not
participate in theatre arts in schools with and without a theatre arts curriculum, all
hypotheses failed to reach statistical significance.

48
Comparing Students Who Are and Are Not Enrolled in a Theatre Arts Curriculum in
Schools that Offer a Theatre Arts Curriculum
In order to examine the fourth hypothesis, a series of independent samples r-tests
were conducted to compare differences between students in TAC schools who are
enrolled in the theatre arts curriculum and students in TAC schools who are not enrolled
in the theatre arts curriculum. These students were compared on measures of grade-point
average, school absenteeism, and adaptive measures on the Behavior Assessment System
for Children—Second Edition (BASC-2), empathy measures on the Interpersonal
Reactivity Index (IRI), and value of the arts to education and society. Table 6 reports the
means, standard deviations, and significance levels of these analyses.
Grade Point Average and School Absenteeism. Students enrolled in a theatre arts
curriculum in the TAC schools had significantly higher GPA's (M= 89.13, SD= 7.15)
than students who were not enrolled in the theatre arts curriculum (M= 84.71, SD =
7.77), t (125) = 3.34, p = .001. The number of school absences was also found to be
significantly different, with students enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum having fewer
school absences (M= 5.19, SD= 4.44) than students who were not enrolled in a theatre
arts curriculum (M= 7.08, SD= 6.34), t (127) -1.94, p= .05.
Measures of the BASC-2. No statistically significant differences were found
between groups on measures of the BASC-2 (Attitude to School, p = .082; Attitude to
Teachers,p = .146; Interpersonal Relations,/? = .962; Self-Esteem,p = .902; Self-
Reliance,/* = .101; Sense of Inadequacy, p = .902; Social Stress,/? = .201). Although
there were no significant differences on the Attitude to School subscale of the BASC,
students enrolled in the theatre arts curriculum reported that they liked the school they
attend significantly more (M= 4.08, SD= .94) than students who were not enrolled in a
theatre arts curriculum (M= 3.58, SD= 1.21), t (154) = 3.03, p = .003, according to
results from the Student Survey.
Empathy and Perspective-Taking. Statistically significant differences were found
for the Total Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), with students enrolled in the theatre
arts curriculum having higher scores (M= 73.04, SD= 9.64) than students who were not
enrolled in the theatre arts curriculum (M= 64. 45, SD= 11.66), t (151) = 4.95, p < .001.
More specifically, compared to students who were not enrolled in a theatre arts
curriculum (M= 15. 53, SD= 5.09), students in the TAC schools who were enrolled in a
theatre arts curriculum had higher scores on the Fantasy subscale {M= 20.82, SD= 5.05),
t (154) = 6.52, p < .001. Significant differences were also found for Empathic Concern,
with students enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum having higher scores (M= 22. 13, SD=
3.66) than students who were not enrolled (M= 19.95, SD= 4.62), t (153) = 3.25, p =
.001. The groups did not differ on the level of discomfort or anxiety experienced as a
result of the negative experiences of others (Personal Distress, p = .449) or on
Perspective Taking (p = .099).
Perceived Value of the Arts. Students enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum
thought that the arts are important to society (M= 4.71, SD= .54) more than students who
were not enrolled (M= 3.73, SD= 1.14), t (154) = 6.85,p < .001. In addition, they
believed that the arts play a more important role in a students' education (M= 4.55, SD=
.60) than students who were not enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum (M= 3.36, SD=
1.14), t (153) = 8.11, p<. 001).

50
Summary of Results. In examining the differences between students in TAC
schools who are enrolled and those who are not enrolled in the theatre arts curriculum,
the following hypotheses were supported: in comparison to students who are not enrolled
in a theatre arts curriculum, students who are enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum had
significantly higher grade point averages, fewer school absences, higher scores on several
measures of empathy and perspective taking, and a greater appreciation for the arts. The
hypothesis was not supported in regards to the following subscales of the BASC-2:
Attitude to School, Attitude to Teachers, Interpersonal Relations, Self-Esteem, Self-
Reliance, Sense of Inadequacy, and Social Stress. Students enrolled in a theatre arts
curriculum, however, reported that they liked the school they attend significantly more
than students who are not enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum.
Comparing Students in Schools without a Theatre Arts Curriculum on Theatre Arts
Participation
In order to examine the fifth hypothesis, a series of independent samples f-tests
were conducted to compare differences between students in AVG schools who participate
in theatre arts (either within or outside of school) and those who do not participate in
theatre arts. These students were compared on measures of grade-point average, school
absenteeism, and adaptive measures on the Behavior Assessment System for Children—
Second Edition (BASC-2), empathy measures on the Interpersonal Reactivity Index
(IRI), and value of the arts to education and society. Table 7 reports the means, standard
deviations, and significance levels of these analyses.
Grade Point Average and School Absenteeism. Although students who participate
in theatre arts had slightly higher GPA's than students who do not participate in theatre
51
arts, differences were not found to be statistically significant, p= .143. In addition,
whereas students who participate in theatre arts had slightly more school absences than
students who do not participate in theatre arts, differences were also not statistically
significant, p= .065.
Measures of the BASC-2. Students who participated in theatre arts either within or
outside of school had lower scores on Attitude to School (M= 45. 95, SD= 7.04) than
students who do not participate in theatre arts (M= 50.32, SD= 8.44), t (122) = 2.06, p=
.004. Statistically significant differences were also found for Attitude to Teachers, with
students who participate in theatre arts having lower scores (M= 46.56, SD= 7.60) than
students who do not participate in theatre arts (M= 3.71, SD= .73), t (122) = 2.06, p =
.042. On the Student Survey, students who participated in theatre arts also responded that
they liked their teachers significantly more (M= 4.02, SD= .60) than students who did not
participate in theatre arts (M= 3.71, SD= .73), t (120) = 2.36, p = .020, corresponding to
their more positive attitudes toward teachers on the BASC-2. Although significant
differences were found on the Attitude to School subscale of the BASC-2, no statistically
significant differences were found on the Student Survey between groups on the item that
questioned students on how much they like the school they attend (p = .092). In addition,
no statistically significant differences were found between groups on measures of Social
Stress (p = .360), Sense of Inadequacy (p = .70), Interpersonal Relations (p = .33), Self-
Esteem (p = .998), or Self-Reliance (p = .536) of the BASC-2.
Empathy and Perspective-Taking. Statistically significant differences were found
on the Interpersonal Reactivity Index Total score, with students who participate in theatre
arts having higher IRI Total scores (M= 68.31, SD= 10.96) than students who do not
52
participate in theatre arts (M= 61.43, SD= 12. 26), t (117) = 3.03, p = .003. In addition,
students who participate in theatre arts had higher scores on measures of Perspective
Taking (M= 17.76, SD= 3.90) than students who do not participate in theatre arts (M-
15.54, SD= 4.75), t (119) = 2.60,p= .011. Statistically significant differences were also
found for the Fantasy subscale, with students who participate in theatre arts having higher
scores (M= 17.47, SD= 5.04) than students who do not participate (M= 15.00, SD=
5.61), t (122) = 2.41, p = .017. Furthermore, students who participate in theatre arts had
higher scores on Empathic Concern (M= 20.91, SD= 3.45) than students who do not
participate in theatre arts (M= 19.06, SD= 4.31), t (120) = 2.41, p = .017. No statistically
significant differences were found for Personal Distress (p = .511).
Perceived Value of the Arts. Statistically significant results were found for the
value of the arts to society, with students who participate in theatre arts showing a greater
appreciation (M= 4.33, SD= .93) than students who do not participate in theatre arts (M=
3.48, SD= 1.07), t (120) = 4.41, p < .001. In addition, students who participated in theatre
arts had a greater appreciation for the role of art in a student's education (M= 4.02, SD=
.92) than students who do not participate in theatre arts (M= 3.23, SD-1.06), t (119) =
4.10, p<.001.
Summary of Results. In examining the differences between students who do and
do not participate in theatre arts in schools that do not offer a theatre arts curriculum, the
following hypotheses were supported: students who participate in theatre arts either
within or outside of school had more adaptive functioning than students who do not
participate in theatre arts on the Attitude to School and Attitude to Teachers subscales of
the BASC-2 and all measures of empathy and perspective-taking except for the Personal
53
Distress scale of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. In addition, students who participate
in theatre arts had a significantly greater appreciation for the arts and responded that they
like their teachers significantly more than students who do not participate in theatre arts.
The hypothesis was not supported in regards to the following subscales of the BASC-2:
Interpersonal Relations, Self-Esteem, Self-Reliance, Sense of Inadequacy, and Social
Stress as there were no differences between the groups. Furthermore, no statistically
significant results were found for student grade point average and number of absences
from school.
Table 3
Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples t-testfor Effects of Enrollment in Theatre Arts School (TAC) on Eighteen
Dependent Variables
TAC School AVG School Mest
Variable M SD M SD df t
Grade Point Average3 87.11 7.68 84.78 6.79 248 2.53 .012"
Days Absent from School3 6.05 5.47 6.54 6.03 250 -.68 .498
BASC-2 Attitude to Schoolb 47.74 10.01 48.79 8.21 285 -.95 .343
BASC-2 Attitude to Teachers 48.60 10.27 48.73 8.78 285 -.12 .906
BASC-2 Sense of Inadequacy 48.76 9.18 50.85 9.05 285 -1.93 .055
BASC-2 Interpersonal Relations 53.46 7.51 51.87 7.14 284 1.81 .071
BASC-2 Self-Esteem 50.78 9.04 50.48 9.30 284 .28 .782
BASC-2 Social Stress 48.14 8.04 47.92 9.09 285 .21 .831
BASC-2 Self-Reliance 54.40 8.66 51.03 8.19 285 3.35 .001**
"How much do you like your teachers?' 4.01 .869 3.81 .706 282 2.25 .025"
(Table 3 continued)
"How much do you like your school?" 0 3.81 1.10 3.64 .999 283 1.39 .165
IRI Total d 68.77 11.43 63.69 12.26 277 3.56 .000***
IRI Perspective Taking 17.52 5.00 16.35 4.60 281 2.02 .045*
IRI Fantasy 18.18 5.75 15.77 5.52 285 3.59 .000***
IRI Empathic Concern 20.98 4.28 19.68 4.11 282 2.58 .010*
IRI Personal Distress 12.09 4.29 11.69 4.68 283 .76 .449
4 21 10 3 75 L1 283 3 64
Value of Arts to Societye - ° - ° - - 000 ***
Value of Arts to Education6 3.94 1.00 3.48 1.10 281 3.57 .000***
* = p_< .05. **p_<.01. ***£_< .001.

