Insulators, Semiconductors and Metals by John C. Slater

lnsulators
Semiconductors
and Metals
Quantum Theory of Molecules and Solids
VOLUME 3
JOHN C. SLATER
GRADUATE RESEARCH PROFESSOR, UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
INSTITUTE PROFESSOR, MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

NEW YORK ST. LOUIS SAN FRANCISCO
TORONTO WNDON SYDNEY
PREFACE ix
As a result of two facts-the simple mathematics, which I have just

mentioned, and the fact that the work discussed in this volume is rooted
in older branches of classical physics-the present volume is probably
easier to read, and more usable as an elementary text in solid-state theory,
than the preceding volumes of this series, or than the volume which is to
follow. There is very little in the present volume which a student with
good training in classical physics, and an elementary knowledge of quan-
tum mechanics, ought not to be able to follow. While a knowledge of
energy-band theory, as developed in "Symmetry and Energy Bands in
Crystals," is presupposed, a very superficial knowledge of the latter
topics would be enough to make most parts of the present volume
intelligible. A teacher planning a course of study in solid-state theory
might well wish to present the material in the present volume first,
following it with the more detailed quantum-mechanical presentations
of the other volumes.
There is one topic which I have treated rather more completely than is
done by most writers on solid-state theory. This is x-ray scattering and
diffraction, and its interrelations with lattice vibrations. It is coming
to be appreciated more and more that x-ray methods, and the crystal-
lographic information to which they have bd, are an essential part of
solid-state physics. With the discussions of scattering and diffraction
in the present volume, and the work on crystal structure and symmetry in
Volume 2, the reader will get a fairly good idea of the main features of
x-ray crystallography from the present series, enough so that he can study
books dealing specifically with that field with a good background. In
addition to the use of the volume to convey some knowledge of x-ray
methods to solid-state physicists, it may give some information to x-ray
crystallographers which many of them lack. For instance, it is surprising
how few of the workers in electron diffraction are aware that their
problem of the motion of electrons in crystal lattices is the same one which
the solid-state physicists are solving, with a good deal more sophistica-
tion, in modern energy-band theory. Some time ago I wrote a review
article, "Interaction of Waves in Crystals" [Rev. Mod. Phys., 30 :197
(1958)], in which I tried to bring together some of the aspects of the motion
of electrons in crystals according to wave mechanics, the propagation of
x-rays in crystals, and the interaction of both with lattice vibrations,
which I felt should be of interest both to crystallographers and to solid-
state physicists. This article proved to be very popular. In a sense,
the whole present volume might be considere,d to be an expansion of that
review article.
The bibliography in the present volume is by far the most extensive
which will be found in any of the volumes of this series. The reason is
that here we meet problems on which a great deal of experimental work
viii PREFACE
ics, electromagnetic theory, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics,

all on a microscopic or atomic scale, before he is capable of comprehending
all the facets of a complete treatment of a solid. My main object in the
present volume has been to present some of this background; a subsidiary
object is to bring the experimental side of energy-band studies sufficiently
up to date so as to illustrate the very wide variety of phenomena which
are tied together and explained by our modern knowledge of the electronic
study of solids.
This leads, in the present volume, to a rather different emphasis from
that of the other volumes of the series. We are not presenting here many
new aspects of quantum theory; the reader, in fact, will realize that there
is rather small use of quantum theory in any form. We are dealing with
lattice vibrations, with electromagnetic waves, with x-ray scattering,
with electrostatic binding energies of ionic crystals, and a host of other
problems, most of which were worked out first in the days before wave
mechanics, when the first simple notions of quantum theory were being
developed. It is natura}, then, that in this volume more than in the
others of the series, we look backward, and adopt a historical point of
view in most of our discussion. Our discussion of almost every topic
starts in the early 1900s, but carries on to the present. For some time,
these earlier branches of the theory of solids were very much neglected by
research workers and teachers. Now, with the reviving interest in
lattice vibrations, optical properties of solids, and so on, they are coming
into their own again, but altogether too many young workers in the field
of solids are still growing up with a very limited knowledge of the large
amount of progress which was made in our understanding of solids before
the invention of wave mechanics in 1926. I have tried to supply some of
this background in this volume.
The mathematical methods which I have used in the various discussions
have been as simple as possible. Too many teachers of solid-state
physics in these days had their t.raining originally in field theory, and tend
to express everything, even the simplest concepts, in mathematical
larıguage of great complexity. There are some problems in solid-state
theory that seem to demand this more complex language, and we shall
have to face these questiorıs in the forthcoming Volume 4. But in the
interest of physical intuition and general comprehensibility, I feel it
highly desirable to go just as far as possible with simple mathematical
tools. The physicists of the earlier years of the century, the ones who
laid the main foundations for our present theory of solids, mostly felt as
I do, proceeding with as mııch economy of mathematical machinery as
possilıle. I feel that this had a great deal to do with the phenomenal
progress which the theory was able to make so promptly after the develop
men t of wave mechanics. It is for this reason that I have used through
out the simplest methods which seemed available.
X PREFACE
has been expended, and in which most of the experimental papers have
at the same time a theoretical implication, so that they must be included
in any adequate bibliography. It is so long that I have adopted various
devices to enhance its usefulness. One of these is to separate it into two
parts, on a chronological basis, papers before 1946, and papers since 1946.
The latter bibliography is very much longer than the former, but most of
the fundamental papers are found in the earlier period. They stand out
better when they are not diluted with the enormously large literature of
the postwar period. Another device is to include numerous lists, through-
out the text, of authors and dates of papers dealing with specific topics,
which can serve as indexes to the main bibliography, where the detailed
references can be looked up. Even with the very great length of the
bibliography, it is still far from complete. I can only plead in extenu-
ation that it is as complete as I could make it, consistent with getting the
book finished, and that furthermore it fills up as large a fraction of the
volume as I think anyone would wish. As in previous volumes of the
series, I believe that the usefulness of the bibliography is greatly enhanced
by including the titles of references, as well as the journal and page.
As in the preceding volumes of this series, I wish to acknowledge my
indebtedness to my colleagues in the Solid-State and Molecular Theory
Group at M.I.T., as well as to my new coUeagues in the Quantum Theory
Project of the University of Florida, for help in connection with the work
reported here. Also I wish again to thank the National Science Founda-
tion for support both at M.I. T. and in Gainesville, and the Office of
Naval Research for support at M.I.T., support which has made the
research groups possible, and which has contributed greatly to the
progress of the field which I am describing in these volumes.
JOHN C. SLATER
CONTENTS
PREFACE vii
Chapter 1. The Free-electron Theory of Electrical

