2.

RELIGIONS

2.1 Religion And Philosophy – A Primer

Is religion the same as philosophy? No, they are not. Religion refers to
a specific set of beliefs, practiced by a group of people and has a
specific name. (e.g:- Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, etc).
Philosophy refers to the investigation of the principles behind abstract
topics like existence, knowledge, or conduct (e.g.: Advaita, mimamsa,
stoic philosophy or Kantian philosophy).Religion is based on faith.
Philosophy is logical exploration of concepts to arrive at conclusions.
Are there some philosophies/religions that are hard to classify? In
principle, ‘Yes’, but in practice, ‘No’. Why? Because all religions have
a set of traditions and rituals while philosophies do not have them.
Advaita is a philosophy – not a religion. Any religionist, not
necessarily Hindus, can preach or follow Advaita.
Theism vs Atheism: For the question, ‚Do you believe in God?', there are
only two simple, straight answers – yes/No. ‚Yes' is theism and ‚no' is
atheism. Saying ‚I don’t know', ‚no one knows', ‚I don’t care',
‚meaningless', ‚irrelevant' etc. are not answers to the question.
There can be atheistic religions or philosophies. Surprised!? In our own
country, Jainism is considered atheistic and so is the philosophy
mimamsa. Both believe in karma and evolution of life through several
births to attain nirvana, but they assign the function of God to karma.
Your good karma takes you up the evolutionary chain while bad karma does
the opposite. Only a total detachment from karma can save you from
rebirths. (More of it later!).
There were also atheistic (materialistic) philosophies in the past,
propounded by rishis like Jabala in Ramayana. Charvakas, Ajivakas and
similar sects who lived in the early centuries of CE were considered
atheists but they believed in fate. Read the poem ‚Yaathum Oore' again.
Gnostism vs Agnostism: Gnosticism literally means ‚having knowledge'.
Some sects still believe that personal spiritual knowledge is superior to
orthodox teachings from a holy book or a teacher. They had existed from
the first century, CE (CE- Common Era –i-e. AD. BC is nowadays given the
name BCE or Before Common Era).
On the other hand, the terms ‚agnostic' and ‚agnosticism' were first used
by T.H. Huxley, the English biologist, in 1884. Agnostics believe that
knowledge on topics like God, soul etc. is impossible, unlike both
theists and atheists, who talk on such subjects with great authority.
God’s existence cannot be proved or disproved with our limited sensory
knowledge. An agnostic is neither a theist nor an atheist.
Bertrand Russell, the famous modern day British philosopher, was a
pacifist and an agnostic. He was once arrested by the police for opposing
the war. The jail warden, while noting down the details of the arrested
person, asked Russell ‚What is your

religion?' and Russell replied, ‚agnostic'. The dump warden noted it down
and commented, ‚Well, everybody has to follow some religion'. Buddha is
considered an agnostic, though Buddhism took a different form later.
Buddha claims that life is misery (dukkha) and the objective of life is
to minimize or eliminate the dukkha. When a painless life is the goal in
one’s life, God becomes irrelevant. Generally, the agnostics and atheists
are clubbed with the non-religious/secular groups as ‘irreligious‘
people. The majority of people in Communist countries (China & Russia for
example) are supposed to belong to such groups. ‘Religious’ people, by
default, are theists.
Monotheists and polytheists: Monotheism is worshipping a single deity.
Polytheism is worshipping several deities. Polytheism assigns the
supernatural forces of the universe to several gods, while in monotheism
a single god manages all the departments.
Animism came before either one. Animism assumes that a soul or spirit
exists in nearly everything, from grass to rocks to living things. Since
the time humans lived in caves, they worshipped the attributes of nature.
The idea of the imbued spirit led to polytheism first, which deified
some, but not all, of these objects and life forms. Thunder, rain, sun,
moon, fire, wind, rivers, sea, mountains and anything that was either
scary or helped man to live became deities. In short, polytheism was a
natural result of people making sense of their surroundings and a worship
of natural elements of the physical environment.
All early civilizations - Egypt, Sumeria, Greece, Rome, Maya, Inca,
Indus, China, Japan and all the pre-Christian European faiths followed
polytheism. Most were destroyed by Abrahamic, monotheist faiths from
Middle East. Polytheism still survives in India and several parts of the
Far East.
Some consider Monotheism as an attempt by desert peoples to increase
their influence over others by worshipping something that does not exist
in the environment but in the minds and hearts of people. Abrahamic God
was a natural result of desert peoples not finding enough greenery and
prosperity around them and hence getting themselves a vengeful god who
would punish the non-worshippers.

With this kind of a belief, God is often seen as a being of unlimited

power

(omnipotence),
unlimited
knowledge
(omniscience),
unlimited
extension

(omnipresence), and unlimited goodness (omni-benevolence). The last trait

is often forgotten in their practice and their followers are made to fear
the monotheistic God and threaten other religions into compliance.
Monotheism and Monism are different. Monotheism is a religious belief
while monism is a philosophical approach. While the former is the belief
in one God, the latter is the belief that everything in the universe has
the same source. Both come from the Greek word ‘mono’, meaning alone or
single. Monism is another name for the Hindus’ Advaita. It denies the
existence of a duality in a particular sphere, such as that between
matter and

mind in philosophy or God and the world in spirituality. As per Advaita,

only one Supreme Being (Brahmam) exists everywhere. Incidentally, monism
is not sole property of India. Spinoza speaks of an Absolute and the
Chinese Tao is close to Advaita.
Digressing, early Western Philosophers were obsessed with mind and matter
and didn’t venture beyond that. Those who declared that mind is supreme
were called the idealists and those who said matter is supreme were
called the materialists. Today, the terms had assumed totally different
connotations.
Religions can be broadly split into three groups.
1. Abrahamic Religions – Judaism (religion of Jews), Christianity and
Islam 2. Eastern (Indian) Religions – Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism,
Sikhism 3. Far Eastern (Chinese) Religions – Taoism, Confucianism,
Shintoism
There are many more but first, let us broadly look into the three groups.
Abrahamic or Western Asian religions claim Abraham ( Arabic - Ibrahim )
as a part of their sacred history. Bahai’sm also has the same origin but
is often omitted from the list.
The God of Abraham became the monotheistic God of the Jews. Christianity
is essentially a continuation of the Jewish traditions, given in the Old
Testament.
Christians believe Jesus (Hebrew - Yeshua ) to be the Messiah (Christ),
predicted in a prophesy in Old Testament. The subsequent New Testament
(Bible) is the revelations based on the authority of Jesus and is the
bedrock of Christian belief.
Islam believes that the present Christian and Jewish scriptures have been
corrupted over time and are not the original divine revelations given to
Moses or Jesus. Quran is their final, complete revelation from God
(Arabic – Allah) to Muhammad and Muhammad alone – the final prophet ever
sent by Allah. In the 1860s, the Bahá'í Movement was formed as an
offshoot of Islam.
There are a few other Abrahamic religions, but their adherents are very
few in numbers. Several important religions originated in Persia (Iran)
but their importance in only historical. One of them is Zoroastrianism,
still followed by the Parsis of India.
Indian religions generally refer to all the religions that originated in
South Asia. Hinduism is the oldest among them with a history dating back
to Rig Veda. Jainism and Buddhism came into existence during the 5th/6th
centuries BCE through Mahavira and Gautama Siddhartha. Sikhism was
founded by Guru Nanak in the 15th Century CE. Many Jains, Buddhists and
Sikhs still look back to Hinduism as their common mother but there are
people who dispute that.
Hinduism absorbed many Buddhist traits. In many parts of India, Buddha is
considered an avatar of Vishnu. Mahatma Gandhi claims that Buddha did not
establish a non-Hindu tradition. He writes, "I do not regard Jainism or
Buddhism as separate from

Hinduism." Al-Biruni , in 11th century CE, was probably the first to

study the Vedic religions and expose Hinduism to the West. We will see
the Indian religions in greater detail, later.
Chinese religions go by the name of Taoism religions (Tao -"The Way").
Taoism, Confucianism, Shintoism and a few other religions belong to this
group. Tao is the flow of the universe (like rhythm in English and
Sanskrit) or the force behind the natural order, which keeps the universe
balanced and ordered. The flow of Ch’i, the essential energy of action
and existence, is compared to the universal order of Tao. Another concept
in such religions is De or literally "virtue" or "power", the active
expression of Tao. Taoism and (Ch’an) Buddhism had influenced each other
for centuries in China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. Ch'an Buddhism arrived
in Japan and became Zen Buddhism.
Major differences between the Abrahamic religions and the Indian
religions.

Abrahamic religions
Monotheistic
Only one birth. So no karma from past births. Eternal hell or heaven
after death. Purgatory is the waiting list.
Obeisance to God is a must. Each group thinks that theirs is the only
faith.
Catholics and Orthodox groups worship Idols . The rest are against.
Founded by one Prophet. Trained priests, organized church
Spread the Gospel to save ‘others’- duty
Atheists not allowed
Confession will cleanse you of all sins
Indian religions
All types - (Polytheistic-Hindu, agnostic-Buddha, atheistic-Jain,
monotheistic – Sikh
Several births. Karma is carried over. Heaven or hell is only a temporary
parking space between births. Mukthi is the ultimate
No compulsive obeisance. All religions tolerated
Common but not compulsory
No founder, no organization for Hindus. Others have founders. Buddhists
have a Sangam. Sikhs have a panth.
Voluntary conversions only
sankhya, mimamsa & charvakas are atheists
Karma cannot be repented away

Each of the religions mentioned above have several sub-groups within it,
that violently disagree with each other (e.g.: Catholics & Protestants in
Christianity, Sunnis and Shias in Islam, Hinayana and Mahayana in
Buddhism, Saivaites and Vaishnavaites among Hindus). For our present
discussions, we will avoid the sub-groups.
Next, we consider the ‘largest’ religious groups in the world, as on
date, in the list given below. The numbers shown are only estimates, and
are for the purpose of ordering the

groups, and do not provide definitive data. They were no doubt taken from
a web-site but this article is not a research paper to guarantee their
correctness and authenticity.

RELIGION
Followers
%

(millions)

1
Christianity
2100
26%
19%
14%
11%
5%
5%
3%
3%
0.36%
0.22%
0.09%
0.05%

2
Islam
1500

3
Secular, atheists etc
1100
4
Hinduism
900

5
Buddhism
376

6
Traditional Chinese 394

7
Ethnic Religions
300

8
Tribal Religions
100

9
Sikhism
23

10 Judaism
14

11 Bahai
7

12 Jainism
4

The rest of the religions are too small and have been ignored. Even in
the list, (3), (6), (7) and (8) are not ‘real’ religions and will be left
out of our present discussions.
These numbers and percentages are global. For those who want to know
similar numbers for India, the first table gives the number as per 1941/
1951/ 2011 census but shows only the Hindu/Muslim population. (The 1941
census was the last census before the partition of India and includes the
populations of Pakistan and Bangladesh. The 1951 Census was the first
census after partition. The growth rate is calculated from the previous
census or growth over 10 years. The negative number for Muslims in 1951
is due to partition).