a
b
c
Likert response range from 1 (do not like at all) to 5 (like very much)
d
e
Table 4
Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples t-testfor Effects of Participation in Theatre Arts Productions on Twenty-One
Dependent Variables
TAC School AVG School Mest
Variable M SD M SD df t P
Grade Point Average 89.23 7.05 85.29 7.04 94 2.22 .029*
Days Absent from School3 5.45 4.10 8.27 5.97 95 -.23 .028*
BASC-2 Attitude to Schoolb 46.82 9.80 45.73 6.80 .50 .621
BASC-2 Attitude to Teachers 47.77 10.58 48.68 8.15 -.38 .706
BASC-2 Sense of Inadequacy 48.23 8.66 48.73 8.63 -.24 .810
BASC-2 Interpersonal Relations 53.43 7.45 52.36 6.93 .61 .544
BASC-2 Self-Esteem 50.66 8.83 49.18 10.71 .68 .501
BASC-2 Social Stress 48.74 8.61 45.82 7.53 1.46 .147
BASC-2 Self-Reliance 55.11 9.18 51.95 6.88 1.51 .134
"How much do you like your teachers?' 4.05 .780 4.14 .560 -.46 .646
(Table 4 continued)
"How much do you like your school?"0 4.01 .949 3.95 .844 111 .26 .799
IRI Total d 72.07 10.56 67.86 10.73 110 1.64 .104
IRI Perspective Taking 17.85 4.84 17.62 4.01 110 .20 .842
IRI Fantasy 20.30 5.34 17.50 4.32 111 2.28 .025*
IRIEmpathic Concern 21.67 4.01 20.77 2.69 111 1.26 .321
Value of Arts to Society" 4.66 .582 4.27 .99 111 1.77 .018*
Value of Arts to Education6 4.48 .674 4.00 .98 110 2.71 .008**
Enjoyed Participation in Theatre Productionsf 4.67 .601 4.32 .82 106 2.18 .032*
Value of Participation in Theatre Productions to Educationg 4.15 .959 3.63 .96 105 2.13 .035*
Importance of Participation in Theatre Productions to Lifeh 4.27 .956 3.53 .91 106 3.11 .002**
* = E_< .05. **g_<.01. ***E_<.001.
a
c
d
e
f
Likert response range from 1 (did not enjoy at all) to 5 (enjoyed very much).
8
Likert response range from 1 (not at all valuable) to 5 (very valuable).
h
Table 5
Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples t-testfor Effects of Non-Participation in Theatre Arts Productions on Eighteen
Dependent Variables
TAC School AVG School ?-test
Variable M SD M SD df
Grade Point Average3 84.71 7.78 84.78 6.79 178 -.06 .953
Days Absent from School3 7.08 6.34 6.54 6.03 180 .57 .573
BASC-2 Attitude to Schoolb 49.24 9.86 48.79 8.21 202 .36 .721
BASC-2 Attitude Toward Teachers 49.79 10.06 48.74 8.78 202 .79 .430
BASC-2 Sense of Inadequacy 48.62 9.75 50.85 9.05 202 1.66 .098
BASC-2 Interpersonal Relations 53.57 7.21 51.87 7.14 201 1.64 .103
BASC-2 Self-Esteem 50.94 9.27 50.48 9.30 201 .34 .734
BASC-2 Social Stress 47.11 7.52 47.92 9.09 202 -.66 .513
BASC-2 Self-Reliance 53.35 8.17 51.03 8.20 202 1.96 .051
"How much do you like your teachers?' 3.94 .848 3.81 .706 199 1.16 .247
(Table 5 continued)
"How much do you like your school ?" c 3.55 1.21 3.64 .999 200 .55 .585
IRI Total d 64.45 11.66 63.69 12.26 194 .43 .668
IRI Perspective Taking 16.87 4.93 16.35 4.60 198 .76 .450
IRI Fantasy 15.53 5.09 15.77 5.52 202 -.32 .752
IRI Empathic Concern 19.95 4.62 19.68 4.11 199 .43 .666
Value of Arts to Societye 3.73 1.14 3.75 1.10 200 -.12 .905
Value of Arts to Educatione 3.36 1.14 3.48 1.10 199 -.75 .455
a
b
c
d
6
ON
o
Table 6
Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples t-testfor Effects of Participation in Theatre Arts Curriculum in TAC Schools
on Eighteen Dependent Variables
Participation Non-Participation Hest
Grade Point Average3 89.13 7.15 84.71 7.78 125 3.34 .001**
Days Absent from School3 5.19 4.44 7.O8 6.34 127 -1.94 .OSO*
BASC-2 Attitude to Schoolb 46.42 10.24 49.24 9.86 154 -1.75 .082
BASC-2 Attitude to Teachers 47.38 10.54 49.79 10.06 154 -1.46 .146
BASC-2 Sense of Inadequacy 48.79 8.45 48.62 9.75 154 .12 .902
BASC-2 Interpersonal Relations 53.63 7.56 53.57 7.21 153 .05 .962
BASC-2 Self-Esteem 50.76 8.96 50.94 9.27 154 -.12 .902
BASC-2 Social Stress 48.72 8.07 47.12 7.52 154 1.28 .201
BASC-2 Self-Reliance 55.64 9.16 53.35 8.17 154 1.65 .101
ON
(Table 6 continued)
"How much do you like your teachers?' 4.09 .79 3.94 .85 153 1.17 .243
"How much do you like your school ?"' 4.08 .94 3.58 1.21 154 3.03 .003**
IRI Total d 73.04 9.64 64.45 11.66 151 4.95 .000***
IRI Perspective Taking 18.19 4.98 16.87 4.93 153 1.66 .099
IRI Fantasy 20.82 5.05 15.53 5.09 154 6.52 .000***
IRI Empathic Concern 22.13 3.66 19.95 4.62 153 3.25 .001**
IRI Personal Distress 11.90 4.42 12.26 4.17 152 -.53 .598
Value of Arts to Societye 4.71 .54 3.73 1.14 154 6.85 .000***
Value of Arts to Educatione 4.55 .60 3.36 1.14 153 8.11 .000***
* = rj_< .05. ** p_< .01. ***g_< .001.
a
b
c
d
e
Table 7
Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples t-testfor Effects of Participation in Theatre Arts in AVG Schools on Eighteen
Dependent Variables
Participation Non-Participation f-test
Grade Point Average3 86.14 6.78 84.22 6.66 177 1.47 .143
Days Absent from School3 7.85 5.83 5.75 5.93 117 1.86 .065
BASC-2 Attitude to Schoolb 45.95 7.04 50.32 8.44 122 2.06 .004**
BASC-2 Attitude to Teachers 46.56 7.60 49.94 9.22 122 2.90 .042*
BASC-2 Sense of Inadequacy 51.05 8.43 50.40 9.18 122 .39 .700
BASC-2 Interpersonal Relations 52.77 7.21 51.44 7.14 122 .98 .330
BASC-2 Self-Esteem 50.43 8.90 50.43 9.66 121 0 .998
BASC-2 Social Stress 46.93 7.90 48.52 9.75 122 .92 .360
BASC-2 Self-Reliance 51.70 8.20 50.73 8.12 122 .62 .536

(Table 7 continued)
"How much do you like your teachers?"c 4.02 .60 3.71 .73 120 2.36 .020*
"How much do you like your school ?" c 3.83 .91 3.51 1.03 120 1.70 .092
IRI Total d 68.31 10.96 61.43 12.26 117 3.03 .003**
IRI Perspective Taking 17.76 3.90 15.54 4.75 119 2.60 .011'
IRI Fantasy 17.47 5.04 15.00 5.61 122 2.41 .017*
IRI Empathic Concern 20.91 3.45 19.06 4.31 120 2.41 .017"
Value of Arts to Society6 4.33 .93 3.48 1.07 120 -4.41 .000***
Value of Arts to Educatione 4.02 .92 3.23 1.06 119 4.10 .000***
*=p_<.05. **e_<.01. ***E_<.001.