Conductivity 1
1-1. The Drude-Lorentz Theory of Metals 1

1-2. The Free Electrons 4
1-3. Shortcomings of the Drude-Lorentz Theory 6
1-4. Application of Fermi-Dirac Statistics to Metallic Electrons 8
1-5. Electron Scattering and Eledrieal Resistance 12
1-6. The Fermi Statistics and Metallic Conductivity 18
Chapter 2. Electrical Conductivity in Metals and

Semiconductors 21
2-1. An Electron in a Periodic Potential and an External Field 21

2-2. The Acceleration of a Wave Packet in an Electric Field 24
2-3. Conductivity of Metals and Semimetals 30
2-4. The Hall Effect 36
2-5. The Behavior of Semiconductors 41
Chapter 3. Cyclotron Resonance and Related Phenomena 49
3-1. The Qualitative Nature of Cyclotron Resonance 49

3-2. Landau's Treatment of Free Electrons in a Magnetic Field 53
3-3. Free Electrons in a Magnetic Field in Cylindrical Coordinates 56
3-4. The Relation of Onsager's Theorem to the Quantum Condition 60
3-5. Onsa.gt>r's ThPorem for the P,,riodic Potential 62
3-6. The Cyclotron Frequency for Ellipsoidal Energy Surfaces 65
3-7. Cyclotron Resonance Frequency for the General Periodic Potential 69
3-8. Limitations and Extensions of the Method of Cyclotron Resonance 70
xi
xii CONTENTS
3-9. The de Haas-van Alphen Effect and Related Experiments 75

3-10. The Fermi Surface for Copper 78
3-11. Bibliography on Electronic Prope'tfles of Specific Materials 85
Chapter 4. The Drude-Lorentz and Ewald Theories of

Insulating Crystals 95
4-1. The Optical-dispersion Theory of Drude and Lorentz 95
4-2. The Lorentz-Lorenz Correction 99
4-3. Ewald's Treatment of Polarization in a Dielectric Crystal 102
4-4. Calculations of Dispersion in Insulating Crystals 109
Chapter 5. The Drude-Lorentz Theory of the Optical

Properties of Metals 113
5-1. Optical Properties of a Free-electron Metal 113

5-2. Plasma Oscillations 119
5-3. Later Developments in Plasma Oscillations 121
5-4. Bound Electrons in Metals 125
5-5. Bibliography on Optical Properties of Crystals 129
Chapter 6. The Theory of X-ray Diffraction 131
6-1. The Elementary Scattering Theory 131

6-2 . .The Atomic Scattering Factor and the Structure Factor 135
6-3. The Dynamical Theory of x.:ray Diffraction 138
6-4. Laue's Treatment of the Dynamical Theory 142
6-5. X-ray Diffraction by a Sinusoidally Varying Index of Refraction 145
6-6. X-ray Scattering by Actual Crystals 150
Chapter 7. Effect of Thermal Vibrations of Crystals on X-ray

~b~ . 1~
7-1. The Debye and Born.,-von Karman Theories of Crystal Vibrations 159
7-2. The Thermal Vibrations of a Crystal 163
7-3. The Debye-Waller Factor in X-ray Scattering 166
7-4. The Temperature-diffuse, or Brillouin, Scattering of X-rays 172
7-5. The Bragg Conditions for Brillouin Scattering 17 4
7-6. Scattering of Electrons and Neutrons by Thermal Oscillations 179
CONTENTS xiii
Chapter 8. Lattice Vibrations of Metals and Insulators 181
8-1. Experimental Determination of Vibration Spectra 181