Year
Hindus
Growth
Muslims
Growth

1941
238.3
6.19%
42.4
18.43%

1951
303.5

27.36%

35.4

-16.5%

2011

966.2

16.75

172.2

24.6

Source:IIPS India:; Census; figures in million

A similar comparison between the 1961 and 2011 census is shown below for
all religions in India.

Islam: As revealed to Prophet Muhammad. Quran is their holy book. The

five pillars of Islam – declaration of faith; ritual prayer; welfare;
fasting during Ramadan, pilgrimage to Mecca.
Judaism: Based on Ten Commandments received from God by Moses. Old
Testament is their holy book. Love of one's neighbour is their principle
of social life and the inspiration of the Jewish community.
Sikhism: Founded by Guru Nanak in the 15th Century CE. Holy Granth is
their holy book. There is only one God without form. People should lead a
life of prayer and obedience. Believes in rebirths.
Baha'i : The Faith began in Persia (Iran) in 1844, distinctive from the
Shi'a Islam found there. Key beliefs include belief in one God; the unity
of mankind; equality of opportunity for men and women; and elimination of
prejudice.
Jainism: Originated in India. Mahavira is the main teacher. Principles:
karma, rebirths and ahimsa . Atheistic -Karma does the job of a God.
Zoroastrianism Founded in ancient Iran by the prophet Zarathushtra. Ahura
Mazda (Lord of Wisdom), grants humans Vohu Manah – a clear rational mind
with which to dispel ignorance.
Agnosticism : Claims regarding the existence of a god or gods, or even
ultimate reality, is unknown and impossible to know.
Atheism: No beliefs in gods or supernatural beings.
Well, more about Indian Religions in subsequent postings.
2.2 Polytheistic Religions in Ancient Civilizations
Introduction: Every culture mentioned in recorded history Before the
Common Era has practiced some form of religion, which was essentially
Polytheistic . These Gods were invoked in times of trouble, to pray to
for good harvests, or to support the people in wars. Commonalities of
such Gods across cultures were widespread.
These Gods and Goddesses were basically anthropomorphic (human-like in
appearance) and often behaved like human beings. The Greek
philosopherXenophanes (c. 570-478 BCE) writes: ‚Mortals suppose that the
gods are born and have clothes and voices and shapes like their own. But
if oxen, horses and lions had hands or could paint with their hands and
fashion works as men do, horses would paint horse-like images of gods and
oxen oxen-like ones, and each would fashion bodies like their own. The
Ethiopians consider the gods flat-nosed and black; the Thracians blue-
eyed and red-haired'.
Xenophanes was also a rare believer of monism but he was in a hopeless
minority. Similarly, monotheism was totally unknown to the ancient people
until Judaism made

its appearance. People preferred to believe in many gods, each with a

special sphere of influence. They probably felt that no single god could
take care of all the needs of an individual or a society. Just as one
would not go to a lawyer when sick, one would not go to a god of war with
a problem concerning harvest. Many gods were thus needed to fulfill the
function of specialists in diverse areas.
In some cultures, a certain god would become so popular that he would
assume an all-powerful position and other Gods become subservient to Him.
This transforms a polytheistic culture to ‘heno’theistic. In Saivism and
Vaishnavism, for example, Shiva or Vishnu is all powerful, though other
Gods do exist. This is a good example for ‘heno’theis. However, this was
extremely rare in the ancient world but for some stray examples. God Amun
of Egypt once became the number one God of Egypt during the rule of
pharaoh Akhenaten (r. 1353-1336 BCE) but the decision was reversed by his
son.
Generally four civilizations are considered to be the most ancient,
namely i)Egyptian ii) Sumerian iii) Indus valley iv) Chinese. Indus
valley will be considered separately and the rest will be discussed
first.
Religion in Ancient Sumeria / Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia means a place between two rivers. It is the present day Iraq
and the two rivers referred to are the Euphrates and the Tigris. The
ancient Sumer kingdom was the first major Mesopotamian civilization (3500
BCE), known to history. The region had seen several major civilizations.
A rough timeline is given below.
I.5000 BCE – 2350 BCE – Sumerian rule II. 2000-1600 BCE: Old Babylonian
Period III. 1200-612 BCE: Assyrian Empire IV: 612-550 BCE: New
Babylonian Empire IV. 550 BCE – 333 BCE Persian Empire 333 BCE -
Alexander conquers the Persian Empire Now let us go to their religion.
Mesopotamians believed that Order was created out of chaos by the gods.
Their great god Marduk represents order and he defeated Tiamat, the God
for chaos to create the world.
There was a mutually enriching relationship between the humans and the
Gods in Sumeria. The humans provided the god (images) with everything
they needed to run the world. The gods, in turn, repaid humans by
providing whatever they needed in their lives (or so the Sumerians
believed). The sacrifices (Yaga/yagna) done for the sake of the devas in
early Vedic culture were for a similar purpose – seeking something
specific in return.
Temple complexes in Sumeria were considered the literal homes of the
gods. The best examples are the huge ziggurats – the Sumerian version of
the pyramid. Their statues in

the temples were fed, bathed and clothed daily as the priests and
priestesses took care of them as one would a king. Marduk’s statue was
carried out of his temple during festivals and taken through the city of
Babylon so that he could appreciate its beauty while enjoying the fresh
air and sunshine. (Do you see similarity with Hinduism?)
Inanna was also powerful goddess of the Sumerians – she was in charge of
love, sex, and war. Inanna is said to die, go to the underworld and
return to life, bringing fertility and abundance to earth from the
underworld every year. This symbolically refers to the annual crops. The
God-of-love concept was so popular that she later became Ishtar of the
Akkadians/ Assyrians, Isis of the Egyptians, Astarte of the Phoenicians,
Sauska of the Hurians-Hittites. She was also the inspiration for
Aphrodite of the Greeks, and Venus of the Romans – both love Goddesss.
(We have our own Manmatha –Rathi, but they are lesser Gods in Hindu
pantheon).
The temples were the center of the city's life throughout Mesopotamian
history and served in multiple capacities: The clergy dispensed grain and
surplus goods to the poor, provided medical services, and sponsored the
grand festivals which honored the gods, with the temple as the base.
The Mesopotamian afterlife was in a dreary underworld, located beneath
the far mountains, where souls drank stale water from puddles and ate
dust for eternity in the 'land of no return.' This bleak view of their
eternal home was markedly different from that of the Egyptians as well as
of their neighbors, the Persians.
Babylonians, who came to power after the Sumerians in the same region,
developed a diverse set of deities, derived from the older
Sumerian/Mesopotamian cultures. Many of their Gods also appear in the
Judeo-Christian Bible which came later. This include the early versions
of Noah and the flood, infant Moses being found in a basket and the tower
of Babylon. The "Babylonian" Gods include Apsu, Tiamat, Lahmu and Lahamu,
Anshar and Kishar, Antu,Ea, Sin, Ishtar, Shamash, Ninlil, Ninurta,
Ninsun, Marduk, Bel, and Ashur.
The early religion of the Persians, who arrived on the Iranian Plateau
after the Babylonians, sometime prior to the third millennium BCE, was
also polytheistic. Their supreme god, Ahura Mazda, presided over the
lesser deities. Other popular Gods were Atar (god of fire), Mithra (god
of the rising sun and covenants), Hvar Khshsata (god of the full sun),
and Anahita (goddess of fertility, water, health and wisdom). These gods
stood for the forces of goodness and order against the evil spirits of
disorder and chaos.
Somewhere between 1500-1000 BCE, the prophet Zoraster (aka Zaruthustra)
claimed a revelation that Ahura Mazda was the Supreme God, the creator of
the universe and maintainer of order, who needed no other gods beside
him. Zoroasters's vision would become the religion ofZoroastrianism - one
of the oldest in the world, still practiced by the Parsis of Mumbai.

Angra Mainyu (aka Ahriman) is Ahura Mazda’s main adversary, in charge of

lies and chaos (Druj). Humans have to choose between these two paths,
which will determine that person’s destination after death. When a person
died, they crossed theChinavat Bridge where they were judged. And so on,
it goes.
Some historians feel that the Iranians are Aryans, who came down from
Europe and cousins of Indian Aryans. They say that while Indians
supported devas, the Iranians supported asuras. Ahura actually comes from
asura. Incidentally Hindu’s Devas and asuras are half-brothers, born to
the same father Kasyapa but different mothers – Athithi and Thithi. (I am
leaving this topic at this stage. If you are interested, read more by
yourself from the web!)
Polytheism in Egypt
Ancient Egyptian Gods are recorded on tombs and pyramids of Egypt from ~
2600 BCE. The Romans conquered Egypt in 33 BCE and ended its story. The
religion was remarkably stable throughout that time (~ 3000 years).
Greeks were also polytheistic but much later the monotheistic Islam took
over the place and ended the culture.
In Egypt, there were prominent gods who controlled the sky (the sun god
Ra) as well as the underworld (Osiris, god of the dead). The creation of
the world starts with the god Atum, who creates order from chaos, like
his Sumerian counterpart. Egyptians too believed in the principle of
harmony (known to the Egyptians as ma'at) and also in a higher power and
a life after death. Their religion was a combination of magic, mythology
andscience.
The first written records of Egyptian religious practice come from around
3400 BCE. Deities such as Isis, Osiris, Ptah, Hathor,, Atum, Set,
Nephthys, and Horus were already established as potent forces by then.
The other Gods were – God Shu (of the air), the goddess Tefnut (of
moisture), the god Geb (of earth), goddess Nut (of sky) and GoddessHeka,
the personification of magic.
The Egyptian afterlife was known as the Field ofReeds and was a mirror-
image of life on earth down to one's favorite relatives and pets. Those
that one loved in life would either be waiting when one arrived or would
follow after. The Egyptians viewed earthly existence as simply one part
of an eternal journey and were so concerned about passing easily to the
next phase that they created their elaborate tombs (the pyramids),
temples, and funerary inscriptions to help the soul's passage from this
world to the next.
2.3. Polytheism in China. We will discuss Indus valley separately.
In ancient China, religion is thought to have developed as early as c.
4500 BCE. The evidences are the designs on ceramics found at the
Neolithic site of Banpo village. This early belief structure may have
been a mix of animism and mythology as these images