a
c

e as
Likert response range from 1 (not at all important) to 5 (very important). 4*.
65
Exploratory Analysis
In addition to testing the above five hypotheses, statistical analyses were
conducted in order to evaluate secondary areas of interest, including participation in
theatre arts as an independent variable in predicting the number of honors and advanced
placement (AP courses) taken and the number of extra-curricular activities that students
take. In addition, the frequency of attendance at various fine arts events was examined in
relationship to the outcome measures described above.
Theatre Arts Participation on Outcome Measures. In addition to examining
differences between students who directly participate in a theatre arts curriculum and
those who do not directly participate in a theatre arts curriculum within the TAC schools,
an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted to compare students who are enrolled
in a theatre arts curriculum and participate in theatre productions (full participation),
students who participate in theatre classes and productions but who are not enrolled in the
theatre arts curriculum (some participation), and students who do not participate in any
theatre arts on all dependent variables (no participation). Results showed a number of
differences (7 out of the 16 dependent variables) when comparing type of school or
presence of a theatre arts program. These differences will be described briefly below.
Grade point average (GPA) was found to be significantly different between
students, F (2, 124) = 11.08, p < .001. Specifically, post-hoc analyses using the
Bonferonni correction showed that students who partially participated in theatre arts had
higher GPA's (M = 91.28, SD = 5.45) than students who did not participate in theatre
arts at all (M = 83.33, SD = 7.56), p = .002. In addition, students who fully participated
66
in theatre arts had significantly higher grades (M = 88.98, SD= 7.20) than students with
no theatre arts participation (M = 83.33, SD = 7.56), p < .001.
Significant differences were also found between students on the Interpersonal
Reactivity Index (IRI), F (2, 149) = 13.22, p < .001. Post-hoc analysis using the Dunnett
T3 correction showed that students who fully participated in theatre arts had higher
empathy and perspective taking scores (M = 73.07, SD= 9.70) than students with no
theatre arts participation (M= 63.53, SD= 10.71), p <.001. Specifically, the Fantasy
subscale was found to be significantly different between students, F (2, 152) = 21.33, p
<.001. In particular, post-hoc analyses using the Dunnett T3 correction showed that
students who fully participated in theatre arts had higher scores (M = 20.75, SD= 5.10)
than students with no theatre arts participation (M - 15.05, SD= 4.78), p <.001.
Statistically significant differences were also found with the Empathy subscale, F (2,
151) = 6.78, p = .002. Post-hoc analysis using the Dunnett T3 correction showed that
students who were fully involved in theatre arts had higher empathy scores (M = 22.21,
SD= 3.43) than students with no participation (M= 20.17, SD= 4.24), p = .009.
Students' value of the arts and its role in society was found to be significantly
different, F (2, 152) = 30.99,/? <.001. Post-hoc analysis using the Dunnett T3 correction
showed that students who fully participate in theatre arts valued the arts and its role in
society (M= 4.70, SD= .54) more than students with no participation in theatre arts (M=
3.56, SD= 1.16), p <.001. In addition, students who only partially participated in theatre
arts valued the arts and its role in society (M = 4.50, SD= .71) more than students with no
theatre arts participation {M = 3.56, SD= 1.16), p <.001. Furthermore, students' value of
the arts and its role in education was significantly different between students, F (2, 151) =
67
42.66, p <.001. Specifically, analysis using the Dunnett T3 correction showed that
students who fully participated in theatre arts valued the arts in education more (M =
4.55, SD= .60) than students with no involvement in theatre arts (M = 3.16, SD= 1.13), p
<.001. In addition, students who were only partially involved in theatre arts valued the
role of the arts in education more (M = 4.17, SD= .86) than students with no theatre arts
involvement (M = 3.16, SD= 1.13), p = 001 .Table 8 reports a summary of the means,
standard deviations, and significance levels from these analyses.

Table 8
Means, Standard Deviations, and One-Way Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) for Effects of Theatre Arts Participation on Sixteen
Dependent Variables
Variable Full Some None ANOVA
M _ S D M S D M _ S D E E
Grade Point Average3 88.98 7.20 91.28 5.45 83.33 7.56 11.08 .000***
Days Absent from School3 5.30 4.45 7.67 10.17 6.73 5.16 1.53 .220
B ASC-2 Attitude to Schoolb 4.74 10.18 45.17 8.47 49.87 10.30 2.34 .100
BASC-2 Attitude to Teachers 47.59 10.59 48.00 10.73 50.08 9.98 1.01 .366
BASC-2 Sense of Inadequacy 48.83 8.54 44.83 8.62 49.62 9.78 1.96 .144
BASC-2 Interpersonal Relations 53.75 7.45 52.61 7.44 53.58 7.34 .173 .841
BASC-2 Self-Esteem 50.82 9.05 50.56 7.67 50.89 9.68 .009 .991
BASC-2 Social Stress 48.83 8.08 45.89 9.95 47.51 6.69 1.21 .302
BASC-2 Self Reliance 55.61 9.20 53.72 8.82 53.33 8.09 1.23 .296
OS
00
(Table 8 continued)
IRI Total c 73.07 9.70 67.67 14.11 63.53 10.71 13.22 .000***
IRI Perspective Taking 18.08 4.97 17.83 4.45 16.68 5.13 1.36 .259
IRI Fantasy 20.76 5.10 17.89 6.05 15.05 4.78 21.33 .000***
IRI Empathic Concern 22.21 3.43 18.89 6.20 20.17 4.24 6.78 .002*
IRI Personal Distress 12.01 4.38 13.06 4.50 11.86 4.17 .542 .582
Value of Arts to Society d 4.70 .54 4.50 .71 3.56 1.16 30.99 .000***
Value of Arts to Education d 4.55 .60 4.17 .86 3.16 1.13 42.66 .000***
* = p_< .05. ** p_< .01. ***g_< .001.

a
c
d
Number of Theatre Arts Classes on Outcome Measures. Correlation coefficients
were calculated to analyze the hypothesis that the number of theatre classes a student
participated in will be positively related to all outcome measures. Within the TAC
schools, the hypothesis was supported for some of the dependent variables in that the
more theatre classes a student took, the higher their total score on measures of empathy
and perspective taking, r(157)= .321, p< .001. More specifically, the number of theatre
classes a student took was positively correlated with Fantasy, r(160) = .355, p< .001 and
Empathic Concern, r(159)= .232, p= .003. However, no significant correlations were
found for Perspective Taking, r(159)= .096, p= .228 and Personal Distress, r(158)= .023,
p=. 774. In addition, no significant correlations were found between the number of theatre
courses taken and the following measures of socio-emotional functioning on the BASC-
2: Attitude to School, r(160)= -.062, p=.436; Attitude to Teachers, r(160)= -.024, p=
.767; Sense of Inadequacy, r(160)= .002, p=.979; Interpersonal Relations, r{\59)=-.011,
p=.892; Self-Esteem, r(l60)=-.005, p=.949\ and Social Stress, r( 160)=.069, p=.385. A
positive correlation was found, however, between the number of theatre classes taken and
Self-Reliance, or their evaluation of the self and responsibilities, r(160)= .185, p= .019.
Theatre Arts Participation and Honors/Advanced Placement (AP) Courses. A Chi
Square Test for Independence was conducted to determine whether students who are
enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum within the TAC schools are more likely to take
honors and advanced placement (AP) courses than students who are not enrolled in a
theatre arts curriculum. It was found that students enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum
were significantly more likely to take honors courses than students who are not enrolled,
X2 (1, N = 154) = 20.61, p < .001. In addition, students enrolled in a theatre arts
71
curriculum were also more likely to take AP courses than students who were not enrolled,
X2 (1, N = 156) = 7.03, p = .013. A series of independent samples Mests was then
conducted to measure whether students who participate in theatre arts take more honors
courses and AP courses than students who do not participate in theatre arts. The number
of honors courses taken was found to be significant within the TAC schools, with
students enrolled in the theatre arts curriculum taking more honors courses (M= 1.56,
SD= 1.76) than students who are not enrolled (M= .72, SD= 1.53), t (150) = 3.13, p=
.002. In contrast, the average number of AP courses taken by students enrolled in the
theatre curriculum was not significantly higher than the average number of AP courses
taken by students who were not enrolled in the theatre arts curriculum, p= .306.
A Chi Square Test for Independence was also conducted to evaluate whether
students who participate in theatre arts within the AVG schools are more likely to take
honors and advanced placement (AP) courses than non-participants. Analyses were
conducted separately for those students who did and did not participate in theatre
productions and for those who did and did not take theatre classes in school. Students
who participated in theatre productions were no more likely to take honors (p = .817) or
AP classes (p = .634) than students who did not participate in theatre productions in
school. Similarly, students who took theatre classes in school were no more likely to take
honors (p = .234) or AP classes (p = .410) than students who did not take theatre classes.
A series of independent samples Mests were then conducted to evaluate the difference in
the number of honors and AP courses taken by students that participate and do not
participate in theatre arts within the AVG schools. No statistically significant results were
found between students who participated in theatre arts productions and those who did
72
not participate in theatre productions, with students who participate in theatre productions
taking slightly more honors classes than students who do not participate in theatre
productions,/? = .911. The number of AP courses was also not significant, with students
involved in theatre productions taking slightly more AP courses than students who are
not involved in theatre productions,/? = .124. Similarly, students who took theatre classes
did not take more honors courses than students who did not take theatre classes, p = .160.
The number of AP courses taken was also not found to be significant, with students who
did not take theatre classes taking slightly more AP courses than students who did take
theatre classes, p = .364. Tables 9-13 report a summary of the means, standard
deviations, and significance levels from these analyses.

73
Table 9
Likelihood of Taking Honors and Advanced Placement Courses Among Theatre Arts
Participants and Non-Participants in the TAC Schools
Courses Curriculum No Curriculum Z 2 (l) P
Honors 50 21 20.61 .000***
Advanced Placement 37 21 7.03 .013*
Note. N = 78, except for honors courses in the No Curriculum group (n = 76)
*=2_<.05. **p_<.01. ***p_<.001.
Table 10
Likelihood of Taking Honors and Advanced Placement Courses Among Participants and
Non-Participants in Theatre Arts Productions in the AVG Schools
Courses Productions No Productions Z 2 (D P
Honors 10 44 .06 .817
Advanced Placement 7 40 .34 .634
Note. N= 22 for Productions group; N= 104 for No Productions group, except for honors courses (n= 103)
74
Table 11
Likelihood of Taking Honors and Advanced Placement Courses Among Participants and
Non-Participants in Theatre Arts Classes in the AVG Schools
Courses Classes No Classes Z 2 d) P
Honors 1 53 1.81 .234
Advanced Placement 1 46 1.15 .410
Note. N= 6 for Classes group; N= 120 for No Classes group, except for honors courses (n= 116)
Table 12
Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples t-test for Effects of Participation
on Honors and Advanced Placement Courses within TAC Schools
Number Curriculum No Curriculum Mest
M SD M SD df t p
Honors 1.56 1.76 .72 1.53 150 3.13 .002
Advanced Placement .97 1.38 .72 1.72 154 -2.70 .306
* = e_< .05. **p_<.01. ***E_<.001.

