Chapter 7

Centroid and Centers of Gravity

LESSON OUTCOMES:
At the end of the lesson, the students shall be able
1. To discuss the concept of the center of gravity, center of mass and the
centroid.
2. To show how to determine the location of the center of gravity and centroid
for a body of arbitrary shape and one composed of composite parts.
3. To use the theorems of Pappus and Guldinus for finding the surface area and
volume for a body having axial symmetry.
4. To present a method for finding the resultant of a general distributed loading
and to show how it applies to finding the resultant force of a pressure loading
caused by a fluid.

7-1 Introduction
A body of weight W is supported by a string attached at A, as shown in Fig. 7-1. The
only external forces acting on the body are its weight and the reaction exerted by the
string. Equilibrium on the body can exist only if these two forces are equal, opposite,
and collinear. W can be determined, therefore, by the line of action of the support.

Fig. 7-1

Let the body be supported in a new position by the string now attached to B. The
body will shift its position so that the line of action of the weight is again collinear
with the string. Thus two position of the line of actions of the weight is determined
experimentally. The intersection of these positions of the line of action determines a
point which is defined as center of gravity of the body; this is the point through which
the action line of the weight always passes.
From the above discussion it is apparent that the problem of locating the center of
gravity of the body reduces to determining the point through which the resultant
weight of the body acts.
7-2 Center of Gravity of Flat Plate
The analytical location of the center of gravity is simply a variation of the principle
of moments; that is, the moment of the resultant is equal to the moment sum of its
parts. As example, consider the flat plate of irregular section in Fig. 7-2. A pictorial
as well as front and side view is shown. The network shown divides the plate into
small elements having weights of 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , etc., which act at the center of each element.
The gravity forces from a parallel force system, the resultant of which is the W of the
plate.

Fig. 7-2 Coordinate of the Center of gravity

Let the coordinates of each elemental weight be(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), etc., and the
coordinates of the resultant weight be (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅), as shown in Fig. 7-2. Note the usage of
bar sign. In this context the coordinates of the resultant be it force, weight, or area
are always distinguished bar a bar sign, the coordinate are read as “bar x,” etc.
Taking moment about the Y axis, we get

𝑊𝑥̅ = 𝑤1 𝑥1 + 𝑤2 𝑥2 + · · · = ∑𝑤𝑥 (a)

With respect to the X axis

𝑊𝑦̅ = 𝑤1 𝑦1 + 𝑤2 𝑦2 + · · · = ∑𝑤𝑦 (b)

These equations merely state the that the moment of the weight W about an axis is
equal to the moment sum of its elemental weight

7-3 Centroids of Areas and Lines

If the material of the plate in Fig. 7-2 is homogeneous, the weight W may be
express as the product of its density 𝛿 (i.e., weight per unit volume) multiplied
by 𝑡𝐴, where 𝑡 is the thickness of the plate and 𝐴 is its area. Similarly the weight w
of an element is given by 𝛿𝑤𝑎, where 𝒂 is the cross-sectional area of the element.
Substituting these values in Eq. (a) results in

𝛿𝑡𝐴𝑥̅ = 𝛿𝑡𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝛿𝑡𝑎2 𝑥2 + · · · = 𝛿𝑡∑𝑎𝑥 (a)

whence, canceling the constant terms 𝛿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡, we get

𝐴𝑥̅ = ∑𝑎𝑥
and similarly 𝐴𝑦̅ = ∑𝑎𝑦 } 7-1

Fig. 7-3 – Homogeneous Slender Wire

By analogy with 𝐸𝑞𝑠. (𝑎) and (b) in Art 7-3, the expression 𝐴𝑥̅ , as well as 𝐴𝑦̅, is
called the moment of area. It is equivalent to the sum of the moment of the
elemental areas composing the total area. Note that the moment of area is therefore
defined as the product of the area multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the
center of area to the axis of moments
If 𝐸𝑞. (7 − 1) is written in the following form;

∑𝑎𝑥
𝑥̅ =
𝐴
7-1b
∑𝑎𝑦
𝑦̅ =
𝐴
This gives a method of locating a point called the centroid of area. The centroid of
area is defined as the point corresponding to the center of gravity of a plate of
infinitesimal thickness. The term “centroid” rather than “center of gravity” is used
when referring to areas (as well as to lines and volumes) because such figures do not
have weight. The term “center of gravity” is widely used, although it is a misnomer.
Strictly speaking, it should refer to the center of weight of actual bodies.
 When referring to lines, the centroid may be determined by similar means. A line
may be assumed to the axis of homogeneous slender wire. Thus Fig. 7-3 represents
the center of homogeneous wire of length L and constant cross-sectional area 𝑎 lying
in XY plane. The weight of the wire W is given by equations 𝑊 = 𝞭𝒂𝑳 and the
weight w of an elemental length l by 𝒘 = 𝞭𝒂𝒍
Substituting these values in 𝐸𝑞𝑠 (𝑎)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑏) in Art 7-2, we have