include recognizable animals and pig-dragons, precursors to the famous

Chinese dragon.
Before the advent of Xia Dynasty (2070-1600 BCE), there were many
anthropomorphic gods worshiped with a chief god, Shangti, presiding over
all. This belief continued, with modifications, during the period of the
Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE) which developed the practice of ancestor
worship. Later, Chinese started believing that Shangti had too many
responsibilities and was always too busy to handle their needs.
Chinese believed that when a person died, they went to live with the gods
and became intermediaries between the people and those gods. Ancestor
worship influenced the two great Chinese belief systems of Confucianism
and Taoism, both of which made ancestor worship core tenets of their
practices. In time, Shangti was replaced with the concept of Tian
(heaven), a paradise where the dead would reside eternally in peace. (No
rebirths or karma)
In order to pass from one's earthly life into heaven, one had to cross
the bridge of forgetfulness over an abyss and, after looking back on
one's life for the last time, drink from a particular cup which purged
all memory. At the bridge, one was either judged worthy of heaven - and
so passed on - or unworthy - and slipped from the bridge into the abyss
to be swallowed up in hell.
Other versions claim that the soul is reincarnated after drinking from
the cup. Either way, the living were expected to remember the dead who
had passed over the bridge to the other side and to honor their memory.
Ancient China worshiped a vast network of local and regional mythological
deities, nature spirits, and ancestors, and reverence for those gods
persisted well into the modern era. Over the millennia, China has
embraced and developed three major religions, all established first in
the 5th or 6th century BCE: Confucianism (led by Confucius 551-479 BC),
Buddhism (led by Siddhartha Gautama), and Taoism (led by Lao Tzu, d. 533
BCE). Some Gods and Goddesses had survived - "Eight Immortals," the "Two
Heavenly Bureaucrats," and "Two Mother Goddesses."
European Polytheism
Europe too had its polytheistic cultures in the past. Two ancient
cultures and two popular, later cultures will be considered in this
section.
Norse Gods: In Scandinavia (mainly Denmark, Norway and Sweden, sometimes
also Finland and Iceland), there was a robust polytheistic culture.
European Civilizations, thanks to its cold climate, were way behind the
river valley civilizations mentioned earlier. The Nordic Bronze Age came
only in 1800–500 BCE and was followed by the Iron Age in the 4th century
BCE, which saw the beginnings of culture as we know today.

Christianity came to the Nordic world only during the 8th-9th centuries
CE. It came from the British Isles, which Normans had captured earlier.
By that time Christianity was already widespread in Europe. So the Nordic
world was relatively late converts.
As per Norse myths, the giants came first before the Old Norse Gods and
the New Norse Gods. The Old God were called ‘the Vanir’ and they were
associated with nature, fertility, wisdom and ability to see the future.
The New Gods, called ‘the Aesir’, were multiple in numbers and were more
humanlike. Vanirs and Aesirs always fought against each other. The Aesir
fought with weapons and brute force, while the Vanir used magic.
The Norse creation myth says that the god Surt both creates and destroys
the world. The Norse myths were written down in fragments until ‘ Edda’ -
an Old Norse work of prose - written in Iceland in 13th century CE, came
out. It contained the pre-Christian stories of bravery of the Norse
people and the myths of its Gods.
Norse Gods like Thor, Odin and Loki had appear in modern movies and
cartoons. There were also other Gods like Andvari, Balder, Freya, Frigg,
Njord, and Tyr.
Celtic Gods: Celtic was a language spoken by people of mainland Europe.
The Celtic-speaking peoples of the British islands are considered a
separate group and called the Insular Celts. The Celts belonged to the
Iron Age in Europe (1200–15 BCE) who interacted with the Romans, through
which we come to know of their religion.
Their myths and legends survive as oral tradition in The British islands,
France, and Germany. The early priests of the region, called druids,
(philosophers, teachers, judges, magicians and the repository of communal
wisdoms) passed on their wisdom only orally to their disciples. Hence,
much of Celtic antiquity is lost to modern world. Luckily, the Roman
conquerors and later the Christian monks copied down their oral histories
and gave it to the world.
Celtic gods include the shape-shifting goddess Ceridwen, the horned
fertility god Cernunnos and names like Alator, Albiorix, Belenus, Borvo,
Bres, Brigantia, Brigit, Ceridwen, Cernunnos, Epona, Esus, Latobius,
Lenus, Lugh, Maponus, Medb, Morrigan, Nehalennia, Nemausicae, Nerthus,
Nuada, and Saitama.
Greek Gods: The world is more familiar with the Greek gods than with the
other Gods. Greece is considered the crucible of European Civilization.
Crucible refers to a situation of severe trial, or in which different
elements interact, leading to the creation of something new.
The significant part of Greek history starts from 8th century BCE, when
Greece emerged from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the
Mycenaean civilization. Small Greek kingdoms subsequently came up. They
united together in 480 BCE to defeat the invading Persians. From then
onwards, until 336 BCE (called the Hellenic Age) Greece

flourished, under the leadership of Athens, one of their main cities. In

334 BCE, Alexander captured Greece. Greece’s glory continued until 140
BCE, when Rome conquered Greece and ended its story. (Roman culture
disappeared under the onslaught of Christians much later).
The Greek creation myth begins with the god of love, Eros, who creates
the sky and the earth and makes them fall in love. From their perch on
Mount Olympus, the major Greek gods such as Apollo and Aphrodite acted
like humans and even associated with them, producing hybrids called
demigods, many of whom fought alongside humans in the stories found in
the Iliad and Odyssey, the Greek epics.
The unpredictable nature of the gods may have contributed to the
development of philosophy in Greece. Philosophy takes over when religion
doesn’t provide for the people's spiritual needs. Most of the well-known
philosophers of Europe were not orthodox, religionists. Plato, the
philosopher, (b.~425– ~348BCE) consistently criticized the Greek concept
of the gods and Critias (460–403 BCE) an ancient Greek political figure
from Athens and an author, claimed that Gods were created by men to
control other men.
Still, to the majority of the Greeks honored the Gods and their dead
ancestors. It is the public who are central to the functioning of the
society, not its philosophers and critics. Thus, as with other ancient
cultures, religion in Greece was fully integrated into one's daily life
and routine.
The Greeks consulted the gods on matters ranging from affairs of state to
personal decisions regarding love, marriage, or one's job. An ancient
story tells of how the writer Xenophon (430 - c. 354 BCE) went to
Socretes and asked whether he should join the army. Socrates sent him to
Delphi, where virgins under the influence of Goddess Vesta answered such
questions. At Delphi, Xenophon asked the god a different question - which
of the gods can ensure a successful venture and safe return for him from
the war. Nobody knows what the Gods told him but he returned home safely
after the war!
Roman Gods: The Romans adopted most of the Greek gods but with different
names and sometimes with slightly different myths. They also adopted the
Gods of their conquered people and made their pantheon bigger!
In Roman mythology, Chaos itself created Gaia, the Earth, and Ouranos,
the Heavens. Their major Gods were from Greece. A table of equivalents
between Greek and Roman gods is given below.

Greek
Aphrodite
Apollo
Ares
Artemis
Athena
Dionysus
Hades
Hephaestus

Roman
Venus
Apollo
Mars
Diana
Minerva
Bacchus
Pluto
Vulcan

Greek
Hermes
Hestia
Hypnos
Iris
Nemesis
Poseidon
Tyche
Zeus

Roman
Mercury
Vesta
Somnus
Arcus
Nemesis
Neptune
Fortuna
Jupiter

The Roman religion too began as a kind of animism and developed into
polytheism, as they grew. The Romans also worshipped their ancestors.
There a close association between religion and politics in Rome. The
stability of the society was thought to rest on how well the people
revered the gods. The Vestal Virgins for example, were expected to
maintain their vows of virginity and to continually honor Goddess Vesta.
Once the Roman Empire was fully established, no foreign gods were
welcomed. When the popular Egyptian goddess Isis was brought to Rome,
after the conquest of Egypt, Emperor Augustus decreed that no temple
should be built for her. He felt such attention paid to a foreign deity
would undermine the established religious beliefs.
The Romans also had spirits of the home. The penates were earth spirits
of the pantry who kept one's home safe and harmonious. One must remember
the spirits while entering or leaving the house. Statues of the penates
were taken out of the cupboard and set on the table during meals to honor
them, and sacrifices were left by the hearth for their enjoyment.
Although the religions of other cultures did not have these kinds of
spirits, the recognition of spirits of home was common.
Up to the 3rd century CE, Christians were brutally persecuted throughout
the Roman Empire. There were cruel sports in which lions were allowed to
devour live Christians in packed Roman stadiums. Emperor Nero blamed
Christians for whatever went wrong in his land, including a fire that
burned much of Rome. As a result, Christians remained secretive, often
meeting only in underground catacombs (a network of tunnels).
Over a period of time, many people were slowly losing interest in Roman
state rituals and were attracted to the idea of social equality, justice,
and the promise of an afterlife offered by Christianity. Despite the
persecutions, Christianity was growing stronger.
As a result, in 313CE, the Edict of Milan was passed, which guaranteed
freedom of religion throughout the Roman Empire. The Western Roman Empire
fell in 476 CE and Christianity was there to stay forever in Europe.
Meso-American Gods
Mesoamerica is a historical and cultural region in North America,
generally omitted by our history texts. It extends from Mexico through
Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. The pre-
Columbian societies flourished in this region, before the Spanish
conquerors, after Columbus, destroyed its culture.
Aztec Gods: The Aztec culture flourished in Mesoamerica during 1110–1521
CE. The people worshiped more than 200 different deities. The deities
belonged to three broad classes of Aztec life—the heavens, fertility and
agriculture, and war.
To the Aztecs, religion, science and the arts were interconnected and
meshed almost seamlessly. The Aztec cosmos was tripartite: a visible
world of humans and nature lay suspended between supernatural levels
above (ruled by Tlaloc, god of thunderstorms and rain) and below
( Tlalechutli - the monstrous earth goddess). Many of their gods were
much older than the Aztec culture itself – they are pan-Mesoamerican.
There were ten such major Gods - Huitzilopochtli, Tlaloc, Tonatiuh,
Tezcatlipoca, Chalchiuhtlicue, Centeotl, Quetzalcoatl, Xipe Totec,
Mayahuel, and Tlaltechutli.
The Aztec had a festival known as The Day of the Dead (El Dia de los
Muertos), in which people celebrate the memory of their dead ancestors.
They also celebrated the memory of the Maize God on that day. The Maize
god is a dying-and-reviving god figure in the form of Hun Hunahpu, who
was killed by the Lords of Xibalba, brought back to life by his sons, the
Hero Twins, and emerges from the underworld as corn.
Mayan Gods: The Maize God remained an important deity to the Mayas also.
The 'Tonsured' Maize God or 'Foliated' Maize God are common images found
in Maya iconography. He is always pictured as eternally young and
handsome with an elongated head like a corncob, long, flowing hair like
corn silk, and ornamented with jade to symbolize the corn stalk. Maya
mothers would bind the heads of their young sons to flatten the forehead
and elongate their heads to resemble him.
The earliest Maya settlements date to around 1800 BCE. They were
basically farmers and grew crops like corn (maize), beans, squash and
cassava . During the later periods, which lasted until about 300 BCE,
Maya farmers began to farm in the highland and lowland regions as well.
In addition to agriculture, the Mayas were good at architecture -
pyramid-building, city construction and the inscribing of stone
monuments.
Mayas revered their dead. As with other cultures, there were many
different deities (over 250), all of whom had their own special sphere of
influence. They controlled the weather, the harvest, they dictated one’s
mate, presided over every birth, and were present at one’s death.
The Maya believed in the cyclical nature of life. Death only transforms.
Human life follows the patterns of nature and it reinvents itself. But
they feared the possibility that the dead could return to haunt the
living. So ceremonies were performed to remember the dead and honor their
spirit.
The Mayan afterlife was similar to the Mesopotamian in that it was a dark
and dreary place. Mayans imagined an even worse fate for those
attacked/deceived by the demon lords of the underworld (Xibalba). Hence
Mayan are the only known ancient culture to