75
Table 13
Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples t-test for Effects of Participation
on Honors and Advanced Placement Courses within AVG Schools
Number Productions No Productions Mest
M SD M SD df t p
Honors .77 1.07 .74 1.16 121 .112 .911
Advanced Placement .95 1.96 .54 .84 122 1.55 .124
Number Classes No Classes Mest
M SD M SD df t p
Honors .33 .82 .77 1.16 121 .29 .160
Advanced Placement .17 .41 .64 1.13 122 -1.01 .364
* = E_< 05. ** E_< .01. ***£_< .001.

76
Theatre Arts Participation and Extracurricular Activities. An independent
samples Mest was conducted to test the hypothesis that students who participate in
theatre arts also participate in more extra-curricular activities than students who do not
participate in theatre arts. Within the TAC schools, the number of extra-curricular
activities that a student participated in was found to be significantly different, with
students enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum participating in more extra-curricular
activities (M= 2.86, SD= 2.20) than students who are not enrolled in a theatre arts
curriculum (Af= 1.78, SD= 1.66), t (151) = 3.42, p = .001.
A series of correlations were also conducted to determine whether participating in
extracurricular activities was related to socio-emotional functioning. Within the TAC
schools, higher numbers of extracurricular activities that students participated in were
related to more positive Attitudes to School, r(158) = -.301, p < .001), lower ratings of
Sense of Inadequacy, r(158)= -.232, p=.003, and higher ratings of Self-Reliance, r(158)=
.217, p = .006. In addition, participation in extracurricular activities was positively
related to total scores on measures of empathy and perspective taking, as assessed by the
Interpersonal Reactivity Index, r(155) = .230, p= .004. Specifically, the more
extracurricular activities students participated in, the higher their scores on Perspective
Taking, r(157) = .179, p = .025 and Fantasy, r(158) = .284,p< .001). It was found that
extracurricular activities was negatively related to measures of Personal Distress,
however, r(157)= -.158, p - .049. No statistically significant correlations were found for
Attitude to Teachers, r(l5S)=-.129, p=.106, Interpersonal Relations, r(157)= .087,
p=.281, Self Esteem, r(158)=.059, p=.465, Social Stress, r(158)=-.007, p=.933) and
Empathic Concern, r{\51)=.152, p=.057.

77
Within the AVG schools, the only statistically significant correlation was found
between the number of extracurricular activities that students participate in and measures
of Fantasy within the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, r(l 15)= .206, p= .021. No
significant correlations were found for the following measures of the B ASC-2: Attitude
to School, r{\ 19)= -.099, p= .737; Attitude to Teachers, r(l 15)= .032, p= .737; Social
Stress, r(115)= -.074, p= .431; Sense of Inadequacy, r(115)= .111, p= .237;
Interpersonal Relations, r(l 15)= .048, p= .614; Self Esteem, r(l 14)= -.102, p= .282; and
Self-Reliance, r(l 15)= .093, p= .321. In addition, no significant correlations were found
between extracurricular activities and Perspective Taking, r(l 12)= .089, p=.350,
Empathic Concern, r(l 14)= .056, p= .555, and Personal Distress, r(l 15)= .014, p= .884.
Administrator Perspective. Administrators within each school were also surveyed
in regards to their perceptions of the importance of the arts as well as the barriers to
implementing the arts into the regular curriculum. All administrators within each school
agreed that the arts (theatre, music, dance, visual arts) are very important to society and to
students' education. Three out of the four administrators responded that lack of funding
was the biggest obstacle to implementing adequate theatre arts programs in schools. One
administrator responded that lack of time in the curriculum was the biggest obstacle,
whereas the rest rated this as the second biggest barrier. Other barriers listed were lack of
administrator support and lack of adequately trained teachers. Lack of interest was
considered to be the smallest barrier. Table 14 presents the data from administrator
responses to the survey.

78
Table 14
Responses to Administrator Survey
Item TAC TAC AVG AVG

Catholic Public Catholic Public
Value of Arts to Society3 5 5
Value of Arts to Education3
Barriersb
Lack of adequately trained teachers 5 3
Lack of community support 4 4
Lack of administrator support 3 6
Lack of time in curriculum 2 1 2
Lack of funding 1 2 1
Lack of interest 6 5

' Administrators rank ordered barriers where 1 = biggest barrier, 6 = smallest barrier.
79
Summary of Results
In examining the differences between students in the TAC and AVG schools,
students in schools with a strong educational commitment to theatre arts (TAC) had
significantly higher grade-point averages, were more self-reliant, had higher scores on
measures of empathy and perspective taking, liked their teachers more, and believed that
the arts contributed more to students' education and to society than students in schools
without a strong educational commitment to theatre arts (AVG). Student absences and
other measures of social-emotional functioning (i.e., self-esteem, attitude to school, social
stress, sense of inadequacy, and interpersonal relations) were not different between
schools.
Students who directly participated in theatre arts in the TAC schools were also
compared to students who participated in theatre arts in the AVG schools. It was found
that students who participated in theatre arts within the TAC schools had significantly
higher grade-point averages, fewer school absences, and a greater appreciation for the
arts than students who participated in theatre arts in the AVG schools. On measures of
empathy and perspective taking, only the Fantasy subscale, which measures the extent to
which individuals identify with fictional characters, such as in movies and books, was
found to be significantly different between groups, with students in the TAC schools
reporting higher Fantasy scores than students in the AVG schools. Differences were not
found between the TAC and AVG schools on measures of social-emotional functioning
nor their overall enjoyment of school and their teachers.
Comparisons were also made within the TAC schools between students who did
and did not directly participate in the theatre arts curriculum that was offered in these
80
schools. As hypothesized, students who participated in a theatre arts curriculum had
significantly higher grade-point averages, fewer absences from school, higher levels of
empathy and perspective taking, and a greater appreciation for the arts than students who
were not enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum. In addition, students enrolled in a theatre
arts curriculum enjoyed attending their school more than students who were not enrolled.
Findings were not supported for the prediction that students who participated in a theatre
arts curriculum will report higher social-emotional functioning than students who did not
participate, as measured by the BASC-2.
Furthermore, differences between students who did and did not participate in
theatre arts in the AVG schools were examined. Similar to students who participated in
theatre arts within the TAC schools, students who participated in theatre arts within the
AVG schools had more positive attitudes to school and their teachers, liked their teachers
more, had a greater appreciation for the arts, and had higher scores on nearly all measures
of empathy and perspective taking than students who did not participate in theatre arts. In
contrast to theatre arts students within the TAC schools, no significant differences were
found in regards to grade-point average and number of school absences. Finally, the
hypothesis that students who do not participate in theatre arts in the TAC schools will
have higher academic, social, and emotional functioning than students in the AVG
schools was not supported.
Secondary research questions were also explored in this study. First, within the
TAC schools, differences were examined between students enrolled in a theatre arts
curriculum, students (full participants), students who participated in theatre arts but who
were not necessarily enrolled in the theatre curriculum (partial participants), and students
81
who had no participation in theatre arts. Both students either fully or partially participated
in theatre arts had higher grades than students with no participation. Although students
who participated in theatre arts but who were not enrolled in the curriculum had slightly
higher grades than students enrolled in the curriculum, this difference did not reach
statistical significance. In addition, students who both fully and partially participated in
theatre arts valued the arts more and its role in society and education than students with
no participation. Students who fully participated in theatre arts also had higher scores on
several measures of empathy and perspective taking than students with no participation.
Significant differences were not found on measures of empathy between students who
fully or partially participate in theatre arts.
Second, within the TAC schools, the more theatre classes a student had taken, the
more self-reliant they were and the higher their scores were on measures of Empathic
Concern and Fantasy, two subscales of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). Although
students who took more theatre classes also tended to have higher grade-point averages,
this difference was not statistically significant.
The likelihood of taking honors and advanced placement (AP) courses were also
examined, as well as the number of honors and AP courses taken. It was found that
within the TAC schools, students enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum were more likely to
take honors and AP courses than students who were not enrolled. They were also enrolled
in more honors courses in general. These results were not replicated for students who
participated in theatre classes or productions within the AVG schools, however.
Theatre arts participation was also examined in relation to extra-curricular
activities. Within the TAC schools, a significant positive correlation was found between
82
enrollment in a theatre arts curriculum and the number of extra-curricular activities in
which a student participated. In addition, it was found that students who participated in
more extra-curricular activities were more likely to have a positive attitude toward
school, lower feelings of inadequacy, were more self-reliant, and held more empathic
attitudes toward others. Within the AVG schools, however, students that participated in
theatre arts were not more likely to participate in more extra-curricular activities.
Exploratory analysis also found that students who were involved in theatre
productions in the TAC schools enjoyed their participation in these productions more
than students who were involved in theatre arts productions in the AVG schools, enjoyed
their classes more, and also perceived greater value in their involvement in theatre arts
productions to their education and their life compared to students in the AVG schools.
They also believed that their theatre classes contributed to their learning in other
academic subjects more than students who took theatre classes in the AVG schools and
believed that their theatre classes positively impacted their life in general more than the
AVG students.
83
Chapter VI
Discussion
In the following discussion, several areas are addressed. First, brief summaries of
the purpose and procedures are outlined. Second, the results are discussed with respect to
the existing literature and explanations for findings are offered. Next, some of the
limitations of this study are addressed. Finally, implications of the current findings and
suggestions for future research are presented.
Summary of Purpose
The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between theatre
arts instruction and participation with student academic, social, and emotional outcomes.
Specifically, theatre arts participation was examined in relationship to academic
performance, students' social-emotional development, school attendance, and students'
level of appreciation for the arts. High schools that offered a curricular theatre arts
program (TAC) and had strong extra-curricular theatre arts programs was compared with
more traditional, or typical high schools that do not offer theatre arts instruction as part of
the regular curriculum and provided fewer extra-curricular opportunities in theatre arts
(AVG). In addition to examining the differences between students in the TAC and AVG
schools, comparisons were made within each school between students that did and did
not directly participate in theatre arts instruction and performance.
Explanation of Findings and Integration with Past Literature
The present study provides some preliminary data that participation in theatre
arts instruction and performance may benefit students' academic, social, and emotional
well-being, especially when this participation is incorporated in the general curriculum by