8-2. Results of Experimental Determinations of Lattice Spectra 184
8-3. The Interaction of Acoustic and Electromagnetic Waves in Crystals 187
8-4. Lattice and Electronic Polarization 193
8-5. The Nature of Ferroelectricity 198
8-6. Bibliography on Lattice Vibrations 203
Chapter 9. The Lattice Energy of Ionic Crystals 206

9-1. The Total Energy of Crystals 206
9-2. The Theory of Born, Lande, and Madelung 209
9-3. Electrostatic Energy and the Madelung Problem 211
9-4. Ewald's Method for Madelung's Problem 215
9-5. Lattice Theory and Crystal Vibrations 220
9-6. Quantum-mechanical Calculations for Ionic Crystals 226
Chapter 10. The Thomas-Fermi and Wigner-Seitz Methods,

and the Cohesive Energy of Metals 233
10-1. The Thomas-Fermi Method and Its Application to Solids 233

10-2. The Exchange Correction in the Thomas-Fermi Method 238
10-3. Wigner and Seitz's Treatment of Exchange and Correlation 244
10-4. Lowdin's Treatment of Cohesion in Alkalies, and Alternant Molec-
ular Orbitals 248
10-5. The Alternant Molecular-orbital Method and Antiferromagnetism 252
Chapter 11. The Crystal as a Many-body Problem 256

11-1. One-particle versus Many-particle Approach 256
11-2. One-electron Energies and Electronic Excitation 259
11-3.. One-electron Energies in the Hartree-Fock Problem 262
11-4. Potential Function for One-electron Schrodinger Problem 265
11-5. Multiplet Structure in Solids 271
11-6. Various Forms of Many-electron Theory 27 5
11-7. Bibliography on Many-electron Theory 278
Appendix 1. The Motion of Wave Packets in a Periodic

Potential 281
Al-1. The Average Velocity of a Wave Packet 281

Al-2. Acceleration of a Wave Packet in an External Applied Field 283
xiv CONTENTS
Appendix 2. Wave Functions of Impurity Atoms 292
A2-1. Introduction 292

A2-2. Statistical Treatment of Perturbed Periodic Lattices 296
A2-3. Difference-equation Method for Impurity Wave Functions 300
Appendix 3. Free Electrons in a Magnetic Field in Cylindrical

Coordinates 308
Appendix 4. Ewald's Method for Crystalline Fields,

Face-centered Cubic Lattice 310
Appendix 5. Polarization and Van der Waals Attraction 318
AS-1. Introduction 318

AS-2. The Perturbation Method for Polarizability 321
AS-3. Exact Value of Polarizability for Hydrogen 327
AS--4. Perturbation Method for Van der Waals Attraction in Hydrogen 331
AS-5. Variation Methods for Van der Waals Attraction in Hydrogen 334
AS-6. Van der Waals Attraction in Helium 338
AS-7. General Relations between Polarizability and Van der Waals
Attraction 343
Appendix 6. The Virial Theorem for Solids 349
Bibliography 351
Book List 351

1. Papers through 1946 356
2. Papers since 1946 384
INDEX 543
Insulators
Semiconductors
and Metals
Quantum Theory of Molecules and Solids
VOLUME 3
1
The Free-electron Theory of Electrical
Conductivity
1-1. The Drude-Lorentz Theory of Metals. One of the themes of the