honor a goddess of suicide (Ixtab) because suicides will ‘bypass’ Xibalba

and go straight to paradise (along with those who died in childbirth or
in battle).
The Maya creation myth is narrated in the Popul Vuh: six deities lie in
the primordial waters and eventually create the world for us. Kukulcan is
an important god for Mayas. The great pyramid at Chichen Itza is in his
honor and is still visited by millions.
On the twin equinoxes of every year (~ March 21 and ~September 23, when
the Sun is exactly above the Equator and days and nights are equal,
throughout the world) the sun casts a shadow on the stairs of the pyramid
structure which seems to resemble a great serpent descending from the top
to the bottom; this is thought to be the great Kukulcan returning from
the heavens to earth to impart his blessings. Even today, people gather
at Chichen Itza to witness this event during the equinoxes.
Important gods of the Mayas include the creator god Itzamna, the moon
goddess Ix Chel, Ah Puch, Akan, Huracan, Camazotz, Zipacna, Xmucane and
Xpiacoc, Chac, Kinich Ahau, Chac Chel, and Moan Chan.
The Incas: Incas civilization united much of South America, covering
Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Colombia and Peru. The great empire began in
1438 CE and ended in 1535 CE approximately.
The culture was led by 13 Incas in succession. Quechua was the official
language and its main god was the Sun. Gold was used for decorative
reasons and not as currency, as they did not have price for them.
Incas were polytheists and their gods were -Viracocha (ordinator god –
one who regulates or controls), Inti (Sun), Pachamama (mother earth),
Apus (spirit of the mountains), Cochamama (goddess of the sea),
Pachacámac (god of earthquakes), among others. Agriculture was their main
activity. Among their main crops are corn, potatoes, cotton and coca.
They also had a flourishing economy based on barter deals. Among its
great examples of architecture are: the stone of the 12 angles,
Sacsayhuamán, Koricancha, Machu Picchu, Pisac, among others. Cuzco, a
city in the Peruvian Andes, was once their capital. It is now known for
its archaeological remains and still represents the customs, traditions
and practices of their ancestors!
Japanese Gods are too young to be clubbed with the ancient Chinese Gods.
Their religion is Shinto, first documented in the 8th century CE. Their
creation myth has an agricultural bent to it. The world of chaos was
changed when a germ of life created a muddy sea, and the first plant
eventually became the first god. The ‘creator’ is a couple - Izanami ("He
who invites") and Izanagi ("She who invites"). Shinto had a homegrown
animism and it also borrowed its Gods from Japan's neighbors. The popular
Gods include Izanami and Izanagi; Amaterasu, Tsukiyomi no Mikoto, and
Susanoh; Ukemochi, Uzume, Ninigi, Hoderi, Inari and the seven Shinto gods
of Good Fortune.

Common Themes in Ancient Religions

The religions of the ancient world shared many traits with each other,
even though the cultures never had any contact with each other. For
example, the similarity between the Mayan and Egyptian pyramids has been
recognized, though the Mayas came to the world's attention only in the
19th century CE. Egypt was known for long.
A common theme among all the cultures is polytheism and gods who take a
personal interest in the lives of people; creation by a supernatural
entity; other supernatural beings emanating from the first entity; a
relationship between the created humans and their creator god requiring
worship and sacrifice and so on.
Many cultures have a ‚dying and reborn god', often a powerful entity
himself. Osiris in Egypt, avatars of Vishnu in India, the Maize God in
Mesoamerica, Bacchus in Rome, Adonis in Greece, Tammuz in Mesopotamia.
There is often an afterlife similar to an earthly existence (Egypt and
Greece), a contrast to life on earth (Mesoamerica and Mesopotamia), or a
combination of both (China and India).
Christianity organized a set of rituals to ensure that a dead person
could gain everlasting life afterwards. They were probably following in
the footsteps of the Sumerians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the
Romans. The Muslim instituted their own rituals - though different from
those of Christianity, Judaism or the 'pagan' religions – to serve the
same purpose, to convey that death is not the end of existence. The
religions of the ancient world tried to provide answers to people's
questions about life and death and are no different than the religions
being practiced today.
2.3 Atheism in Ancient India
Many of us believe that our ancestors blindly believed in God and it is
only in the modern times that some of us have taken to atheistic views
due to the influence of western scientific thoughts and some local
politicians. This is far from truth.
Indians have questioned the existence of God even in ancient days and
have a long tradition of Nastik religions like Jainism, which survives
even now. Atheism was a respectable intellectual pursuit in ancient
India. That it had been hijacked by lumpen elements in recent times is a
sad part of our intellectual history. Let us now see the heterodox
(opposite of orthodox) traditions of India in detail.
The word Srama?a in Sanskrit means (samana in Tamil) "one who exerts
himself". The term in early days was used to describe the Rishis with
reference to Shrama (pains) associated with their daily rituals. During
the later days, the term referred to several non-Brahmanical ascetic
movements which ran parallel to Vedic religions. Such philosophies
broadly included the following divisions.

Amoralism: denies any reward or punishment for either good or bad deeds.
Niyativada (Ajivika) (Fatalism): we are powerless; the universe is pre-
destined. Materialism: (Lokayata or Carvaka) live happily. With death,
everything is annihilated. Sasvatavada (Eternalism): Matter, pleasure,
pain and the soul are eternal Restraint: avoid all evil. Agnosticism:
"(Buddhism) Suspension of judgment. Carvaka (Carvaka), also known as
Lokayata, is thus the ancient school of Indian materialism, a heterodox
(Nastika) philosophy. It came well before the emergence of Jainism and
Buddhism in India and was popular up to the 12th century BCE, after which
it seems to have disappeared without leaving any trace. The Jain scholars
accept Carvaka as a philosophy but vehemently refute it, since it was a
competitor for them.
Brihaspati is said to be the founder of this philosophy. Whether he is
same Brihaspati of the Vedic age is not clear. Another theory says that
Carvaka was the founder’s name and he was a disciple of Brihaspati.
Brihaspati’s sutras, the primary literature of Carvaka, are not available
today. Ajita Kesakampali’s aphorisms on Carvaka written in the 6th
century BCE is probably the only worthy document that still survives.
Brihaspati’s sutras predate Mahabashya since they are mentioned in it
(7.3.45). Mahabashya’s period is between the 5th and 2nd century BCE.
Carvaka teachings have now to be compiled only from secondary literature
including Jain/ Buddhist texts.
The word carvaka is derived from the root carv, ‘to chew’. This may refer
to their hedonistic concepts of "eat, drink, and be merry". In Sanskrit,
caru means "agreeable" and vach means speech. (vach becomes vak as per
grammar in some situations). Hence Carvaka can mean "agreeable speech" or
"sweet-tongued", with a negative connotation.
The traditional name of Carvaka is Lokayata. It was called Lokayata
because it was prevalent (ayatah) among the people (lokesu), and meant
the worldly-outlook of the people. Jain literatures describe Lokayata as
a Hindu school of philosophy, where there is "no God, no (rebirth), no
karma, no duty, no fruits of merit, no sin." Sankara uses the word
lokayata to mean materialism and avoids the word Carvaka.
In Ramayana, Jabali tries to persuade Rama to accept the kingdom by using
similar arguments ‚O, the highly wise! Arrive at a conclusion, therefore,
that there is nothing beyond this Universe. Give precedence to that which
meets the eye and turn your back on what is beyond our knowledge.
(2.108.17) (Rama refutes him, of course).
Carvaka holds direct perception, empiricism and conditional inference as
proper sources of knowledge, embraces philosophical skepticism and
rejects ritualism and super-naturalism.

Perceptions are of two types, for Carvaka - external and internal.

External perception arises from the five senses and internal perception
in the mind.
In philosophy, empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes
only from sensory experience and not from innate ideas or traditions. It
is similar to rationalism and skepticism. When science developed during
the 17th /18th centuries in Europe, empiricism also rose, due to
philosophers like Locke, Berkeley, and David Hume.
Inference is deriving a new conclusion/truth from several observations
and previous truths. Carvakas opine that whenever one infers a truth in
that fashion, one must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge is
conditional. Inference is good and helpful, but it is not 100% effective
for gaining knowledge. It is the validity of inference that is suspect –
sometimes in certain cases and often in others.
For example, when there is smoke, one concludes that it was caused by a
fire. It may be often true, but not always true. It can at best be an
uncertain truth, since smoke can have other causes. According to
Carvakas, full knowledge is possible only when we know all observations,
all premises and all conditions. Often, some conditions will be hidden or
may escape our observation. While our inferences sometimes are true and
lead to successful action, sometimes inference can be wrong and lead to
error. So, Truth is not a part of inference. It is merely a by-product,
at best. We must be always skeptics, question what we know by inference.
Advaita scholars consider six means (pramaana) to arrive at truths:
Pratyak?a (perception), Anuma?a (inference), Upama?a (comparison and
analogy), Arthapatti (postulation), Anupalabdhi (non-perception,
cognitive proof) and Sabda (authoritative word). Vedas come under Sabda
pramaana, the ultimate. Carvakas accept only the first- Pratyak?a
(perception) . (The other schools of Hinduism accept 2 to 6 pramaanas.)
This leads Carvakas not to believe in a soul or reincarnation, heaven and
hell, rituals, fate and merit and demerit from good and bad deeds. They
are beyond Pratyak?a. They reject supernatural causes for natural
phenomena, which are produced spontaneously by their own nature. (Thunder
and rain are not caused by Indra or Varuna). If a person is lean or fat,
the reasons reside in his body - not in his fate or his horoscope.
Some quotations to illustrate the Carvaka philosophy are:-
The fire is hot, the water cold,refreshing cool the breeze of morn; By
whom came this variety? from their own nature was it born.
The enjoyment of heaven lies in eating delicious food, keeping company of
young women, using fine clothes, perfumes and garlandse...moksha is
death, a cessation of life-breath... the wise therefore ought not to take
pains to attain moksha'.
"while life remains, let a man live happily, let him feed on ghee even
though he runs in debt".