84
adequately trained instructors and access to sufficient space and materials. More
specifically, participation in theatre arts instruction and performance is related to higher
grade point averages, fewer school absences, greater liking of teachers and the school one
attends, a strong ability to empathize and take on the perspective of others, and a greater
appreciation for the arts. Furthermore, participants of curricular theatre arts programs
were more likely to take honors and advanced placement courses than non-participants as
well as to participate in more extra-curricular activities. Caution must be made when
interpreting these results so as not to infer causal relationships. The results are
correlational, and although promising, do not necessarily show that participation in
theatre arts leads to such outcomes. It is possible that students with these academic and
social-emotional characteristics choose theatre arts as a medium or that some other
unknown variable is the cause of such findings. Nevertheless, possible explanations for
the results are offered below.
As expected, students within the TAC schools attended more theatre arts
productions in school than students in the AVG schools. For example, 22% of students in
the TAC schools responded that they "often" attend theatre arts productions in school,
compared to only 7.9% of students in the AVG schools. Interestingly, 21.7% of students
in the TAC schools responded that they "never" attend theatre productions in school,
compared to 44.9% of students in the AVG schools. Since the AVG schools do not
present as many opportunities to attend theatre arts productions throughout the school-
year, it was not surprising that nearly half of their students responded that they never
attend theatre productions in school. The percentage of students who do not attend theatre
productions in the TAC schools seems high, however, for a school that is strongly
85
committed to promoting the arts. One possible explanation for this high percentage may
be that many students replied "never" to attending a theatre arts production in school
because they were, in actuality, participating in these productions. In the future, this
question should be made clearer so as to eliminate this confusion. Another interesting
finding is that 23.4% of students in the AVG schools responded that they participate in
theatre arts outside of school. One implication of this finding is that students may seek
theatre arts exposure outside of school because it is not readily available to them in
school. Students may be searching for more exposure to theatre arts; therefore, educators
may wish to incorporate more theatre arts experiences into their school. This percentage
seems high and therefore the number of students within the AVG schools that have
experience in theatre arts outside of school may have similar characteristics to theatre arts
students within the TAC schools, despite not having many opportunities to participate
inside of school. Therefore, the likelihood of finding significant differences between
these students may have been limited.
It has been reported that participation in the arts is related to fewer school
absences (Aschbacher & Herman, 1991) and higher grades on report cards and
standardized tests (Catterall, Chapleau, & Iwanaga, 1999; Fiske, 1999; Luftig, 1994;
Rose, Parks, Androes, & McMahon, 2000). The present study supports these findings by
demonstrating that students who were enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum had
significantly higher grades, fewer school absences, and reported that they enjoyed school
more than students who do not participate in theatre arts. In addition, although not
statistically significant, student's grades tended to increase with the number of theatre
arts classes taken. It is possible that greater enjoyment of school may make learning a
86
more positive experience and therefore may lead to higher grades. In addition, students
who are able to participate in theatre on a daily basis in school may make them more
likely to want to attend school. Higher rates of school attendance may also be a factor
that is related to higher grades. In contrast, students who participate in theatre arts within
the AVG schools do not attend school more or have higher grades than their non-
participating peers (although they have more positive attitudes toward school and their
teachers and like their teachers more). Perhaps if these students had more regular
opportunities to participate in theatre arts throughout the school day they may find school
more enjoyable and attend more often. Another possibility, however, may be that
students with lower grades may not have more time open for participating in activities
such as theatre arts.
Results of the present study also show that students who participated in theatre
arts productions within the TAC schools had higher grades and fewer school absences
than students who participated in theatre productions in the AVG schools. In addition to
the more frequent opportunities to participate in theatre arts productions, these
differences may also possibly be explained by the better quality of arts instruction in the
TAC schools (i.e., better trained teachers and facilities), which may make the theatre arts
experience and school as a whole more worthwhile for participants. For example,
students in the TAC schools report that they enjoy their theatre classes and participation
in productions more than students in the AVG schools. They also perceived greater
importance in the role that their participation in theatre productions plays in their
education and life in general.