𝛿𝑎𝐿𝑥̅ = 𝛿𝑎𝑙1 𝑥1 + 𝛿𝑎𝑙2 𝑥2 + · · · = 𝛿𝑎∑𝑙𝑥

and
𝛿𝑎𝐿𝑦̅ = 𝛿𝑎𝑙1 𝑦1 + 𝛿𝑎𝑙2 𝑦2 + · · · = 𝛿𝑎∑𝑙𝑦

whence, canceling the constant terms 𝛿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎, we get

𝐿𝑥̅ = ∑𝑙𝑥
(7-2)
𝐿𝑦̅ = ∑𝑙𝑦

7-4 Importance of Centroids and Moment of Area

In subsequent work on strength of materials, the student will find the location of
the centroid of an area of great importance. For example, he will learn that in order
to produce uniform stress distribution, loads must be placed so that the line of action
of their resultant coincides with the centroid of the cross section of the member. The
position of the centroid of an area is also important for determining the location of
the neutral axis in the bending of beams, for strength of materials it is shown that
the neutral axis (line of zero stress) passes through the centroid of the cross section
of the beam.
An axis passing through the centroid of and area is known as centroidal axis. The
next chapter deals with moment of inertia will make clear the great importance of
the position of the centroidal axes of areas. Many other instances of their importance
will come to student’s attention in his engineering studies.
Of equal importance to the position of centroid is the moment of an area. We recall
that the moment of an area with respect to an axis was defined as the product of an
area multiplied by the perpendicular distance from its centroidal axis. In dynamics,
the moment of area is used to determine the displacement of a body subjected to
variable forces (see Art. 15-5). In strength of materials, it is used to determine the
shearing stress in beams. In addition, the moment of an area is extensively use for
determining the deflection of beams by the area-moment method. These instances, as
well as many others that the student will encounter, should indicate the importance
of a permanent, not a temporary, knowledge of centroids and moments of area

7-5 Centroid Determine by Integration

We recall that integration is the process of summing the infinitesimal quantities.
Except for a change in symbol and procedure, integration is equivalent to a finite
summation. In the preceding articles, for example, if the area of the element had
been expressed as the differential 𝑑𝐴 (i.e., a small part of the total area), the
equations for determining the centroid of an area would become

𝐴𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐴
(7-1b)
𝐴𝑦̅ = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴
and for determining the centroid of a line, we could use

𝐿𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐿
(7-2a)
𝐿𝑦̅ = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐿

In determining the centroid by integration, the figure is divided into differential

element so that;
1. All points of the element are located the same distance from the axis of the
moments, or
2. The position of the centroid of the element is known so that the moment of
the element about the axis of moments is the product of the element and the
distance of its centroid from the axis.

If a plane figure has a line of symmetry, its centroid is located on that line. This
statement may be demonstrated by balancing a plate on its line of symmetry,
whence the moments of the weights (also areas if the plate has constant thickness)
on either side of the line of symmetry must be numerically equal and opposite sign.
If a plane figure has two lines of symmetry, the centroid is located at the point of
intersection of the lines.

Example: Centroid of the Arc of a Circle. Determine the centroid of the line which is
an arc of a circle, as shown Fig. 7-4

Fig. 7-4

Length of arc = r𝜃
L = r(2α)
L𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐿
2rα𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐿
2rα𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑥𝑟𝑑𝜃
Limit from –α to +α
x = r cos θ
2rα𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑟𝑑𝜃(𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
+𝛼
2rα𝑥̅ = ∫−𝛼 𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
+𝛼
2rα𝑥̅ = 𝑟𝑟 ∫−𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃

2rα𝑥̅ = 𝑟𝑟[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃]+𝛼
−𝛼

2rα𝑥̅ = 𝑟𝑟[sin 𝛼 − sin(−𝛼)]

2rα𝑥̅ = 𝑟𝑟[sin 𝛼 − −sin 𝛼)]

2rα𝑥̅ = 𝑟𝑟[sin 𝛼 + sin 𝛼)]

2rα𝑥̅ = 𝑟𝑟[2sin 𝛼]
α𝑥̅ = 𝑟[2sin 𝛼]

𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑥̅ =
𝛼

If α = 90
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛90
𝑥̅ = 𝜋
90𝑥 180

𝑟
𝑥̅ = 𝜋
1𝑥 2

2𝑟
𝑥̅ =
𝜋

𝑥̅

Solution: Let the axis of symmetry be chosen as the X axis, Then 𝑦̅ = 0, If the
radius of the arc is denoted by r and the subtended angle by 2𝛼, the element of arc dL
and its distance from Y-axis are 𝑑𝐿 = 𝑟𝑑𝜃 and 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃. Applying Eq. (7-2a). we
have
+𝛼 +𝛼
[𝐿 • 𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝐿] (2𝛼𝑟) • 𝑥̅ = ∫−𝛼 𝑟 cos 𝜃 • 𝑟𝑑𝜃 = 𝑟 2 ∫−𝛼 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
 = 2𝑟 2 sin 𝛼
Finally,
2 𝑟 2 sin 𝛼 𝑟 sin 𝛼
𝑥̅ =
2𝛼𝑟
=
𝛼
Ans.

𝜋
If the are is a semicircle, as in Fig. 7-5, 𝛼 = 900 = radians and sin α = 1, Substituting these
2
values in the above results gives
2𝑟
𝑥̅ =
𝜋

Fig. 7-5

702. Centroid of the area of a triangle. The triangle shown in Fig 7-6 has a base 𝑏
and an altitude ℎ. Locate the centroid of the triangular area with respect to the
base.

Fig. 7-6
Formula 𝐴𝑇 𝑦̅ = ∑𝑎𝑦

𝐴𝑇 𝑦̅ = ∑𝑥𝑑𝑦(𝑦)

ℎ
(1/2)bh𝑦̅ = ∫0 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦
by ratio and proportion

b/h = x/h-y
x = b(h-y)/ h
ℎ 𝑏(ℎ−𝑦)
(1/2)bh𝑦̅ = ∫0 𝑦𝑑𝑦
ℎ
ℎ 𝑏(ℎ−𝑦)
(1/2)bh𝑦̅ = ∫0 ℎ 𝑦𝑑𝑦
𝑏 ℎ
(1/2)bh𝑦̅ = ∫ (ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦)
ℎ 0
𝑏 𝑦2 𝑦3 ℎ
(1/2)bh𝑦̅ = [ℎ − ]
ℎ 2 3 0
𝑏 ℎ3 ℎ3
(1/2)bh𝑦̅ = [ - ]
ℎ 2 3
3ℎ3 2ℎ3
(1/2)ℎ2 𝑦̅ = [ 3∗2 - 2∗3 ]
ℎ3
(1/2)ℎ2 𝑦̅ = [ 6 ]
𝑦̅ = [ℎ/3]

Solution: In accordance with the Rule 1 given earlier, select strips parallel to the
base as the differential elements of area. The area of any differential element is
then 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑥𝑑𝑦. Applying Eq. (7-1b), we obtain,

1 ℎ
[𝐴 • 𝑦̅ = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 ] (2 𝑏ℎ) • 𝑦̅ = ∫0 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 (a)

𝑏
From similar triangles, 𝑥 = (ℎ − 𝑦), so that Eq. (a) becomes
ℎ

1 𝑏 ℎ 1
( 𝑏ℎ) • 𝑦̅ = ∫ (ℎ − 𝑦)𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑏ℎ2
2 ℎ 0 6

1
𝑦̅ = ℎ 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
3
Observe that for any triangle the distance from the centroid to any side is equal
to one-third of the altitude measured from that side. Furthermore, the centroid of a
triangle is located on a median because the median to any side contains the centroids
of all strips drawn parallel to the side. Therefore the centroid is at the intersection of
the medians.

703 Centroid of the Area of a Circular Sector. Determine the location of the centroid
of the area of the sector of the circle shown in Fig. 7-7. Let the radius of the circle be
𝑟 and subtended angle be 2𝛼 .