A fool wears himself out by penances. Rules like chastity are laid down
by clever weaklings.
Carvakas were critical of the Vedas, as well as Buddhist scriptures. The
Carvakas pointed out the mutual rejection of karma kanda (ritualistic)
and jñana kanda (knowledge oriented) Vedic priests, as proof that either
one of them is wrong (or both) are wrong.
Hindu, Buddhist and Jain scholars extensively deployed Carvaka
methodology in rational re-examination of their own theories but they
also vehemently opposed Carvaka philosophy.(Advaitis are fascinated by
the logic used by the dvaitis).
An extract from Aaine-Akbari, written by Abul Fazl, the famous historian
of Akbar's court, mentions a symposium of philosophers of all faiths held
in 1578 at Akbar's court. Carvakas were also present in the court. Abul
Fazl refers to the good work, judicious administration and welfare
schemes that were emphasized by the Carvakas but he dismisses their
philosophy as "unenlightened" and their works of literature as "lasting
memorials to their ignorance". He notes that Carvakas considered paradise
as "the state in which man lives as he chooses, without control of
another", while hell as "the state in which he lives subject to another's
rule".
In Mahabharatha, (Book 12-39), a villain behaves like a scholar, calls
himself the spokesperson for all scholars and advises Yudhishtra, to act
unethically. He is named Carvaka. Madhava Vidyaranya , a 14th century
Advaita philosopher, in his famous book bearing his name, talks about the
Carvakas. After invoking Shiva and Vishnu , in the Prologue ("by whom the
earth and rest were produced"), he asks,

‚
...but how can we attribute to the Divine Being the giving of supreme
felicity, when such

a notion has been utterly abolished by Carvaka, the crest-gem of the

atheistic school, the follower of the doctrine of Brihaspati? The efforts
of Carvaka are indeed hard to be eradicated, for the majority of living
beings hold by the current refrain:

Ajivika ( Ajivika) is another nastika or "heterodox" school of Indian

Philosophy. It was one of the sramana movements and once a major rival of
Vedic Religion, Buddhism and Jainism. It was probably founded in the 5th
century BCE by Makkhali Gosala, (b. 484 BCE) who was considered a
contemporary of Mahavir and Buddha. Some say that Makkhali was only a
well known leader of the sect.
References to Ajivikas are found in Hindu texts such as Vayu Purana. The
Sramana philosophies in general are supposedly against the dominance of
the Brahmans and appealed more to the non-Brahmin communities among the
Hindus.
Ajivikas were organised monks, who formed discrete communities. The
precise identity of the Ajivikas is not well known, and it is even
unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.
Original scriptures of the Ajivikas are currently unavailable and
probably lost. The only references today are the secondary sources (Jain,
Buddhist literature). Scholars question

whether these secondary sources summarize the Ajivika philosophy fairly

and properly since they belonged to the rival groups and were biased
against this philosophy.
Ajivika is derived from ‘Ajiva’ which means "livelihood, lifelong, mode
of life". Thus it means "those following special rules with regard to
livelihood", connoting "religious mendicants".
The philosophy became very popular during the rule of emperor Bindusara,
father of Asoka. Bindusara and his chief queen Shubadrangi supported this
philosophy. Ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism mention a city named
Sravasti as the hub of the Ajivikas; it was located near Ayodhya. The
philosophy spread rapidly in ancient South Asia, with a Sangha Geham
(community center) in Sri Lanka and extending up to Gujarat.
After his conversion to Buddhism, Asoka is supposed to have issued an
order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana, enraged at a picture
posted by them that made fun of Gautama Buddha. Around 18,000 followers
of the Ajivika sect were supposedly executed as a result. The entire
story may be of doubtful authenticity.
Ajivikas declined later, but survived up to the 14th century CE in
Karnataka, prominently in Kolar district and some places of Tamilnadu.
Incidentally, Makkhali Gosala (Gosala Maskariputra) was believed to have
been born in Tiruppatur of Tiruchi district in Tamil Nadu. There is a
famous Shiva temple in the place today and a rare, huge statue of Brahma
in its precincts.
The famous Tamil kavya, Manimekalai talks about its philosophy. A later
Tamil work Nilakesi (one of the 5 smaller kavyas – author -unknown),
gives the story of two divinities, Okkali and Okali, related to the
Ajivikas. Nilakesi incidentally is written by a sramana and using the
background of a story, explains the concepts of Jainism. It is considered
to be the first book on logic (tharka) written in Tamil and a counter to
Kundalakesi, a major kavya, which glorifies Buddhism. Many poems in
Sangam literature endorse this philosophy. The poem ‘Yaathum Oore’ is a
good example.
The main doctrine of Ajivika is Niyati (fate") or absolute determinism.
No human effort can change this niyati. They claim that there is no free
will. Everything that has happened in the past or will happen in future
is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles. (Big Bang
Theory and expanding Universe?)
They are strict fatalists and to them the karma theory is a fallacy.
Religious or ethical practices have no effect on one's future, and people
do things because cosmos make them do so. "Life and the universe are like
a ball of pre-wrapped up string, which unrolls until it is done and then
goes no further".
Apart from Niyati, they also believe in svabhava (nature), sangati
(change), and parinama (evolution). Parinama has to end in the course of
time (samsara suddhi) in final salvation to which all beings are
destined. The Jains teach that one can both stop the influx of new

karma and rid oneself of old karma through ascetic practices. Ajivikas
maintain that ascetic practices can only stop the influx of new karma.
That explains why the Ajivikas practiced asceticism.
However, this pre-determinism did not make them pessimistic.
Surprisingly, the Calvinists of Europe, who also believed in pre-
determinism, were also optimists.
The Ajivikas have a theory of atoms, (similar to Vaisheshikas – will be
discussed later), where everything is composed of atoms. Qualities emerge
from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms
is predetermined by cosmic forces.
The Ajivikas hold that there exists seven kayas (Sanskrit: kaya -
assemblage, collection, elemental categories): pruthvi-kaya (earth), apo-
kaya (water), tejo-kaya (fire), vayo-kaya (air), sukha (joy), dukkha
(sorrow) and jiva (life). The first four relate to matter, the last three
to non-matter. These elements are akata (permanent - no
creation/destruction), vanjha (barren, cannot multiply/reproduce) and
exist on their own.
The Tamil text Manimekalai, explains paramanu (atoms) like this. Atoms
cannot be subdivided, they cannot penetrate one another, they are neither
created nor destroyed, they retain their identity by never growing nor
expanding nor splitting nor changing. Yet they move, assemble and combine
to form the perceived.
 This "coming together of atoms can take diversity of forms, such as the
dense form of a diamond, or a loose form of a hollow bamboo". Whatever we
perceive is the mere juxtapositions of atoms of various types. The
combinations occur in fixed ratios governed by cosmic rules and form
skandha (molecules, building blocks). (Law of constant Proportions?)
Atoms cannot be seen in their pure state, but only when they aggregate
and form bhutas (objects). Properties and tendencies are characteristics
of the bhutas - not atoms. Everything experienced – sukha (joy), dukkha
(sorrow) and jiva (life)- are also only functions of atoms operating
under similar rules.
Though they were atheists, they believed that in every living there is an
atma – a basic theory of the Hindus and Jains, but add that the soul is
also made of atoms. The other Indian philosophies also believe in the
soul as well as atoms, but they never believed that the soul is made up
of atoms or any material.
Their core belief in "no free will", niyati, and pre-determinism leads
them to conclude that good, simple living is not a means to salvation, it
is just the proper way of life. They lived a mendicant-like livelihood
for its own sake and as part of its pre-deterministic beliefs, rather
than for the sake of after-life gains.
Ajivikas’ so called antinomian ethics, that is, there exist "no objective
moral laws" was vehemently opposed by the Buddhists. There cannot be any
‘sin’ is such a system (much less the Abrahamic theory that humans are
sinful from birth). There is no basis either for the purity of atma or
that they can become pure after a confession. All living

beings are simply without power, or strength, or virtue, but are the
result of destiny, chance and nature.
Since they were atheistic, they did not have a creator of the universe.
They didn’t anticipate a mystical or cataclysmic end to the cosmos
either.
Despite their antagonism to Ajivikas, both Jains and Buddhists concede
that Ajivikas lived a simple ascetic life without any material
possessions, practiced ahimsa and a vegetarian lifestyle, but they also
accuse Ajivikas of immorality, lack of chastity and worldliness. They
also acknowledge the confusion among Buddhists and Jains in their
attitude towards the Ajivikas.
Several rock-cut caves belonging to Ajivikas are from the period of Asoka
(r. 273 BCE-232 BCE). These are the oldest surviving cave temples of
ancient India, and are called the Barabar caves in Jehanabad district in
Bihar. The caves were carved out of granite and have highly polished
internal surfaces. Each cave consists of two chambers - the first, a
large rectangular hall and the second, a small, circular, domed chamber.
These were probably used for meditation.
The belief of Ajivikas in absolute determinism and influence of cosmic
forces led them to a deep study of the movements of the sun, moon,
planets, stars and their role in astrology and fortune telling.
The problem of time and change was one of their main interests. Their
views on this subject may have been influenced perhaps by Vedic sources,
such as the hymn to Kala (Time) in Atharvana Veda.
Atharvana Veda- Hymn 53 - A hymn to Kala (Time)
1. Prolific, thousand-eyed, and un-decaying, a horse with seven reins,
Time bears us onward. Sages inspired with holy knowledge mount him: his
chariot wheels are all the worlds of creatures. 2. This Time hath seven
rolling wheels and seven naves . Immorality is the chariot's axle. Time
brings hitherward all worlds about us: as primal Deity is he entreated.
3. On Time is laid an overflowing beaker: this we behold in many a place
appearing. He carries from us all these worlds of creatures. They call
him Kala in the loftiest heaven. 4. He only made the worlds of life, he
only gathered the worlds of living things together. Their son did he
become who was their Father: no other higher power than he exists. 5.
Kala created yonder heaven, and Kala made these realms of earth. By Kala,
stirred to motion, both what is and what shall be, expand. 6. Kala
created land; the Sun in Kala hath his light and heat. In Kala rest all
things that be: in Kala doth the eye discern.