87
In addition, students who were enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum were more
likely to take honors and AP courses than students who were not enrolled and also took
more honors courses. Students enrolled in a theatre arts curriculum also were more likely
to participate in extra-curricular activities. Interestingly, these results were not replicated
for students who participate in theatre classes or productions within the AVG schools. As
mentioned, the difference may be related to the frequency and/or quality of theatre arts
instruction offered within the TAC schools. In other words, as mentioned previously
students who regularly participate in theatre arts in school find school more enjoyable
and therefore may find learning more rewarding. This, in turn, may be related to the
tendency to take more challenging academic courses and spend more time in school
engaging in other extra-curricular activities. On the other hand, "smarter" students may
not need to spend a significant amount of time studying and may therefore have more
time to participate in extra-curricular activities. "Smarter" students may also seek
challenges such as honors and advanced placement courses, as well as theatre arts courses
and activities.
Other researchers offer additional explanations for the relationship between the
arts and academic performance. Gardner (1983) criticized the American educational
system for valuing only the linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences and ignoring
the many other types of intelligence. Therefore, frequent participation in theatre arts may
help students access and excel in other intelligences, such as interpersonal, intrapersonal,
and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. This opportunity to utilize other areas of intelligence
may help students become more engaged in school and therefore enjoy learning more and
88
attend school more often. It is reasonable to assume higher levels of school attendance
and greater engagement in the school environment may be related to higher grades.
Recent research expands upon Gardner's idea of multiple intelligences and
explains how theatre arts may assist in the learning process. Herrmann (1995) posits that
the brain can be divided into four sections that are physically and neurologically
connected: the logical-analytical-quantitative quadrant, the organized-sequential-planned
quadrant, the holistic-intuitive-integrating quadrant, and the interpersonal-kinesthetic-
emotional quadrant. Herrmann suggests that optimal or "deep structure" learning occurs
when the whole brain (all four quadrants) is involved in the process and that creative
thinking engages the whole brain. Further, performing integrates the use of the body and
emotions in addition to the other quadrants, which helps to engage the whole brain and
therefore leads to deep structure learning (Munro & Coetzee, 2007).
Emotion is also increasingly being considered central to the learning process, with
Munro and Coetzee (2007) positing that there are connections between affect, learning,
and memory. In addition, Whittaker (2007) proposes that theatre arts stimulate the
emotions, which in turns captures one's attention and that "Once the emotion and the
attention are captivated, students learn and understand" (Whittaker, 2007, p.9). Therefore,
participation in theatre arts may engage the body and mind, which in turn may activate
the whole brain and optimize learning. In addition, through engagement of the emotions,
theatre arts participation may help students attend to the environment more, which in turn
may increase retention of material. It is possible that theatre arts students then may apply
information learned from a performance (i.e., history and vocabulary incorporated into a
play) into the content learned in academic classrooms. This idea is in contrast, however,
to a study by Fineberg (1993) who found that arts programs provided opportunities for
students to apply what they have learned in the classroom to their art projects (and hence
expand upon their knowledge of academic material) rather than applying what they
learned in art to academic subjects. Although ideas regarding whole-brain learning,
emotion, attention, and memory may offer explanations for the findings in the present
study, they are primarily theoretical in nature. More empirical research is needed to
support the theories.
The role of active or experiential learning may also offer some explanations as to
why students who are directly and indirectly exposed to theatre arts may have higher
grades and rates of school attendance. Kruschke (2008) believes that optimal learning
occurs when the learner actively manipulates and intervenes during the learning process.
Active learning includes classroom instructional strategies such as discussion and
practice of material learned, outdoor adventure programs or field trips, class projects, and
internships (Wingfield & Black, 2005). As an example, undergraduate students who
engaged in active learning strategies in the classroom believed that they gained greater
knowledge and understanding of their coursework and found the college experience to be
more personally rewarding than students who did not engage in active learning (Braxton,
Milem, & Sullivan, 2000). Additionally, Braxton et al. posited that active learning helped
students become more socially integrated as they developed friendships and peer support
networks. Other researchers found that field-based experiences and "hands-on" learning
resulted in increased engagement in the learning process as well as a greater
understanding and retention of material (Kozar & Marcketti, 2008). Active learning also
helps students find instructional content to be more useful for the future and find ways to
apply academics to the real world (Wingfield & Black, 2005).
To that end, theatre arts participation may be considered a kind of active or
experiential learning. Perhaps drama creates an experience that "feels real" and that
activates the brain in similar ways to what happens during real life experiences which
may result in greater retention and understanding of that experience (Whittaker, 2007).
Methods of performer training can also be considered "microcosms of social life" in
which "meanings and understandings are constituted through such relational experiences"
(Munro & Coetzee, 2007, p. 103). Therefore, if active learning often results in greater
meaning and retention of material as well as feelings of satisfaction and pleasure in the
learning process (Braxton et al., 2000; Kozar & Marcketti, 2008; Wingfield & Black,
2005), then theatre arts participation may represent a kind of experiential instruction that
enhances learning in similar ways. Again, these ideas are mainly theoretical and more
evidence is needed to support such claims.
Finally, a modern theory of intelligence that is used by many school
psychologists today is the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory, which delineates
approximately 15 cognitive abilities that are thought to play an important role in
intelligence (Carroll, 1993). Seven of these intelligences are assessed by psychologists
and special educators in American schools—crystallized intelligence (Gc), fluid
intelligence (Gf), short-term memory (Gsni), visual processing (Gv), auditory processing
(Ga), long-term storage and retrieval (Glr), and processing speed (Gs) (Flanagan & Ortiz,
2001). Given the above theories of intelligence and learning, perhaps theatre arts helps
access some of the broad cognitive abilities of CHC theory. For example, theatre arts
91
performers must memorize lengthy dialogue, choreography, and staging—perhaps
helping to advance their abilities in the areas of short-term and long-term memory.
Whereas the research literature tends to focus less often on the non-academic
benefits of exposure to the arts, the present study addressed these limitations by
examining the relationship between theatre arts participation and gains in social and
emotional functioning. Findings were generally not consistent with past research that
reported a relationship between the arts and gains in self-confidence, self-concept,
assertiveness, the ability to regulate emotions, and social skills (Catterall, Cheapleau, &
Iwanaga, 1999; De la Cruz, Ming-Gon, & Morreau, 1998; Orech, Baum, & McCartney,
2000; Wagner, 1998; Yassa, 1999). It should be noted, however, that these research
studies demonstrated improvement in social-emotional skills as a direct function of
participation in theatre arts. This present study did not attempt to demonstrate this kind of
direct relationship, but rather determine relationships among them. For example, the
results of the present study show that students in a school with a strong educational
commitment to theatre arts were more self-reliant than students in schools without a
strong educational commitment to theatre arts. This may mean that students have more
confidence in their abilities to accomplish tasks and make decisions on their own—a trait
that may lead one to be more academically motivated and participate in more activities
within school. It may also mean, however, that students who are more self-reliant
participate in theatre arts.
Findings in the present study are consistent with reports in the literature
regarding the relationship between the arts and measures of empathy and tolerance
(Catterall et. al, 1999; Yassa, 1999). Theatre arts students are constantly asked to "put
92
themselves in another's shoes" when creating or analyzing a character from a play. In
addition, when working with others on stage, they must react off others' emotions and,
therefore, the ability to detect the feelings of another person is an important skill in
acting. These skills may translate to the utilization of empathy in their everyday lives.
The results of the present study show that students who participated in theatre
arts valued the arts more than students who did not participate. Further, students who
participated in the arts in a school with a strong theatre arts program valued the arts more
than theatre participants from schools without strong programs. In addition, the results of
the present study shows that school administrators valued the arts in relation to its impact
on education and society. These findings are consistent with reports from other
researchers that parents, administrators, students, and the public value the arts (Ingram,
King, & Paulson, 2004; Purnell & Gray, 2004; Stinson, 1993; and Welch & Greene,
1995). According to the survey completed by school officials, despite administrative
support for the arts in education, barriers to implementation of adequate arts programs
included budget difficulties and lack of time in the curriculum, which is consistent with
findings in the literature (Berube, 1999; Woodson, 2004).
Strengths, Limitations, and Methodological Issues
There are several strengths of the current study. First, in consideration of the
measures used in this study, those that were used to assess social and emotional
functioning were widely used and reliable measures. Internal reliability coefficients of the
Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) for this study were consistent with the findings in the
literature (Miville et al., 1999), suggesting it was a reliable measure. The present study
also utilized a large sample size and comparison groups, as well as conducted both
93
between group and within group analyses for a more comprehensive understanding of the
research questions. In addition, the study examined both academic and non-academic
benefits of participation which are important variables to consider in the adoption of any
curricular and extra-curricular planning. Finally, the present study is one of the few
studies to investigate the benefits of theatre arts as an independent subject and as a
function of theatrical performance, rather than as a means to improve academics.
Although the present study attempted to address the methodological flaws in the
literature, it has several limitations that should be taken into consideration. First,
participants were recruited from both Catholic and public high schools. Analyses of the
dependent variables of interest found that there were several significant differences
between all four schools of interest. All differences, however, were in the hypothesized
direction in that the theatre arts schools had more favorable scores than the AVG schools.
Nevertheless, the recruitment of schools from relatively the same geographic region and
the lack of diversity may have limited the external validity of the findings.
Another limitation in the present study is that despite the use of comparison
groups, random assignment was unable to be used and causality, therefore, cannot be
inferred. For instance, students in the TAC schools had higher grade point averages
(GPA) than students in the AVG schools. In addition, students enrolled in a theatre arts
curriculum in the TAC schools also had higher GPA's than students who participated in
theatre in the AVG schools. Whereas greater exposure to theatre arts instruction and
performance may be one explanation for these differences, other possible explanations
may be that teachers in the TAC schools grade higher or have "smarter" students than the
AVG schools.
94
Finally, it should be noted that not all participants answered every item. In
addition, grade-point average and the number of school absences were not able to be
obtained from school records for every single participant. This missing data were small in
number, however, and should not have significantly impacted the results.
Future Directions
Future studies should further examine the relationship between theatre arts
performance and engagement in emotional and attentional processes and the potential
impact on learning. Further, researchers should investigate whether the learning and
retention of knowledge is enhanced through performance as compared to other modes of
learning. In addition, more research is needed to investigate a possible causal link
between theatre arts instruction/performance and increases in variables such as academic
grades, school attendance, and social and emotional skills. Researchers may also
interview theatre arts students on their perception of how theatre arts participation
impacts their educational, social, and emotional experiences. The finding that students
who were directly and indirectly exposed to theatre arts in school reported higher levels
of empathy and perspective taking is interesting for future research. Future studies may
wish to examine the relationship between schools with strong theatre arts programs and
factors such as tolerance for differences, reported incidents of discrimination, and helping
behavior.
Summary and Implications for Educators
There are many barriers to implementation of a curricular theatre arts programs
in schools, including lack of time in the curriculum, limited funding, and lack of
adequately trained teachers. Those schools that do incorporate more theatre arts may find
95
that there are both academic and non-academic benefits that outweigh those provided by
other scholastic and interscholastic activities. Schools that have a strong educational
commitment to theatre arts may create a more positive learning environment for students
as evidenced by the tendency of these schools to have higher grades and rates of school
attendance, as well as higher levels of empathy and perspective taking. Students
participating in theatre arts in these schools seem to be highly involved in the school
environment by enrolling in more honors classes and advanced placement courses as well
as joining more extra-curricular activities than students from schools that lack a strong
program.
Administrators and students both repeatedly report that they believe the arts are
an integral part of the fabric of American culture and important for the education of
students; yet, fine art programs in many schools struggle to exist. Not only is there
supposedly little room for theatre art programs within the regular curriculum, but theatre
arts as an extra-curricular activity often find themselves having to at least partially self
fund their own programs in order to survive. If schools are serious about educating the
whole child—academically, socially, and emotionally— perhaps it is time for schools to
evaluate the benefits of robust theatre arts programs which can complement and enhance
the skills and knowledge taught to students through more traditional subjects.
Chapter VII
Implications for the Practice of School Psychologists
School psychologists must advocate in the best interest of the student and help
students become emotionally, socially, and academically prepared to reach their full
educational potential and to face the challenges of their future. Although the results are
preliminary in nature, the present investigation demonstrates a relationship between
theatre arts participation and positive student academic, social, and emotional
functioning, which has some important implications for school psychologists in practice.
First, schools are beginning to take more interest in social and emotional learning
programs and educating the "whole child," which has been shown to help create safer
schools, more positive learning environments, greater student motivation, and higher
achievement (New York State Education Department, 2008; New York State Education
Department, 2010a, New York State Education Department, 2010b). It is reasonable to
assume that the responsibility of promoting school-wide character education programs
may often fall with the school psychologist, as social and emotional skill building is
considered part of a school psychologist's area of expertise. The findings that students
who are exposed to theatre arts in school consider themselves to have higher levels of
empathy and perspective taking than students in schools without these theatre programs
may assist in the endeavor for social and emotional learning projects in school. For
example, the school psychologist is in an excellent position to advocate for programming
that can help students' social and emotional learning and can help the school community
and administrators become aware of the importance of incorporating programs into
schools that may help build such character traits, such as theatre arts. In addition, school
97
psychologists can promote social and emotional learning programs by recruiting the
assistance of students who demonstrate leadership in the school. The school psychologist
may utilize theatre arts students as peer leaders to serve as role models to the student
body. As one example, theatre arts students can perform skits for the school that
promotes and teaches character education themes such as empathy, will power, and anti-
bullying.
Second, as the world becomes increasingly diversified, it is important that
children are taught how to be prepared to handle that changing world. Although more
research is needed, the finding that students who are exposed to theatre arts have higher
levels of empathy than students with less exposure may imply that these students may be
more tolerant and understanding of differences. Again, the school psychologist may play
an important role in promoting tolerance and understanding of differences (and hence
creating a more positive learning environment) by encouraging the community and
administrators to incorporate more theatre arts instruction into the school.
Third, findings from the present study provide implications for the potential
benefits of incorporating theatre arts techniques into practice. For example, school
psychologists may want to incorporate more role-playing into their counseling so as to
help students learn how to interpret their own and others' emotions and to react in
socially and emotionally appropriate ways. Reading stories with students and helping
them identify the emotions of characters and predict how a character may react is another
"acting" exercise that may help increase students' abilities to empathize and take on the
perspective of others.
Fourth, school psychologists play an integral role in developing academic
interventions for students struggling in the classroom. Given the research literature and
the link found in this present study between theatre arts exposure and academic
performance, school psychologists may want to encourage teachers to incorporate
theatrical performance as a teaching tool. Although more research is needed, school
psychologists may want to consider the potential role that engagement in emotion has on
processes such as attention, memory, and learning.
Finally, as a leader among educational intervention service providers, school
psychologists are aware of a variety of instructional programs available to students.
School psychologists should also promote programs that offer the teaching of valuable
skills such as empathy, problem solving, and critical thinking that is not always offered
by or that teach these skills in different ways than the core curriculum. Theatre arts
instruction may be one such non-traditional program. School psychologists can use their
position as scientist-practitioner to help educators become aware of the link between
theatre arts instruction and academic and instrumental outcomes.