present volume will be to show the great increase of understanding
of the properties of solids which has resulted from the develop-
ments of wave mechanics, particularly from the energy-band theory,
which we have taken up in Volume 2. 1 Among the most obvious experi-
mental facts about solids is their general classification into insulators and
metals, with the intermediate case of semiconductors. This is a classi-
fication based primarily on electrical conductivity, but it carries with it
implications about optical properties as well: insulators tend to be trans-
parent, metals to be opaque, in the visible part of the spectrum, while
semiconductors tend to be opaque in the visible, but become transparent
in the infrared. Before the development of the energy-band theory,
immediately following the invention of wave mechanics in 1926, we had
no real understanding as to why this distinction should occur. True,
there were indications that metallic properties depended on the existence
of free electrons, and the easily removable electrons of isolated metallic
atoms suggested their freedom in a crystal. Conversely, insulators
tended to be made of ions with inert-gas structure, which would not
easily lose electrons to make them into conductors. But such vague and
qualitative ideas were as far as one could go.
Within very few years after 1926, these puzzles were completely cleared
up, and we had a rather clear-cut idea of the distinctions between these
types of substances. As we have already pointed out in the two earlier
volumes of this series, the insulators are those substances which have
lower, filled energy bands, wide gaps above them, and empty energy
1 "Volume 2" refers to J. C. Slater, "Quantum Theory of Molecules and Solids,"
vol. 2, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1965, entitled "Symmetry and
Energy Bands in Solids." Similarly, "Volume l" refers to the first volume of the
same series, published in 1963, entitled "Electronic Structure of Molecules."
I
2 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chap. 1
bands still higher. Metals, on the contrary, have partly filled bands,
filled up to a Fermi energy, with empty levels immediately above. Semi-
conductors have gaps like insulators, but very much narrower, so that
in general an infrared photon of energy hv is able to raise an electron
from the lower filled band, the valence band, to the next higher empty
band, the conduction band.
The theory was able to go far beyond this point, however, and this
development occurred very rapidly. This was only because by 1926,
when wave mechanics was invented, solid-state theory was already a
very well-developed subject. Theories of many of the properties of
crystals had been worked out, substantially to the point which they have
now reached. The result was that the wave mechanics, far from having
to provide a complete explanation of solids, formed instead a sort of
finishing touch, allowing the existing theories to be combined into a
consistent whole which since then has developed into a subject of great
variety and rapid expansion. It is quite impossible to understand
modern solid-state theory without a thorough knowledge of these older
aspects of the theory which developed before 1926. Consequently in
this volume we shall put considerable stress on the main features of the
earlier solid-state theory which have carried over into our present
thinking.
This treatment should serve to convince the reader that the prevalent
idea that solid-state physics is a development of the last very few years
is quite wrong. It is true that the number of papers published in the
field since the war years 1939 to 1946 is enormously greater than the
number published before, and that many of the most beautiful experi-
mental methods have been worked out since the war. These facts are
vividly illustrated by the Bibliography at the end of this volume, which
is divided into two parts, the first listing papers through 1946, the second
the later papers. The second bibliography is much longer than the first.
But our theoretical understanding of the solid state was remarkably
complete by 1939; we have just stated that many branches of the field
had been studied very successfully by 1926. And even by 1900 great
progress had been made in the understanding of solids.
The nineteenth century was a period of study of the bulk properties
of matter, but also of a fairly complete development of the kinetic theory
of gases, of understanding of the general nature of molecules, and of the
beginning of our knowledge of electrons, ions, and the electronic prop-
erties of matter. A good deal of solid-state theory was worked out before
1900, as well as a great deal of experimental study of solids. For instance,
the study of the symmetry of crystals, the space groups, and so on, which
formed an important feature of Volume 2 of this work, was developed
before 1900. Such topics as the elasticity of crystals, the optical prop-
Sec. 1- 1] THE FREE-ELECTRON THEORY OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 3
erties such as double refraction, thermal and electrical properties, piezo-

electricity, many other subjects, had been studied in detail, and formu-
lated in some cases more completely than during the time since then.
There is a monumental book, "Lehrbuch der Kristallphysik," written
by W. Voigt 1 in 1910, which collected treatments of many of these prob-
lems, most of the work reported having been done by 1900 or shortly
after. Some of the topics taken up in that book will illustrate the sophis-
ticated state which solid-state physics had reached at that period. There
are chapters on the symmetry properties of crystals; general discussions
of vector and tensor properties of substances; discussions of the mechanics,
thermodynamics, electrical and magnetic properties of solids. These are
followed by treatments of specific properties: pyroelectricity, pyromag-
netism, thermal expansion, electrical and thermal conductivity, dielectric
behavior, para- and diamagnetism, ferromagnetism, thermoelectricity,
elasticity, internal friction, piezoelectricity, and piezomagnetism. These
are not merely qualitative treatments; they are careful mathematical
discussions of the topics, in many cases more thorough and satisfactory
than are given in most modern texts.
As we have mentioned, not only were these bulk properties of solids
well understood both theoretically and experimentally in 1900, but the
electronic structure of matter as well was beginning to be understood.
The work of J. J. Thomson and others had led to a fair understanding
of the properties of electrons, though the knowledge of the nuclear atom
was still more than ten years in the future. Ions in solution were well
known, and the properties of electrolytic conduction. Electrical con-
ductivity of gases was being actively studied. It was only natural to
try to explain the phenomena of electrical and thermal conductivity of
metals, of thermoelectric effects, the Hall effect, and related properties,
in terms of the motion of electrons. The optical properties of solids, too,
had been investigated for a long time experimentally. Anomalous dis-
persion was well understood, and Sellmeier, some time before, had sug-
gested that the index of refraction and absorption coefficients of solids
could be understood if they contained oscillating particles, set in motion
by the light wave, and in turn influencing the field so as to lead to the
observed optical properties.
The time was ripe for a full-fledged electron theory of solids, and
Drude,2 in 1900, was the first to produce a really satisfactory electron
1 W. Voigt, "Lehrbuch der Kristallphysik," B. G. Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft
mbH, Stuttgart, Leipzig, and Berlin, 19JU.