7. In Kala mind, in Kala breath, in Kala name are fixt and joined. These
living creatures, one and all, rejoice when Kala hath approached. 8.
Kala embraces Holy Fire, the Highest, Brahma himself. Yea, Kala, who was
father of Prajapati, is Lord of All. 9. He made, he stirred this
universe to motion, and on him it rests. He, Kala, having now become
Brahma, holds Parameshtin up. 10. Kala created living things and, first
of all, Prajapati. From Kala self-made Kasyapa, from Kala Holy Fire was
born.
Did the Rishi have an inkling of time as the 4th dimension of matter or
the theories Stephen Hawking was going to propose after several thousand
years?
2.4 Non-Hindu Indian Religions
Introduction
India is the birth place for at least 4 known religions – Hinduism,
Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. India is also perhaps the last refuge for
Zoroastrianism and Baha’ism.
The ‘Shramanic’ Period between 800 and 200 BCE which marks a "turning
point between the Vedic Hinduism and Puranic Hinduism", defied many of
the Vedic and Upanishadic concepts of Hinduism. After the 6th century
BCE, the movement matured into Jainism and Buddhism, mostly in the
Magadha kingdom and caused a split among the Indian religions into astika
sects, which venerates Veda and nastika sects(e.g., Buddhism, Jainism,
Charvaka, etc.), which reject the Vedas. However, both branches shared
the related concepts of karma, sa?sara (the cycle of birth and death) and
moksha (liberation from that cycle).
The early Islamic period (1100–1500 CE) gave rise to Sikhism during the
15th century. The Zorastrians and Bahais came to India to escape from the
religious persecution in their native countries. Hinduism is probably the
most tolerant religion in the world.
While Hinduism will be discussed in greater detail in subsequent
postings, the other religions will be briefly discussed in this post and
closed.
Jainism
(jina – conqueror) is perhaps the earliest among the other Indian
religions. It traces its history to the 9th-century BCE, when
Parshvanatha propounded his non-violent philosophy. Mahavira is the 24th
Jain Tirthankara (599–527 BCE) in the list, the first being Rishavdeva.
The tirthankaras stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence),
sathya (truthfulness), aparigraha (non-attachment) and astheya (non-
stealing). Mahavira’s period is almost a century before that of Buddha.

Jainism began its golden period during the reign of Emperor Kharavela of
Kalinga (Odissa) in the 2nd century BCE.
Jainism perhaps rose against the corruption in the interpretation of
Hinduism prevalent at the time, though the idea may not be palatable to
many Hindus. The underlying philosophy of Jainism is that renunciation of
worldly desires and self-conquest leads to perfect wisdom. Jainism
believes in total abstinence and asceticism as practiced by the
Tirthankars ("crossing-makers"). The crossing refers to the passage from
the material to the spiritual realm, from bondage to freedom.
Their focus is on the purification of the soul by means of right conduct,
right faith and right knowledge. Ahimsa or non-violence is their supreme
faith. Even when corona virus was unknown and lockdown was not in vogue,
their monks used to cover their nose and mouth with a cloth mask to
ensure that they do not kill any germs or insects by mistake, while
breathing.
Jainism does not believe in a creator God. According to Jain doctrine,
the world and its constituents—soul, matter, space, time and principles
of motion—have always existed and governed by natural physical laws. It
is not possible to create matter out of nothing and hence the sum total
of matter in the universe remains the same (earliest to discover the law
of conservation of mass?). The universe consists of Jiva (life force or
souls) and Ajiva (lifeless objects). Similarly, the soul of each living
being is unique and uncreated and has existed since beginning-less time.
The Jains hold that a cause and its effect are always identical in nature
and hence a conscious and immaterial entity like God cannot create a
material entity like the universe. Any soul which destroys all its
passions and desires has no desire to interfere in the working of the
universe and hence it achieves Nirvana.
Moral rewards and sufferings are not the work of a divine being, but a
result of an innate order in the universe - a self-regulating mechanism
whereby the individual reaps the fruits of his own actions through the
workings of the karma.
Hence, Jainism has been labeled a nastika darsana (atheist philosophy) by
its rivals. It basically asserts that a religious and virtuous life is
possible without god. Nowadays, Jains accept the popular gods of Hinduism
like Ganesa and Lakshmi but they are placed lower than the jinas in the
hierarchy.
Today, Jainism has around 4.5 million adherents in India and comprise of
0.4% of India's population. They are mostly concentrated in West India –
in states of Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan. Jains
authored several classical books in different Indian languages for a
considerable period of time.
Buddhism

It originated as an offshoot of Hinduism in India, but eventually spread

beyond India. The personality and teachings of Buddha (the enlightened
one), the founder of this faith, was the main reason for its spread.
Siddhartha Gautama, who founded Buddhism, was born to the Shakya clan in
Lumbini, in Southern Nepal. The Shakyas claim Angirasa and Gautama
lineage, via descent from the royal lineage of Ayodhya.
In Buddhism, the sole aim of the spiritual practice is the complete
alleviation of distress (dukkha) in samsara, which helps you to attain
nirvana. Buddhism rests upon four Noble Truths: (i) suffering is
universal, (ii) it is caused by desire (iii) suffering can be prevented
(iv) eradication of desires can lead to removal of suffering. To conquer
desire, Buddha advocates the Middle Path, in which he offers a balanced,
harmonious way of life, steering between two extremes of self-indulgence
and total abstinence.
Buddha neither denies nor accepts God (agnostism). He also denies
endorsing any views on creation, dismissing them as worthless. Dogmatic
belief in a supreme personal creator is a hindrance to nirvana, according
to Buddha.
Despite the agnostic approach, the two main schools of Buddhism differ
significantly in their reverential attitudes. Theravada (Way of the
Elders or Hinayana), practiced in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand and SE Asia,
treats Buddha as a human being who attained nirvana through human efforts
teacher.
Mahayana, (the Greater Way), practiced in Tibet, China, and Japan,
considers him a dharmakaya (transcendent divinity), who was born for the
benefit of others. Some of them worship their chief Bodhi Sattva,
Avalokiteshvara (Lord who looks down with compassion). Bodhi Sattvas are
enlightened beings who are destined to become Buddhas but postpone that
final state to help humanity.
Theravada practice involves seven stages of purification (visuddhi); viz.
physical purification (sila visuddhi), mental purification by meditation
(citta visuddhi), purification of concepts (ditthi visuddhi),
purification by overcoming of doubts (kinkha vitarana visuddhi),
purification by acquiring knowledge and wisdom (maggarmagga-nanadasana
visuddhi), attaining knowledge and wisdom through practice (patipada-
nanadasana visuddhi), and purification by attaining insight wisdom
(nanadasana visuddhi).
Buddhists accept the existence of devas (Gods), but they, like humans,
suffer in samsara and are not necessarily wiser than the humans. Buddha
is often portrayed as a teacher of the gods, and superior to them. There
are also devas on the path of Buddhahood.
In Buddhism, Reality is considered as dynamic, interactive and non-
substantial, which implies rejection of Brahman, the immutable. Though
there is a primordial Buddha (Vajrayana, the original Buddha, the
embodiment of enlightenment), it is not the creator nor a person. It is a
symbol of the cyclical creation and dissolution of the cosmos.

Buddhism (like Hinduism) is based on the law of impermanence - everything

is subject to change. The other basic principle of Buddhism is the law of
causation - nothing occurs due to pure chance. Besides natural forces, it
is the karma which leads to the occurrence of all events. This is
supplemented by the notion of the indestructible soul and the cycle of
rebirth.
Buddhism peaked in India during the reign of Asoka, who patronized it
following his own conversion. He sent missionaries abroad to spread
Buddhism across Asia. It declined following the loss of royal patronage
later. The clever Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their
rule, but they also patronized Buddhism to serve as an alternative to
Brahmanical orthodoxy.
There were several Buddhist kings who worshipped Vishnu (or vice versa),
like the Palas (Bengal, 8th century CE), Mallas (near Gorakhpur – 700BCE-
300BCE), Somavanshis ( ruled parts of Odisha 9th -12th centuries CE) and
Satavahanas (Andhra, prior to 3rd century CE).
The decline of Buddhism in India, between 400 and 1000 CE is mainly due
to the Bhakthi cult which cut across castes, the efforts of the likes of
Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhwa and the later Muslim invasions.
Seven of the 8 great places of Buddhism are in India. Bodh Gaya, Saranath
and Kushinagar are associated with Buddha’s life. The Sanchi stupa was
erected by Asoka.
Around 8.5 million Buddhists live in India, about 0.7% of the total
population. It is popular in the Himalayan regions, including Sikkim,
Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Darjeeling, and Himachal Pradesh’s
Lahaul and Spiti districts. There are several famous monasteries in these
places. Besides, a large number of neo-Buddhists live in Maharashtra, who
converted from Hinduism, led by B.R.Ambedkar.
Sikhism
The Sikh religion emerged during the early 16th century in the state of
Punjab in North India. The founder of this faith was Guru Nanak. Born a
Hindu, but also inspired by the teachings of Islam, he began to preach
the message of unity of both religions. According to him, the basic
teachings of both faiths were essentially the same. Nanak attracted many
followers and came to be known as a Guru or a teacher. His disciples came
together to form a new religious tradition called Sikhism.
The Gurus who followed Nanak contributed to the consolidation and spread
of Sikhism. The teachings of Guru Nanak were incorporated in the 'Guru
Granth Sahib', the Holy Book of the Sikhs which became a symbol of God
for Sikhs. The fifth Guru, Guru Arjun built the Golden Temple at Amritsar
which became the holiest of Sikh shrines. The tenth Guru, Govind Singh
imparted military training to the Sikhs to help them defend themselves
against the Muslims.

On Baisakhi day of 1699 at Anandpur, Guru Govind Singh created a new

brotherhood of Sikhs called the Khalsa (Pure Ones). Five men selected for
their devotion to the Guru were called Panj Pyares and given nectar
(amrit) for initiation into the brotherhood of Khalsa. Later the Guru
himself received initiation from Panj Pyares as did others.
The members of the new brotherhood were instructed to wear the five
symbols (the five Ks)- Kesh (uncut hair), Kangha (a wooden comb), Kara
(an iron bracelet), Kachera (cotton underwear) and Kirpan (an iron
dagger).The men took the name Singh (Lion) and the women Kaur (Princess).
The Guru also terminated the succession of gurus and was thus the last of
the Sikh Gurus, like Mohammed being the last prophet, as per Muslims.
Sikhism propounds monotheism, i.e. worship of one God, who is genderless,
fearless, formless (nirankar), eternal (akal), immutable, ineffable,
self-sufficient, omnipotent (sarva vyapak) and invisible (alaksy) – ek
Onkar in short.
God in Sikhism is depicted in three distinct aspects: God as deity; God
in relation to creation; and God in relation to man. A full understanding
of God is beyond human beings, but that God is also not wholly
unknowable. Sikhism strongly rejects the beliefs of fasting (vrata),
superstitions, idol worship and circumcision.
The Guru Granth Sahib, starts with the figure "1", signifying the unity
of God. The devotee must develop a most intimate faith and relationship
with him to achieve salvation. The term for God in Sikhism is Waheguru.
God is considered omnipresent in all creation and visible everywhere to
the spiritually awakened. Nanak stresses that God must be seen by human
beings from "the inward eye" or "heart" and that meditation must take
place inwardly to achieve this enlightenment progressively; its rigorous
application is what enables communication between God and human beings.
Sikhism also opposes the caste system and believes that all men are
equal. However the ideas of karma and rebirth from Hinduism are accepted.
Today, many Sikh practices are common to Hindus. Intermarriages between
the two communities are also common.
The Sikhs constitute less than 2 percent of the Indian population. They
have become a distinct element in the configuration of the Indian
religious tradition and the Indian society. As of 2011, there were 20.8
million Sikhs in India. Punjab is the spiritual home of Sikhs, and is the
only state in India where Sikhs form a majority. There are also
significant populations of Sikhs in neighboring Chandigarh, Delhi and
Haryana, which were historically part of Punjab. The Golden Temple in
Amritsar (Harmandir Sahib) is the most sacred gurdwara of Sikhism
Zoroastrianism
This is a pre-Islamic religion of Persia (Iran). It has survived in
isolated areas, notably in India. The first batch of Zoroastrians entered
the Gujarati coast in the 10th century,