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Appendix A: Assent Form
Department of School Psychology

8000 Utopia Parkway
Queens, NY 11439
My name is Dana Santomenna and, like you, I am a student. I am presently

completing my doctoral degree at St. John's University. I would like to invite you to take
part in a research study designed to learn more about you as well as your level of
participation in theatre arts at your school. If you are getting this letter, it is because your
parents have given me permission to ask you to participate in this project. Just because
your parents gave consent for you to participate in this study, you do not need to and you
may withdraw from participating or not participate in the study at all. I am requesting
your voluntary, confidential, participation in the current study. Specifically, you will be
asked to complete three, short questionnaires that should take you approximately 25
minutes to complete. If you would like to participate, please sign your name on the line
below. Just to let you know, your name on this form will not be linked with your
responses so that your responses will be kept anonymous. That is, no one will know what
your specific responses are. Participation in this study is completely voluntary and
nonparticipation will not affect your grades or academic standing in any way. You may
refuse to participate or withdraw at any time without any penalty. In addition, you have
the right to skip or not answer any questions you prefer not to answer.
Although you will receive no direct benefits by participating, information that you
provide may be used to help me provide information to schools and educators about
programs that may assist students in their learning and emotional development.
By completing the questionnaire packet, you will have voluntarily agreed to
participate as a participant in this study, which will be carried out by the aforementioned
researcher, under the supervision of Dr. Mark Terjesen, Associate Professor of
Psychology, at St. John's University. Please allow me to thank you in advance for your
cooperation. In the event that you need any additional information regarding this
research project, you may call Dr. Mark Terjesen at (718) 990-5860. Results of the
present investigation will be available upon request and all inquires may be directed to
the researcher at the Department of School Psychology at (718) 990- 5861. For questions
about your rights as a research participant, you may contact Dr. Jeffrey Olson, the
chairman of the university's Human Subjects Review Board, St. John's University at
(718)-990-1440.
Thank you for thinking about participating,
Dana Santomenna, MS
Agreement to Participate
Student:
Signature Date
Appendix B: Consent Form
Department of School Psychology

8000 Utopia Parkway
Queens, NY 11439
My name is Dana Santomenna, M.S., and I am a school psychologist and a doctoral candidate
at St. John's University. I would like to invite your child to take part in a research study designed to
learn more about him/her as well as his/her level of participation in theatre arts at the high school.
Specifically, your child will be asked to complete three, short questionnaires that should take about 25
minutes to complete. In addition, if you agree to allow your child to participate, you are agreeing to
allow the researcher to view your child's school records to determine their grade point average and
number of absences from the previous year. If your child is under 18 years of age, I need your
permission to recruit them to participate in the current study. If your child is 18 years of age or older,
while you do not need to provide consent, it is a courtesy that I wanted to inform you of my current
research. If you consent to have your child participate, please sign your name on the line below and
return this form to your child's teacher. Your child will then be given the option at school of whether
or not he/she wishes to participate. If you do not provide consent, your child will not be asked to
participate in the study if he/she is under 18 years of age.
For your information, your consent will not be linked with your child's responses so that
his/her responses will be kept anonymous and independent from their name. In addition, your child's
grade point average and number of absences will be kept completely confidential. Furthermore,
nonparticipation will not affect his/her grades or academic standing in any way. Participation in this
study is completely voluntary and you or your child may refuse to participate or withdraw at any time
without any penalty. In addition, your child will have the right to skip or not answer any questions
he/she prefers not to answer.
There are minimal known risks associated with participation in this study. If any of the
questions on the questionnaire cause your child distress, he or she may skip those questions or
withdraw from the study without penalty. Although your child will receive no direct benefits by
participating, information that he/she provides may be used to help me provide information to schools
and educators about programs that may assist students in their learning and emotional development.
By signing the line below, you will have voluntarily agreed to allow your child to participate
in this study, which will be carried out by the aforementioned researcher, under the supervision of Dr.
Mark Terjesen, Associate Professor of Psychology, at St. John's University. Please allow me to thank
you in advance for your cooperation. In the event that you need any additional information regarding
this research project, you may call the Department of School Psychology at (718) 990-5860 or Dr.
Mark Terjesen at (718) 990-5860. Results of the present investigation will be available upon request
and all inquires may be directed to the researcher at the Department of School Psychology at (718)
990- 5861. For questions about your child's rights as a research participant, you may contact Dr.
Jeffery Olson, the chairman of the university's Human Subjects Review Board at St. John's University
at(718)-990-1440.
Sincerely,
Dana Santomenna, MS
School Psychologist
Consent for Your Child's Participation (if under 18 years of age)
Print name of student:
Parent or Legal Guardian:

Signature Date
108
Appendix C
Student Survey Form A: Average Theatre Arts Program
1. Grade 2. Gender: Male Female _
2. How would you describe your ethnicity? Please check one:

African-American Asian American
Hispanic Caucasian Other
3. Please estimate your current overall grade average (ex: A, B+, B, B-, C+)
4. Do you take any honors courses at school? Yes No If yes,

how many?
5. Have you taken any advanced placement (AP) courses? Yes No If yes, how
many?
6. Approximately how many days were you absent from school last year?
7. Have you participated (acted/danced/stage crew, etc) in a theatre production in school?

Yes No If Yes, which ones?
8. Do you plan on participating (acting/dance/stage crew, etc) in a theatre production in

school in the next 6 months?
Yes No
9. Do you participate in theatre arts (acting, dancing, stage crew, etc.) outside of school?
Yes No
10. If you responded No to question #7, please go directly to question #15. If you answered
Yes to question #7, how many theatre productions have you participated in at school
(since you began high school)!
1-2 3-4 5-6 More than 6
11. What was (or will be) your primary role in the productions? (check all that apply)
Actor Stage Crew Stage Manager
Choreographer Dancer Director
Lighting/Sound Orchestra/Pit Costume/Makeup
Other
12. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how much you enjoyed your overall
participation in the theatre productions at school (1 = Did not enjoy at all, 5 = Enjoyed
very much):
1 2 3 4 5
Did not enjoy at all Enjoyed very much
109
13. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how valuable you felt your participation in
theatre productions at school was to your education (1 = Not at all valuable, 5 = Very
valuable)
1 2 3 4 5
Not at all valuable Very valuable
14. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5, how important you feel your participation
in theatre productions at school is to your life in general (1 = Not at all important, 5 = Very
Important)
1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Important Very Important
15. Have you taken any theatre classes in school? Yes No If yes,
how many?
16. If you answered No to #15, please go directly to question #19. If you answered Yes to #15,
please circle the number on a scale from 1-5 how much you enjoyed your theatre class(s). (1 =
Did not enjoy at all, 5 = Enjoyed very much)
1 2 3 4 5
17. Please circle the number on a scale from 1-5 how important you think theatre classes are to
your education (1 = Not at all Important, 5 = Very Important):
1 2 3 4 5
in theatre classes at school is to your life in general (1 = Not at all important, 5 = Very
Important)
1 2 3 4 5
19. How often do you attend theatre productions at school that you are not a participant in?
Never Sometimes Often
20. How many fine arts productions (theatre, dance, visual arts, etc) do you attend each year
outside of school that you are not a participant in?
0 1-2 3-5 5-10 10 or more
110
21. What kind of fine arts events do you attend, either within or outside of school? (check all
that apply):
Dance Band/Music concert
Visual Art Other:
I do not attend fine arts events
22. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 -5 how important you think the arts (theatre,
dance, visual art, music, etc) are to society (1 = Not at all important, 5 = Very Important)
1 2 3 4 5
23. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how important you think the arts (theatre,
dance, visual art, music, etc) are to students' education (1 = Not at all important, 5 = Very
Important)
1 2 3 4 5
24. Do you participate in any school-affiliated after-school activity? Yes No.