2 P. Drude, Ann. Physik, 1 :566 (1900), 3 :369 (1900); further references in Bibliog-
raphy; "Lehrbuch der Optik," S. Hirzel Verlag KG, Stuttgart, 1900, translated by
C.R. Mann and R. A. Millikan as "The Theory of Optics," 1st ed., Longmans, Green
& Co., Inc., New York, 1902, 2d ed., 1929.
4 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS (Chap, 1
theory of such phenomena. In his first papers he discussed electrical

and thermal conductivity, thermoelectric properties, and some related
topics. Later he went into the optical properties. Lorentz 1 extended
this work and included the explanation of some other phenomena, such
as the newly discovered Zeeman effect. These advances of Drude and
Lorentz were so fundamental for later work, and for what we shall be
taking up in the next few chapters, that we shall describe their treat-
ment of electrical conductivity in the present chapter, and their discus-
sions of optical properties later, in Chaps. 4 and 5. In many respects
they remain valid, in spite of our greatly increased understanding of the
nature of solids, and in spite of our knowledge of the wave-mechanical
basis of the theory.
1-2. The Free Electrons. In treating the electrical conductivity of
metals, Drude and Lorentz assumed that a metal contained N electrons
per unit volume, each of charge -e (we shall use e as the absolute mag-
nitude of the electronic charge, a positive number). In traveling through
matter, an electron must collide with the atoms it traverses, and they
showed that this will be equivalent to a resistive force, proportional to
the velocity. Thus they postulated that an electron, of mass m, subject
to an electric field E, will be governed by an equation of motion
d 2x dx
m dt 2 = -eE - mg dt (1-I)
where the term -mg dx/dt is the resistance proportional to the velocity.
The solution of Eq. (1-1) consistent with the initial condition that the
velocity starts from zero at t = 0 is
dx eE 1
- = v = - - [1 - exp (-t/to)] to= - (1-2)
dt mg g
This indicates that after a time of the order of magnitude of to, the velocity
v of the electron will have settled down to a value -eE/mg, proportional
to the electric field, obtained from Eq. (1-1) by setting the acceleration
equal to zero. We shall see shortly that this time to is very small, so
that for most practical purposes we can assume that the steady state of
constant velocity is reached instantly.
Now if we have N electrons per unit volume, the current density J
will be given by -Nev. Hence we shall have
Ne 2 , Ne 2
J = - E = <TE where <T = - (1-3)
mg mg
1 H. A. Lorentz, Proc. Amsterdam Acad., 438:588, 684 (1904-1905). "The Theory
of Electrons," 1st ed., B. G. Teubncr Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Stuttgart, Leipzig,
and Berlin, 1909, 3d ed., Stechert-Hafner, Inc., New York, 1923, gives an excellent
account of the work, some actually dating back to a good many years earlier.
Sec. 1-2] THE FREE-ELECTRON THEORY OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 5
This is an expression of Ohm's law, u being the electrical conductivity,

or reciprocal of the specific resistance. We see that we can combine this
with Eq. (1-2) to give an alternative formula for the conductivity,
Ne 2
u = -to (1-4)
m
From Eq. (1-4) we can estimate to, if we use the experimentally observed
value of u, assume that N is of the order of magnitude of one electron
per atom, and use for m the electronic mass. When we carry out this
calculation for a metal, we find an extremely small value of to, verifying
our earlier statement that the state of constant velocity is reached almost
immediately after application of the accelerating force.
The value of to can be described in another way, if we ask for the solu-
tion of Eq. (1-1) for the case where the applied field is zero, but where
at t = 0 the velocity has a value Vo different from zero. Then we find
v = Vo exp (-t/to) (1-5)
showing that to is the time required for an initial drift velocity of the
electrons to fall to 1/ e of its value.
It is often convenient to write our expressions in a different form. We
define the mobility of a charged particle, under the action of an electric
field, as the velocity which it acquires, per unit electric field. The
terminal velocity, given by Eq. (1-2), has a magnitude of cE/111.,g, so that
the mobilityµ equals e/mg. In terms of the mobility, Eq. (1-3) can be
rewritten
u = Neµ (1-6)
Experimental values of the mobility, assuming N to be of the order of