soon after the Muslims from Arabia made a conquest of Iran and persecuted
the minorities in that country. By the 17th century, most of them had
settled in Bombay. They are known as Parsis or Parsees (from the word
Persia).
Zaruthustra, who flourished before the 6th century BCE and more widely
known outside Iran as Zoroaster (Greek form of his name) is the founder
of the religion, which contains both monotheistic and dualistic features.
Zarathustra was supposed to have instructed Pythagoras in Babylon. It is
likely that Zoroastrianism influenced the development of Judaism and the
birth of Christianity.
The Jews identify Zoroaster with Ezekiel and Nimrod of the Old Testament
and later with Jesus himself. On the other hand, Zarathustra is
considered the founder of astrology and magic and hence becomes an arch-
heretic for many Jews and Christians.
Zoroastrianism’s salient feature is dualism, in which good and evil
fight a battle and good triumphs in the end. Fasting and celibacy are
barred except as part of a purification ritual. The humans must strive
for purity and avoid defilement by the forces of death, contact with dead
matter, etc. It has a ritual aspect that is all-pervading.
Every human being has to choose between good and evil, and to respect
God's creations. They have no distinctive dress and few houses of
worship. Five daily prayers, usually hymns uttered by Zarathustra and
standardized in their religious text Zenda Avesta, are recited in the
home or the temple, before a fire, which symbolizes truth, righteousness
and order.
As of the census of 2001, they number around 61,000 in India and
represent approximately 0.006% of the total population, with relatively
high concentrations in and around Mumbai.
Baha?i Faith
This was also founded in Iran in the mid-19th century by Mirza ?osayn ?
Ali Nuri, who is known as Baha Allah (Arabic: ‚Glory of God'). The Bahais
believe that Baha Allah is a manifestation of God. (God in his essence is
unknowable).
Bahais believe in the unity of all religions and the unity of humanity.
The great bulk of Baha?i teachings is concerned with social ethics; the
faith has no priests and no rituals. The Faith underwent a rapid
expansion beginning in the 1960s and by the early 21st century it had
more than 180 national spiritual assemblies (national governing bodies)
and several thousand local spiritual assemblies. After Islamic
fundamentalists came to power in Iran in 1979, the 300,000 Baha?is there
were persecuted by the government and they ran away to several countries.
Membership in the Baha?i community is open to all who profess faith in
Baha? Allah and accept his teachings. There are no initiation ceremonies.
Every Baha?i, however, is under the spiritual obligation to pray daily;
to abstain totally from drugs, liquor or any

substance that affects the mind, to practice monogamy , obtain the

consent of parents to marry, to attend the Nineteen Day Feast on the
first day of each month of the Baha?i calendar.
If capable, those between the ages of 15 and 70 are required to fast 19
days a year, going without food or drink from sunrise to sunset, like the
Muslims during Ramzan. The Nineteen Day Feast, originally instituted by
the Bab, brings together the Baha?is of a given locality for prayer and
the reading of scriptures.
In the early 21st century, there were 9 Baha?i houses of worship: in
Australia, Chile, Cambodia, Germany, India, Panama, Samoa, the USA and
Uganda. In the temples there is no preaching; services consist of
recitation of the scriptures of all religions.
The Baha?i year begins on the first day of spring, March 21, which is one
of several holy days in the Baha?i calendar. The year is divided into 19
months of 19 days each, with the addition of 4 intercalary days (5 in
leap years). Here also they significantly differ from the Muslims who
follow the lunar based calendar, which has only 356 days an year.
About 2.2 million people in India follow the Baha’I faith. thus forming
the largest community of Bahá'ís in the world. The Baha'i Faith
recognises Krishna and Buddha as manifestations of the God Almighty.
Conclusion
The four Indian religions share certain key concepts, which are
interpreted differently by different groups and individuals. Until the
19th century, adherents of those various religions did not tend to label
themselves as in opposition to each other, but "perceived themselves as
belonging to the same extended cultural family."
All the four traditions believe in karma, dharma, samsara, moksha and
Yoga. For a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is
righteousness, his conduct. For a Buddhist, dharma is usually taken to be
the Buddha's teachings. Common traits can also be observed in ritual. The
head-anointing ritual of abhisheka is of importance in all the
traditions, excluding Sikhism. In Buddhism it is practiced in Vajrayana.
Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of
vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals.
Many Hindu puranic stories have their Buddhist or Jain versions. For
example, the Jains consider Rama as one of 63 illustrious persons, known
as Salaka Purusha. Rama is a young prince who loses his throne and
becomes poor. While living in exile his wife Sita is kidnapped by Ravana.
Rama then rescues Sita with the help of Lakshmana and King Sugriva.
Ravana is killed by Lakshmana ( Rama, a Jain, doesn’t kill). Both Ravana
and Lakshmana go to hell. Rama becomes a Jain monk and attains Moksha.
Sita becomes a Jain nun and is born into heaven.

One can also see the competition between the religions in such stories.
For example, Vajrapa?i ("Vajra in hand"), the earliest-appearing
bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism and a protector and guide of Gautama
Buddha, kills Mahesvara, a form of Shiva, but depicted as evil. The story
appears in several Buddhist scriptures.
2.5 Karma and Rebirth – A common Belief for Indians
Derived from the Sanskrit word karman, Karma simply means action. Today,
people use the word karma in ways that are wholly inconsistent with its
traditional meaning. For example, karma is often misused to denote luck,
destiny or fate. It is also misused as a way to explain sudden hardships
or even something revolting (in Tamil).
Karma should not be confused with Fate. Fate means that a person’s life
is preplanned for him by some external power, and he has no control over
that. Karma, on the other hand, is something done already (including the
past births), which has consequences. As per texts, it can be at least be
partially corrected now or later.
Words like luck, destiny, natural justice and coincidence are often used
as synonyms of Karma. A few examples are listed below from real
life/legends, as a prelude, before we take up the main discussion. Decide
in each case whether it is an example of good (or bad) - luck, destiny,
Karma, fate, justice or coincidence. No correct answer exists.
? You give money to some charity when your own financial position is not
that sound. Within a few days, you get a huge amount from an unexpected
source. ? A true story from South Africa's Kruger Park; A poacher, who
was laying traps in a game reserve, was chased by some hippos and was
eaten up by the lions. ? A person, while young, makes fun of elderly
people with walking difficulties. Later in life, that person develops
arthritis and is confined to a wheelchair. ? A boy constantly bullies a
schoolmate. Later on, the victim becomes the bully’s boss in office. ?
In Aesop's fable "The Ant and the Dove," the dove saved the ant from
drowning. Later, the ant saves the dove from a hunter by stinging the
hunter. ? In the fairy tale "Beauty and the Beast," the prince does not
show kindness to a poor old woman. The woman is a witch in disguise and
turns the prince into a beast.
? In Ramayana, Rama, as a young boy, makes fun of a hunchback lady. She
schemes
later to drive Rama out into the forests.
? In Greek mythology, Jason was kind to an old woman, who was actually
Goddess
Hera in disguise. This led to his adventures with the Argonauts later.
? In Maha bharata, Draupati laughs at Duryodhana, for failing to notice a
tank and
falling into it. The latter takes revenge by trying to disrobe her in
public.

? Again, in Greek mythology, Tantalus insulted the Gods by feeding them

human
flesh. He is sent to the Fields of Punishment where anytime he tries to
eat or drink, the food and water move away from him.
? A politician swindles the people and the treasury and amasses money. He
dies of
Covid-19 and his children, caught in the USA, are not able to attend his
last rites.
Has Karma played a part in all these incidents? Decide for yourself.
Karma is the divine equivalent of Newton’s Third Law of Motion - ‚For
every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.' When we exhibit
negativity in thought, word or action, that negative energy comes back to
hit us, like the recoil of a gun.
Karma can be contrasted with another Sanskrit word kriya, which is simply
activity. Period. It doesn’t have any moral or ethical implications.
Karma, on the other hand, will always have its consequences later –
positive or negative.
Karma did not carry any ethical significance in the early days. In Vedas,
karma refers to a (ritual / sacrificial) action. In the Rig Veda, the
word occurs at least 40 times. Later, its meaning started assuming new
dimensions. For example, in Sathapatha Brahmana (1.7.1.5), yagna is
declared as the greatest of Karmas; it also states that one can become an
amara (immortal) with the karma of the agni chayana sacrifice (10.1.4.1).
The earliest clear discussion of the karma theory is found only in the
Upanishads. Yagnavalkya, for example, says in Brihadaranya Upanishad
(3.2.13) "Truly, one becomes good through good deeds and evil through
evil deeds". Thus he not only explains Karma’s causality (relationship
between cause and effect - not casualty- an accident victim) but also
brings in an element of ethics, while describing it.
In a later passage in the same Upanishad, the sage declares, that a man
of good acts will become good, a man of bad acts, bad; he becomes pure by
pure deeds, bad by bad deeds; A person consists of desires, and as is his
desire, so is his will; and as is his will, so is his deed; and whatever
deed he does, that he will reap. (Brihadaranya Upanishad, 4.4.5–6).
The concept gets further developed as we move on to the epics, especially
in the Mahabharata (xii.291.22). ‚As a man himself sows, so he himself
reaps; no man inherits the good or evil act of another man. The fruit is
of the same quality as the action.
In another part of the Mahabharata (Anushasana Parva, aka the Teaching
Book), the sixth chapter opens with Yudhishthira asking Bhishma: "Is the
course of a person's life already destined, or can human effort shape
one's life?"
Bhishma replies, ‚The future is both a function of current human effort
derived from free will and past human actions that set the
circumstances'. Thus, free will has a definite role in a person’s life.