If yes, what activities? (please list all):
25. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how much you like your teachers (1 =
Do not like at all, 5 = Like very much)
1 2 3 4 5
Do not like at all Like very much
26. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how much you like the school that you
attend (1 = Do not like at all, 5 = Like very much)
1 2 3 4 5
Ill
Appendix D
Student Survey Form B: Schools with Sequential Theatre Curriculums
1. Grade 2. Gender: Male Female
2. How would you describe your ethnicity? Please check one:

African-American Asian American
Hispanic Caucasian Other
3. Please estimate your current overall grade average (ex: A, B+, B, B-, C+)
4. Do you take any honors courses at school? Yes No If yes, how

many?
5. Have you taken any advanced placement (AP) courses? Yes No If yes, how
many?
6. Approximately how many days were you absent from school last year?
7. Have you taken any theatre classes in school? Yes No If yes, how many?
8. Are you currently enrolled in a theatre curriculum in school? Yes No
9. If you answered No to #8, please go directly to question #13. If you answered Yes to #8,
please answer the following question:
How many years have you been taking theatre classes in school?
10. How many theatre classes have you taken in school?
11. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how much you think your participation in
the theatre arts curriculum contributes to your learning in other subjects? (1 = Does not
contribute at all, 5 = Contributes a great deal)
1 2 3 4 5
Does not contribute at all Contributes a great deal
12. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how much you enjoy your participation in
the theatre arts curriculum (1 = Do not enjoy at all, 5 = Enjoy very much):
1 2 3 4 5
13. Have you participated (acted/dance/stage crew, etc) in a theatre production in school?
Yes No If yes, which ones?
112
14. If you answered No to question #13, please go directly to question #19. If you answered
Yes to question #13, How many theatre productions have you participated in at school
(since you began high school)'?
1-2 3-4 5-6 More than 6
15. What was your primary role in the productions? (check all that apply)
Actor Stage Crew Stage Manager Choreographer
Dancer Director Lighting/Sound Orchestra/Pit
Costume/Makeup Other
16. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how much you enjoyed your overall
participation in the theatre productions at school (1 = Did not enjoy at all, 5 = Enjoyed
very much):
1 2 3 4 5
17. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how valuable you felt your participation in
theatre productions at school was to your education (1 = Not at all valuable, 5 = Very
valuable)
1 2 3 4 5
Not at all valuable Very valuable
in theatre productions at school is to your life in general (1 = Not at all important, 5 = Very
Important)
1 2 3 4 5
19. Do you plan on participating (acting/dance/stage crew, etc.) in a theatre production in

school in the next 6 months? Yes No
20. Do you participate in theatre arts (acting, dancing, stage crew, etc.) outside of school?
Yes No
21. How often do you attend theatre productions at school that you are not a participant in?
Never Sometimes Often

113
22. How many fine arts productions (theatre, dance, visual arts, etc) do you attend each year
outside of school that you are not a participant in?
0 1-2 3-5 5-10 10 or more
23. What kind of fine arts events do you attend, either within or outside of school? (check all
that apply):
Dance Musical Concert
Visual Art Other:
I do not attend fine arts events
24. Please circle the number on a scale from lto 5 how important you think the arts (theatre,
dance, visual art, music, etc) are to society (1 = Not at all important, 5 = Very Important)
1 2 3 4 5
25. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how important you think the arts (theatre,
dance, visual art, music, etc) are to students' education (1 = Not at all important, 5 = Very
Important)
1 2 3 4 5
26. Do you participate in any school-affiliated after-school activity? Yes No.

If yes, what activities? (please list all):
27. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how much you like your teachers (1 =
Do not like at all, 5 = Like very much)
1 2 3 4 5
28. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how much you like the school that you
attend (1 = Do not like at all, 5 = Like very much)
1 2 3 4 5
Did not like at all Like very much
114
Appendix E
Catholic School Administrator Survey
Name of School:
1. How many students are currently enrolled?
2. What grades are taught? Check all that apply:
6 7 8 9 10 11 12.
3. What is the approximate ethnic make-up of students? Please approximate percentages below (total
should add to 100%).
African American Caucasian (Non Hispanic) Hispanic
Asian/Pacific Islander Other
4. What is the cost of tuition per family?
5. How much, approximately, is the average family income of the students' families at (name of
school)?
Less than $20,000 Between $20,000-$30,000
Between $30,000-$40,000 Greater than $50,000
Between $40,000-$50,000 Information Unknown
6. Approximately, what percentage of the total school budget is allocated toward the theatre arts each
year?
7. How many staff members belong to the New York State Theatre Education Association
(NYSTEA)?
8. How many staff members are specifically trained and/or certified to teach theatre arts?
9. Please circle the number on a scale from lto 5 how important you think the arts (theatre, dance,
visual art, music, etc) are to society (1 = Not at all important, 5 = Very Important)
1 2 3 4 5
10. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how important you think the arts (theatre, dance,
visual art, music, etc) are to students' education (1 = Not at all important, 5 = Very Important)
1 2 3 4 5
11. Please rank order (1 = biggest barrier, 7 = smallest barrier) what you think are the barriers to
implementing adequate performing arts programs in schools? (Please check all that apply):
Lack of adequately trained teachers Lack of time in curriculum
Lack of community support Lack of funding
Lack of administrator support Lack of interest
Other
115
Appendix F
Public School Administrator Survey
Name of School:
9. How many students are currently enrolled?
10. What grades are taught? Check all that apply:
6 7 8 9 10 11 12.
11. What is the approximate ethnic make-up of students? Please approximate percentages below (total
should add to 100%).
African American Caucasian (Non Hispanic) Hispanic
Asian/Pacific Islander Other
12. How much, approximately, is the average family income of the students' families at (name of
school)?
Less than $20,000 Between $20,000-$30,000
Between $30,000-$40,000 Greater than $50,000
Between $40,000-$50,000 Information Unknown
13. Approximately, what percentage of the total school budget is allocated toward the theatre arts each
year?
14. How many staff members belong to the New York State Theatre Education Association
(NYSTEA)?
15. How many staff members are specifically trained and/or certified to teach theatre arts?
8. Please circle the number on a scale from lto 5 how important you think the arts (theatre, dance,
visual art, music, etc) are to society (1 = Not at all important, 5 = Very Important)
1 2 3 4 5
9. Please circle the number on a scale from 1 to 5 how important you think the arts (theatre, dance,
visual art, music, etc) are to students' education (1 = Not at all important, 5 = Very Important)
1 2 3 4 5
10. Please rank order (1 = biggest barrier, 7 = smallest barrier) what you think are the barriers to
implementing adequate performing arts programs in schools? (Please check all that apply):
Lack of adequately trained teachers Lack of time in curriculum
Lack of community support Lack of funding
Lack of administrator support Lack of interest
Other
VITA
Name: Dana Santomenna
Date of Birth: April 20, 1983
Elementary School: Our Lady of Victory
Floral Park, New York
Date Graduated: June, 1997
High School: Holy Trinity Diocesan High School
Hicksville, New York
Date Graduated: June, 2001
Baccalaureate Degree: Bachelor of Arts
Providence College
Providence, Rhode Island
Date Graduated: May, 2005
Other Degrees: Masters of Science
Queens, New York
Date Graduated: May, 2008

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ARE THERE BENEFITS OF THEATRE ARTS PROGRAMS IN SCHOOLS?

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

to the faculty of the department

St. John's University

St. John's University

Date Submitted: <Sj 1% JIQ Date Approved: 3//g//o

(Studqnt Signature) 's Signatun

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

ARE THERE BENEFITS OF THEATRE ARTS PROGRAMS IN SCHOOLS?

participation and academic performance, school attendance, social-emotional functioning,

offered fewer extra-curricular opportunities in theatre arts (AVG). Comparisons were

Statement of the Problem 1

Perceived Public Value of Arts Education 3

Challenges Faced by Supporters of Arts in the Schools 6

Chapter II: Literature Review 8

The Empirical Status of Arts in Education 8

The Problem with Research on the Arts in Education 9

Performing Arts and Instrumental Outcomes 12

Summary and Implications 17

Chapter III: Research Questions 19

Chapter IV: Methods 21

Frequency and Value of Theatre Arts Participation 36

Comparing Students in Schools with and without a Theatre Arts Curriculum 40

Comparing Students in Schools with and without a Theatre Arts Curriculum

on Participation in Theatre Productions 43

Comparing Students in Schools With and Without a Theatre Arts Curriculum

Who Do Not Participate in Theatre 46

Curriculum in Schools that Offer a Theatre Arts Curriculum 48

Comparing Students in Schools without a Theatre Arts Curriculum on Theatre

Chapter VI: Discussion 83

Explanation of Findings and Integration with Past Literature 83

Strengths, Limitations, and Methodological Issues 92

Summary and Implications for Educators 94

Chapter VII: Implications for the Practice of School Psychologists 96

Appendix A: Assent Form 106

Appendix B: Consent Form 107

Appendix C: Student Survey Form A: Average Theatre Arts Program 108

Appendix D: Student Survey Form B: Schools with Sequential

Theatre Curriculums Ill

Appendix E: Catholic School Administrator Survey 114

Appendix F: Public School Administrator Survey 115

1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Two-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

for Effects of Type of School and Presence of Theatre Arts Curriculum on

2. Frequencies and Percentages of Theatre Arts Participation 38

3. Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples Mest for Effects of

Enrollment in Theatre Arts School (TAC) on Eighteen Dependent

4. Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples Mest for Effects of

Participation in Theatre Arts Productions on Twenty-one Dependent

5. Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples Mest for Effects of

Non-Participation in Theatre Arts Productions on Eighteen Dependent

6. Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples Mest for Effects of

Non-Participation in Theatre Arts Curriculum in the TAC Schools on

Eighteen Dependent Variables 61

7. Means, Standard Deviations, and Independent Samples Mest for Effects of

Participation in Theatre Arts in AVG Schools on Eighteen Dependent

8. Means, Standard Deviations, and One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

for Effects of Theatre Arts Participation on Sixteen Dependent

9. Likelihood of Taking Honors and Advanced Placement Courses Among

Theatre Arts Participants and Non-Participants in the TAC Schools 73

10. Likelihood of Taking Honors and Advanced Placement Courses Among

Participants and Non-Participants in Theatre Arts Productions in the

11. Likelihood of Taking Honors and Advanced Placement Courses Among