magnitude of one electron per atom, or determining it as will be described
in the next chapter from the Hall effect, prove to be of the order of mag-
nitude of hundreds of centimeters per second, per volt per centimeter of
field, for good conductors.
We can easily go somewhat further than these simple formulas indicate,
in looking for the mechanism behind the resistive force. As Lorentz
assumed, we may consider that it is a result of collisions between the
electron and the atoms it moves through. The simplest statistical
approximation to this situation would then be to consider that the elec-
tron was accelerated during a mean free time t 1 , and then collided, losing
all evidence of its acceleration at the collision. The velocity of the elec-
tron at time t after a collision, using Eq. (1-1), without the resistive term,
is v = -(eE/m)t, so that the average velocity during the mean free time
will be Vav = -(eE/m)(ti/2), the factor½ coming from averaging from
the beginning of the mean free time, when the velocity is zero, to the
time of collision. This value of velocity leads at once to
Ne 2 ti
(T = m2 (1-7)
From this we see that t 1 is closely associated with lo, the time introduced
before. In other words, the time taken to reach a constant velocity is
essentially the same as the mean free time between collisions. Our simple
calculation of Eq. (1-7) is, of course, too crude to give numerically correct
results. To improve it, .we should take account of the three-dimensional
nature of the motion, and of the fact that free times will not all have the
same length, but will be statistically distributed. These refinements
were of the type which Drude and Lorentz, working in the spirit of the
kinetic theory of gases, were in position to make, and they have the
effect of changing the numerical coefficient in Eq. (1-7), but not of chang-
ing the fundamental idea of the calculation.
Ohm's law, then, followed from a very simple application of the electron
theory. Other results as well followed. It is known, as discovered
experimentally by Wiedemann and Franz, that for metals the thermal
conductivity is proportional to the electrical conductivity, good electrical
conductors being good thermal conductors. This could naturally be
explained if the heat were conducted in metals by the motion of the free
electrons, just as heat is conducted in a gas by the motion of the molecules.
A good electrical conductor, as we see from Eq. (1-4) or (1-7), is one
with many free electrons per unit volume, and with a long mean free
time between collisions. Thermal conduction arises, if we describe it
in very simplified terms, by the motion of particles from the hot part of a
substance to the cold part. They carry heat to the cold part, raising
the temperature there. Obviously the more electrons there are, for
electronic conductivity, or the further they travel before they are stopped,
the more effective they will be in thermal conductivity. Drude and
Lorentz computed the thermal conductivity, using arguments of this
sort, familiar from the kinetic theory of gas, and found not only the propor-
tionality between electrical and thermal conductivity which was known
to hold experimentally, but also a numerical value for the ratio, the
so-called Wiedemann-Franz ratio, in terms of universal constants, which
agreed well with the measured values. Clearly the theory was along
the right lines.
1-3. Shortcomings of the Drude-Lorentz Theory. We have now
sketched the main features of the Drude-Lorentz theory of conductivity
of metals. They worked out theories as well for the optical behavior
of solids, and for the various thermoelectric properties, as well as the
Hall effect, and related effects. These theories seemed in general very
---------- --- - - -
Sec. 1-3) THE FREE-ELECTRON THEORY OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 7
satisfactory, but they had several rather serious shortcomings, which

were not removed until quantum mechanics was applied to the problem,
in the middle 1920s. In the first place, we have seen that the time to
is of the order of magnitude of the time between collisions of an electron
with the atoms. We can estimate the value of this time, as we have
mentioned, and since the velocity and acceleration of the electrons are
specified by our equations, we can find how far the electron would move
between collisions, or its mean free path. When this calculation is made,
the mean free paths come out much too long to seem reasonable. We
know that experimentally the conductivity increases greatly .at low tem-
peratures, and this leads to a mean free path which likewise increases
greatly. We can perfectly well find mean free paths which are hundreds
of Angstroms long. Yet it seems paradoxical that an electron, traveling
through a metal, could go much further than a single interatomic spacing
before having a collision, a matter of a very few Angstroms. Further-
more, the proportionality of resistivity of a metal to the absolute tem-
perature is a well-known and approximately accurate experimental law,
and no convincing explanation of the required variation of mean free
path with temperature was ever given in terms of the Drude-Lorentz
theory, though a number of partially satisfactory explanations were
attempted.
Another, and perhaps even more serious, difficulty with the Drude-
Lorentz theory came from the study of specific heats. If the conduction
electrons acted like free particles, classical statistical mechanics shows
that each one should have the average energy %kT, where k is Boltz-
mann's constant, T the absolute temperature; this is the theorem of
equipartition of energy, one of the most firmly based results of classical
statistical mechanics. Then if there are N electrons per unit volume,
the increase in thermal energy per unit temperature change per unit
volume, or the heat capacity per· unit volume, should be %Nk. But
the metals experimentally show no such heat capacity of the free elec-
trons. In Chap. 7 we shall see that Einstein, Debye, Born, and von
Karman produced theories of the heat capacity of crystals arising from
the lattice vibrations. These led to very satisfactory agreement with
experiment, both for dielectrics, in which of course there would be no
free electrons to contribute to the specific heat, and also for metals. The
good agreement with the theory on the assumption that the specific heat
should arise only from lattice vibrations shows that experimentally there
is no additional heat capacity %Nk arising from the conduction electrons;
this would be such a great contribution tha.t it could 110t possibly be
missed experimentalJy. This was another serious difficulty with the
Drude-Lorentz theory, and like the earlier difficulties, it was removed
only by the application of the quantum theory to the problem.
1-4. Application of Fermi-Dirac Statistics to Metallic Electrons. The