Bhishma’s statement is categorical (xiii.6.10,19). Happiness comes due to

good actions; suffering due to evil actions. All things are obtained by
actions; nothing can be enjoyed by inaction. If one's action bears no
fruit, then everything would be of no avail.
Surprisingly, this issue seems to be still under debate. If is so
difficult to convince people against their pre-conceived notions!
Over and over again, the Mahabharata talks about karma and its basic
tenets. Not only actions but even intents have consequences; all positive
or negative experiences in life require effort and intent. Karma lingers
and doesn't disappear; if the effect doesn’t take place in this birth, it
will surely take place in one’s later births. No good act will go
unrewarded and no bad act will go unpunished in the scheme of things.
That is how Karma and rebirths are linked. Karma is the very reason
behind rebirths. Rebirths will happen as long as one has residual Karma,
which is still waiting for giving you the just rewards or punishments for
the work done earlier. In fact, there are no rewards or punishments at
all – only consequences (that can extend beyond this life).
Karma and rebirth are shared beliefs in all religions of Indian origin
(Hindus, Jains, Sikhs and Buddhists). It is also the central theme for
Chinese Taoists. All of them believe that future births will be dictated
by actions performed during the present birth—which itself has been due
to the accumulated Karma of the previous births.
It is not the Karma itself but the intension behind the karma that is
truly responsible for the consequence. Bhagavat Gita explains this in
detail in its first six chapters and calls it Karma Yoga. It poses the
question - ‘What is the right action?’ which is the collective question
of humanity. Krishna gives the answer - ‘No action is intrinsically right
or wrong; it is the intent that makes it right or wrong’.
So, each one should ask himself ‘why am I doing what I am doing?’ Is the
Karma motivated by one’s fears, anger, desire, lust, greed or personal
glorification? If ‘Yes’, then it is bad Karma. If ‘No’, then it is good
Karma. It is as simple as that. If someone commits a good Karma for the
wrong reasons — making a charitable donation to impress somebody or to
escape the tax laws - the action is still immoral and bad karma.
Since every action, good or bad, has consequences, how can we perform our
actions and still escape from its consequences? Is it possible at all?
Yes, it is possible and Gita’s solution is classical - Nishkamya karma.
karmanyevaadhikaaraste maa phaleshu kadaachana | maa karmaphalaheturbhuu
ma te sanga: astu akarmani||(2:47)
A person has the right only for action and not for the fruit of action.
The fruit of action should not be the motive for action. Let there not be
any attachment to inaction, either.
Karma cannot be avoided, but Nishkamya karma is possible. That gives you
freedom from the consequences of Karma. It is in fact, freedom from the
cycle of birth and death,

which is essentially moksha. Thus moksha can be achieved in a simple way,

through karma with detachment - the Karma Yoga way of Gita.
Karma is not meant to be a punishment. Education is a better choice of a
word than punishment. Even judicial punishments are supposed to be only
that. Is the punishment really necessary? Well, how else can one learn to
be a good person if he never learns the harmful effects of being a bad
person? Or can God or Karma come in person to preach and warn the person
to avoid bad acts in future?
Karma also serves as the Hinduism’s theological explanation of the
existence of evil. The Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Islam and
Christianity) place the reward and punishment for human actions in the
hands of a divine lawgiver. Their god is (1) absolutely good and
compassionate (omni-benevolent) (2) knows everything (omniscient) and is
all powerful (omnipotent).
They also have a concept called theodicy. It is the answer to the
question: "why at all does the omni-benevolent, omniscient, omnipotent
God allow evil and suffering to exist in the world?" For this, they have
to invent Satan, the anti-thesis of God, who tempts man to sin.
How is evil handled in Hinduism? The Mahabharata offers three different
perspectives for the existence of good and evil – 1) God 2) karma and 3)
chance events (yadrccha,
???????). Karma operates according to an autonomous causal law and has
nothing to do with God is the most popular theory among the three.
Probability and genetics are the modern equivalents of yadrccha. The
chance factor is also used in Christianity to answer questions like ‚Why
is this child born blind? Is it its sin or the sin of its parents?'
(Jesus’ answer says that it is the manifestation of God (surely a
probability?).
Beyond the three perspectives, Hinduism also has a theory of suffering,
based on an interplay of chance events (floods, earthquakes),
circumstances created by Karma, and the current desires/actions
(purusakara) of people, but it offers no conclusive answers.
Once we go by the karma theory and take the divine judge is out of the
equation, a new question arises: within a causal sequence, how can an act
produce an effect at a future time far removed from the act’s
performance? Well, a disease can crop up several years after the initial
cause. All Indian philosophies acknowledge some kind of karmic seed
(residue) resulting from the initial act. A seed can sprout several years
after separating from the tree and in a far off place.
Jainism, considered agnostic, for example, regards karma as a fine
particulate substance that settles on the soul (jivan) of a sinner,
making his soul impure and heavy and miring it in the material world of
rebirth. The Vedic texts talk of the concept of the apurva (meaning-
rare), an extraordinary principle. It is the potential created within the
soul for good or bad by a lifetime of Karma. Apurva is like the seed of a
tree and sprouts into new realities in the distant future and in a
different place.

Yoga and Buddhism, on the other hand, provide psychological explanations

in which karmic residue produces certain tendencies (samskaras) and
psychological traces (vasanas) in a person that determine his future
births and personality traits. There are several more explanations but
each explanation can also pop up a set of new questions.
Hinduism also treats God as the Phala datha – the giver of the fruits. He
doesn’t judge as Phala datha but adjudicates. He decides when to give you
the fruit of your past action, how to give it, how long to give it and
with what intensity to give it. That is a job.
Jaimini and the mimamsakas do not agree to the phala datha concept and
are firm that the scriptural authority supports the view that Karma
itself gives the fruits of Karma and not God. Brahma-Sutra (3.2.38)
strongly repudiates this. (?????, ???????) From Him (the Lord) are the
fruits of actions; for that is reasonable. The next sutra (3.2.39) gives
the justification for the previous sutra. Because the scripture so
teaches. (???????????)
For example, the Brihadaranya Upanishad (4.4.24) clearly says ‚That
great, birth-less Self is the eater of food and the giver of wealth (the
fruit of one’s work)'.
Who is right, Jaimini or Badarayana? Apparently, both the views seem to
exist in the Vedas. Perhaps a simple declaration that Karma is also
animate and as an aspect of Brahman, can run the show by itself could
have settled the matters. But then Karma becomes a second power center
and I am no Jaimini or Badarayana to adjudicate!!
The Hindu texts describe three types of Karmas.
i. Sanchita Karma (Sum Total Karma or Accumulated actions or the Arrows
in the Quiver): This is the total karma from our countless previous
births. These cannot be changed but one can only wait for the karma to
come into fruition. This is one’s total cosmic debt. Unless and until the
Sanchita Karma of a Soul is made zero, one has to take birth in new
physical bodies and try to spend it off.
ii. Prarabdha Karma (Fructifying Karma or Arrows in Flight): It is that
portion of Sanchita Karma that has been allotted for the current birth to
be spent and it is subtracted from the Sanchita Karma at birth. It is the
opening balance in one’s account and must be spent (experienced) by one
before death. It cannot be avoided. Why transfer only a portion of the
Sanchita karama and not the entire lot?
It depends on the quantum of Sanchita Karma remaining and the phala
datha’s judgment on your capacity to spend it in this birth. The genetic
disorders and diseases or even the other diseases we contract later are
considered to be due to Prarabdha Karma. Astrologers and Yogic healers
claim that they can find the cause and offer remedies.
iii.Agami Karma (Future Karma): It is the fresh Karma we are creating in
this birth. Agami Karma cannot be liquidated in this birth; one has to
wait for the next birth. Agami Karma and the unspent Prarabdha karma, if
any, get added back to the Sanchita karma at the time of death and the
cycle repeats.

Some also talk of a Kriyamana Karma (Instant, Current Karma; Arrow in

Hand). How is it different from Agami Karma? The distinction is not that
clear and seems to a matter of terminology. Some say that, as the name
implies, you create it instantly and it is worked off immediately.(e.g.:
You are caught for over speed. You pay the fine and get out).
Vedantic texts give a good example to explain the three Karmas. An Archer
has a bunch of arrows in his quiver. It is the Sanchita Karma. He had
just shot an arrow. (He cannot get it back). That is Prarabdha Karma; The
arrow he is about to shoot in this session are the Agami (or Kriyamana)
Karma. How many he shoots are based on his fancy. Will the quiver be
empty as he goes back home? Very unlikely.
The proponents of Kriyamana Karma classify it into Arabdha Karma -
‘begun’, and Anarabdha Karma - ‘not begun’. (e.g.: two persons commit a
theft together. One is caught and is sent to jail (Arabdha Karma). The
other guy gets away (Anarabdha Karma). He will surely get caught in this
birth or face the consequences in further births.
To understand rebirths, one has to understand what happens after death.
There cannot be an answer based on firsthand experience and one has to
depend only on the texts.
Chandogya Upanishad, during its discussions on pancagni vidya, mentions
about pitryana (the rebirth path of fathers) and devayana (the birth-
cycle breaking path of the gods). The Upanishad says that those who
perform rituals (karma), take the pitrayana route and start another life
on earth later; those who renounce the karma and pursue spiritual
knowledge, take the devayana route and avoid rebirths. Hence become a
recluse if you can. Or follow Nishkamya Karma to avoid rebirths.
Can one person’s karma be transferred to another person? While in theory
karma is specific to each individual, there is a widespread belief that
karma may be shared or transferred. Both Buddhism and Hinduism believe in
the doctrine of the transfer of merit, whereby one person can transfer
his good or bad karma to another.
The children, for example, are supposed to inherit the merits and
demerits of their parents. The king owns a part of the sins of his
subjects and a husband owns a part of the wife’s sins. (The wife, on the
other hand, inherits only the merits of her husband – not his sins).
Ancestral offerings and other rituals for the departed show that acts by
the living influence the well-being of the dead. Pious activities,
including pilgrimages, are often performed for the benefit of living or
deceased relatives. Sraddha rites have been labeled as karma merit
transfer ceremonies by a few scholars, a claim disputed by others. Some
schools in Hinduism, such as the Yoga and Advaita and Jainism clearly
hold that karma cannot be transferred.
Finally, there is the concept of jivanmukta or a liberated, living
individual. He does not accumulate karma any more. He had attained moksha
in this life itself.

The later Hindu texts also mention that the grace of God or an
enlightened guru can override Karma or completely relieve one’s Sanchita
karma and send him to mok?a straight away.
The discussions on karma can be endless but let us conclude by saying
that the greatest benefit of understanding karma is that it leads one to
compassion and insight. Faced with unfair, harmful, or hateful situations
in life, our responses should be based on compassion rather than on anger
or resentment. This is for our own benefits. This in no way means that
our response is weak or indecisive.
An understanding of the law of karma can help us to take the
responsibility for our destinies in our own hands. Ultimately, it leads
to greater fulfillment in our lives.