Fig 7-7
 1
Area of section = ( )r2θ
2
1
dA = (2 )r2dθ
2
𝑥 = 3 𝑟 cos 𝜃
At 𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐴
[𝐴 • 𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐴]

+𝛼 1
At 𝑥̅ = ∫−𝛼 2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 𝑥

1 +𝛼 1
(2) 𝑟 2 θ ̅𝑥 = ∫−𝛼 2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 𝑥
1 +𝛼 1 2
(2) 𝑟 2 θ ̅𝑥 = ∫−𝛼 2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 (3) 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1 +𝛼
(2) θ ̅𝑥 =(1/3)r ∫−𝛼 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃

1
(2) θ ̅𝑥 =(1/3)r [sin 𝜃]+𝛼
−𝛼

1
(2) θ ̅𝑥 =(1/3)r [sin 𝛼 − sin(−𝛼)]
1
(2) θ ̅𝑥 =(1/3)r [sin 𝛼 − − sin 𝛼)]

1
(2) θ ̅𝑥 =(1/3)r [2 sin 𝛼)]

1
(2) 2α ̅𝑥 =(1/3)r [2 sin 𝛼)]
α ̅𝑥 =(2/3)r [sin 𝛼)]
2𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑥̅ =
3𝛼

if the angle α = 90
2𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛90
𝑥̅ = 𝜋
3(90 180)

2𝑟 (1)
𝑥̅ = 𝜋
3( 2)

4𝑟
𝑥̅ =
3𝜋
Solution: Let the axis of symmetry be taken as the X axis; then 𝑦̅ = 0. Select as the
element of area the shaded triangle the position of whose centroid is known to
2 1 1
Problem 702 to be 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃. The area of the element is 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟 • 𝑟𝑑𝜃 = 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃.
3 2 2
Applying Eq. (7-1b) we obtain

+𝛼 1 +𝛼 2 1
[𝐴 • 𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐴] 𝑥̅ • ∫−𝛼 2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 = ∫−𝛼 𝑟 cos 𝜃 • 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
3 2

1 3 +𝛼 2
𝑥̅ • (𝑟 2 𝛼) = 𝑟 ∫ cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑟 3 sin 𝛼
3 −𝛼 3

2 𝑟 sin 𝛼
𝑥̅ = • 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
3 𝛼

Fig 7-8
𝜋
If the sector is a semicircular area as in Fig 7-8, 𝛼 = 90𝑜 = 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠, whence by
substituting in the last equation above we find the distance of the centroid from the
diameter to be

4𝑟
𝑥̅ = = 0.424 𝑟
3𝜋
704. Centroid of the Area of a Parabolic Segment. In Fig. 7-9 is shown a parabolic segment
bounded by the X axis, the line 𝑥 = 𝑎, and the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 2 . Determine the coordinates of
the centroids

Fig. 7-9
 Solution: Select the element of area as the shaded strip parallel to Y axis. All
points in this element are the same distance from Y axis. The area of the shaded
element is 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦𝑑𝑥. The area 𝐴 of the entire parabolic segment is found from
𝑎 𝑎 1
[𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝐴 ] 𝐴 = ∫0 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑘𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑎3
3

To determine 𝑥̅ , we apply Eq.(7-1b) as follows:

1 𝑎 𝑎
[𝐴 • 𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐴 ] (3 𝑘𝑎3 ) • 𝑥̅ = ∫0 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑘𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
1 1
( 𝑘𝑎3 ) • 𝑥̅ = 𝑘𝑎4
3 4
3
𝑥̅ = 𝑎 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
4
A= (1/3)Ka3
𝑎
𝐴𝑡 𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑥
0
𝑎
𝐴𝑡 𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑥(𝑘𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
0
𝑎
𝐴𝑡 𝑥̅ = 𝑘 ∫0 (𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥
𝑥4
𝐴𝑡 𝑥̅ = 𝑘 ]𝑎0
4
𝑎3
𝐴𝑡 𝑥̅ = 𝑘
4
1 𝑎3
( ) 𝐾𝑎3 𝑥̅ = 𝑘
3 4

3𝑎
𝑥̅ =
4

B/3
B
x

Degree Area Centroid

N (1/(n+1))Bh (1/(n+2))B
0 B B/2
1 (1/2)B h (1/3)B
2 (1/3)Bh (1/4)B
3 (1/4)Bh (1/5)B

To determine 𝑦̅, we use the same elementary strip; but since each point of the
element is not the same distance from X axis, we must use Rule 2 above, i.e. the
moment of the differential element about Y axis is the product of its centroidal
1
coordinate, 2 𝑦, multiplied by the 𝑦𝑑𝑥. Applying Eq. (7-1b) again we obtain

1 𝑎1 1 𝑎
[𝐴 • 𝑦̅ = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 ] (3 𝑘𝑎3 ) • 𝑦̅ = ∫0 𝑦 • 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 2 ∫0 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝑎
1 3 1 2 𝑥5
( 𝑘𝑎 ) • 𝑦̅ = 𝑘 [ ]
3 2 5 0