specific heat difficulty which we have been discussing remained as a
fundamental problem, until the development of the Fermi-Dirac statis-
tics, in 1926. 1 Fermi and Dirac, who independently suggested this form
of statistics, pointed out that the exclusion principle made a profound
difference in the specific heat of a gas. We shall not go here into the
details of the Fermi-Dirac statistics, since it is treated in texts on statis-
tical mechanics and thermodynamics. 2 We shall, however, state the
main points which concern us in the application of the Fermi-Dirac
statistics to the electron gas.
The Fermi-Dirac statistics treats a collection of particles, such as elec-
trons, which are subject to the exclusion principle, but which otherwise
move independently of each other. They can be moving in an external
force field, though this will not be the case for free electrons. It considers
the distribution of the electrons between the various possible energy
levels. We know that according to the exclusion principle, each energy
level can be occupied by no more than one electron of each spin. At the
absolute zero of temperature, we shall have the lowest energy levels
occupied, up to a Fermi level, such that the occupied states are just
enough to account for the number of electrons in the system.
What the Fermi-Dirac statistics provides us with is an extension of
this result to higher temperatures. It states that, at temperature T,
the average number of electrons of one spin which will be found in a
stationary state of energy E will be given by
F(E) - l (1-8)
- exp (E - EF)/kT +l
where EF, the Fermi energy, is to be determined. This Fermi func-
tion, F(E), is shown in Fig. 1-1. When E is much less than EF, F(E)
approaches 1, while when E is much greater than EF, F(E) approaches
zero. As we see from the figure, the change from one situation to the
other occurs more rapidly, the lower the temperature. At the absolute
zero the change is infinitely rapid, all energies less than E F having two
electrons per energy level, one for each spin, while all energy levels above
EF are empty. Thus we see that EF corresponds to the Fermi level as
previously defined; at the absolute zero, it is at the top of the occupied
energy levels.
1 E. Fermi, Z. Physik, 36 :902 (1926). P. A. M. Dirac, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A112 :661 (1926). Further references in J. C. Slater, "Quantum Theory of Atomic
Structure," vol. 2, .McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1960.
2 See for instance J. C. Slater, "Introduction to Chemical Physics," McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1939, particularly chaps. V, VI, and XXIX, for an
elementary discussion.
Sec. 1-4) THE FREE-ELECTRON THEORY OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 9
At any temperature, EF is to be determined from the condition that

the sum of F(E) for all energy levels must come out to be the actual
total number of electrons in the system. Once we know the energies
of the various stationary states, we can use this condition to determine
E F• Let us carry out the calculation of E F for a free-electron gas. We
shall assume that the gas is enclosed in a rectangular container with
dimensions X, Y, Z along the three axes, and for convenience we shall
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -I O I 2 3 4 5 6
f-EF
FIG. 1-1. Fermi function F(E) of Eq. (I-8). (a) Absolute zero of temperature;
(b, c) higher temperatures.
use periodic boundary conditions. Hence the wave vectors k,,, ky, k.
describing the wave functions must satisfy the conditions
z
k, = 2,r n. (1-9)
where ·n,,, ny, n. are integers. The energy of a plane wave is

k 2-"2
E' = _n_ (1-10)
2m
where m is the mass of the electron. Surfaces giving constant energy

in the k space are then spheres, of volume %1rk 3 = %1r(2mE)% /h 3 • In
the k space there will be very closely spaced points giving allowed wave
vectors, according to Eq. (1-9). The spacing along the k,,, ky, k, direc-
tions will be 21r/X, 21r/Y, 21r/Z, respectively. Hence the volume of k
space associated with one allowed wave vector will be 81r 3 /XYZ = 81r 3/V,
where V = XYZ is the volume of the gas. Thus the number of energy
states whose energy is less than E will be the volume of the spherical
energy surface ink space, divided by 81r 3/V, the volume associated with
uue state. If N(E) is the numLer of states whose energy is less than E,
we then have
(1-11)
In Eq. (1-11) we have found the number of states of one spin whose
energy is less than E. Each of these states can accommodate two elec-
trons, one of each spin. Hence if N is the number of electrons in the
gas, we shall have the Fermi energy E F determined by the condition that
(1-12}
We see that it depends on N /V, the density of electrons, and is independ-

ent of the size of the sample.
We are often interested in the density of states, the number of states
between E and E + dE. We can get this by differentiating Eq. (1-11)
with respect to E. We have
~; = 21r(2m}*E¼; (1-13)
proportional to the square root of