1 3 𝑘 2 𝑎5
( 𝑘𝑎 ) • 𝑦̅ =
3 10

3 3
𝑦̅ = 𝑘𝑎2 = 𝑏 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
10 10

7-6 Centroid Composite Figures

Many of the figures used in engineering are composed of combinations of geometrical
shapes discussed in the last article. Still other figures are composed of structural
shapes. The location of the centroids for structural elements is given in handbooks.
When the given figure can be divided into the finite elements discussed above, these
elements can be treated in the same manner as were the infinitesimal elements,
When this done, the process is called finite summation, as contrasted to integration,
or the summation of infinitesimal elements.
If a given area can be divided into parts, each centroid of which is known, the
moment of the total area will be the sum of the moments of the area of its parts. This
statement is really an extension of Varignon’s theorem (Art. 2-5).
The centroid of the composite figure is determined by applying the following
equations, which were developed in Art. 7-3. In these equations the elemental areas
become the areas of the geometrical shapes into which the entire area has been
divided.

𝐴𝑥̅ = ∑𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑦̅ = ∑𝑎𝑦 } 7-1

A similar process may be applied to lines. The given line may be divided into finite
segments whose centroids are known, and the following equations may be used.

𝐿𝑥̅ = ∑𝑙𝑥
𝐿𝑦̅ = ∑𝑙𝑦 } 7- 2

Before these equations are applied to illustrative problems, it will be convenient to

summarize the location of centroids for common geometrical shapes (determined in
preceding problems) given in Table VII-1 on page 178.
In addition to the geometric shapes shown in Table VII-1, other sections commonly
used are rolled structural sections such as angles and channels. The areas and the
location of the centroids of such sections are listed in handbooks. A few typical
sections and their values are shown in Table VII-2. If any of these sections are given
in the problems which follow, the data from this table should be used. This makes it
possible to use a structural shape in the same manner as any other geometrical shape.
𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑠. The following discussion indicates the method of determining which sign to
give to an area or coordinate. Consider a plate balanced on a knife edge denoted by
Y-Y in Fig. 7-10. It is evident that the moment of 𝑊1 about Y-Y is opposite in effect to
the moment of 𝑊2 . Since the direction of 𝑊1 and 𝑊2 are both down, the difference in
moment effect is caused by 𝑊1 and 𝑊2 being located on opposite sides of the axis. Or
if 𝑥1 is considered to be positive in terms of coordinates with respect to Y-Y axes, 𝑥2
must be considered negative. Proceeding to replace weight in terms of area, we may
eliminate the terms 𝛿𝑡𝐴, whence we observe that the sign of the moment of area
similarly depends on the position of the centroid of the area relative to the coordinate
of axes.

Fig 7-10

In the case of a plate with a hole cut in it as in Fig. 7-10A, the resultant weight 𝑾
may be considered equivalent to the weight 𝑊1 of the solid plate minus the weight 𝑾𝟐
of cut-out portion. In this instance, the directions of 𝑾𝟏 and 𝑾𝟐 are opposite, so their
moment with respect to the Y axis are of opposite sign. If, as before, these weights
are expressed in terms of equivalent areas, the moment effect of the area of the cut-
out is opposite to the moment effect of the area of the original plate, even though the
centroid of each area is now on the same side of the of the axis.
 Fig. 7-10A

Hence the sign of the moment of an area, expressed as 𝑎𝑥 for example, depends on
the signs of 𝑎 and 𝑥, the positive sign for area associated with the area that adds to
the net area of the figure, and the negative sign to area that reduces the net area,

Moreover, the sign of the coordinate of the centroid of an area may be plus or minus,
depending on the location of the centroid with respect to the axis of the moments

CENTROIDS FOR COMMON GEOMETRIC SHAPES

Shape Area or length 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅
Rectangle

bd 1 1
𝑏 𝑑
2 2

Any Triangle

1 1
𝑏ℎ ℎ
2 3

Semicircle

𝜋𝑟 2 4𝑟
2 0 3𝜋
or
0.424r
 Quarter circle 1
π𝑟 2 4𝑟 4𝑟
4
3𝜋 3𝜋
or or
0.424r 0.424r

Circular Sector

𝑟 2𝛼 2 𝑟 sin 𝛼 0
3 𝛼

CENTROIDS FOR COMMON GEOMETRIC SHAPES

Shape Area or length 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅
Segment of an arc

2𝑟𝛼 𝑟 sin 𝛼 0
𝛼

𝜋𝑟 2𝑟 0
𝜋

Area under spandrel

1 1 2𝑛 + 1
𝑏ℎ 𝑏 ℎ
𝑛+1 𝑛+2 4𝑛 + 2