the energy. The expression in Eq.
(1-13) gives the number of states of
E one spin; the number of both spins
Frn. 1-2. Number of occupied states
is twice the value given.
of free-electron gas as function of Now that we have found the num-
energy, at absolute zero (a), and at ber of states between E and E + dE,
two higher temperatures (b) and (c). we can find the number of electrons
which will lie in this energy range,
at any temperature. We merely have to multiply the expression of
Eq. (1-13) by the Fermi function F(E), and by the factor 2 to take
account of the two spins. The resulting function, for several tempera-
tures, is shown in Fig. 1-2. We can see that the effect of increasing the
temperature from the absolute zero is to shift a few electrons from
energies below EF to energies above Ep. We can easily estimate the
resulting change of energy, and consequently the contribution of the
free electrons to the heat capacity, according to the Fermi-Dirac stati~tics.
We can see from Eq. (1-8) that the range of energies over which the
Fermi function F(E) falls from nearly unity to ½, which is the value
which it has at the energy E F, is proportional to the temperature. Hence
the number of electrons which will be shifted from below to above the
Fermi energy in going from the absolute zero to temperature T will be
proportional to kT, and to the density of states dN /dE at the Fermi
level. Each of these electrons will have its energy increased by an
amount proportional to kT. Hence we shall find that the energy of
S~c. 1-4] THE FREE-ELECTRON THEORY OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 11
the electrons at temperature T, minus the energy at the absolute zero, is
Constant X (kT) 2 : ; /E=EF (1-14)
The heat capacity, then, which is the derivative of this quantity with
respect to temperature, will be proportional to k 2 T dN /dE. More
elaborate treatment1 shows that the correct value is
11"2 N
Heat capacity = 2 k 2 T E F (1-15)
which is of the required form of Eq. (1-14), since the density of states
dN / dE at the Fermi level for a free electron gas is proportional to N / E F-
The result of the Fermi-Dirac statistics, then, is an electronic specific
heat which at low temperatures is proportional to the absolute tempera-
ture, instead of being a constant as in the classical statistics. When we
compare Eq. (1-15) with the heat capacity of a classical gas, %Nk, we
see that the ratio of the Fermi-Dirac to the classical heat capacities at
low temperature is
C(Fermi-Dirac) '71" 2 kT
(1-16)
C(Maxwell-Boltzmann) = 3 EF
In other words, so long as kT is small compared with the Fermi energy

EF, a situation which holds at all ordinary temperatures, the Fermi-Dirac
statistics will predict an electronic heat capacity which is very small
compared with the value given by classical statistics. Thus we see how
the difficulty with the Lorentz-Drude free electron theory was removed
by use of Fermi statistics.
Though the electronic specific heat according to the Fermi-Dirac theory
is small, it is not entirely unobservable. At very low temperatures, the
lattice specific heat is proportional to T3, whereas we have just seen that
the electronic specific heat is proportional to T. Thus at the lowest
temperatures, though the electronic specific heat is small, the lattice
specific heat is even smaller, and careful measurement gives values of
the electronic specific heat. We can then take advantage of Eq. (1-14)
or (1-15). Particularly in the former equation, we see that the electronic
specific heat is going to be proportional to dN /dE, the density of states,
at the Fermi level. This proves to be the case even for electrons in a
periodic potential, as well as for free electrons. We have seen in Chap.
10, Volume 2, that this density of states becomes very large for the
transition elements, such as iron, r.obalt, and nickel. As we Rhould
expect from this fact, these elements show particularly large electronic
specific heats. There has been a good deal of work done relating these
1 See J.C. Slater, "Introduction to Chemical Physics," eq. (5-9), chap. V.
12 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chap. I
electronic specific heats to the density of states, and in general the

experimental results give a good verification of the calculated densities
of states. 1
The first serious application of Fermi-Dirac statistics to actual prob-
lems of the electronic structure of metals was made by Sommerfeld 2 and
his collaborators in 1928. They pointed out the facts which we have
been discussing in this section regarding the electronic specific heat, and
then devoted their main attention to problems of electronic conductivity,
thermionic emission, and other questions.
1-5. Electron Scattering and Electrical Resistance. In the preceding
section we have seen how the wave mechanics, through its application
to the Fermi-Dirac statistics, resolved one of the problems met in the
Drude-Lorentz theory, namely, the smallness of the electronic specific
heat. Now we shall take up another of the difficulties with the Drude-
Lorentz theory, the understanding of the mechanism of electrical resist-
ance. We recall that there were two distinct puzzles: why is the elec-
tronic mean free path as long as it is, and why does the resistance of a
metal increase proportionally to the temperature? The explanation
of these puzzles came in 1928, through work of Houston, Bloch, Frenkel
and Mirulobow, 3 using ideas regarding the scattering of light waves in
crystals which went back to work of De bye and Brillouin, 4 years before.
They were looking for a mechanism by which an electron, started through
a crystal with a certain velocity, will gradually lose that velocity, as in
our solution of Eq. (1-5) for the damping. By considering this process
of exponential damping of an initial velocity of the particle, we can look
separately at the two parts of the problem of conductivity, the accelera-
tion by the electric field and the damping.
The first thing we notice is that the solution for an electron traveling
through a periodic potential, which we have discussed in detail in Vol-
ume 2, has no place in it for any mechanism of damping, any more than
there is a mechanism for damping of an electron in free space. In spite
1 References in the Bibliography bearing on the electronic specific heat of metals at
low temperatures will be found under the following authors: J. C. Bowman (1958),
W. S. Corak (1955), G. Duyckaerts (1939), S. A. Friedberg (1952), H. Frohlich (1937),
K. P. Gupta (1962), G. L. Guthrie (1959), R W. Hill (1953), M. Horowitz (1953), H.
Jones (1957, 1964), F. Kaschluhn (1956), W. H. Keesom (1939-1940), K. Komatsu
(1951-1955), W. H. Lien (1964), W. Marshall (1960), G. L. Pickard (1948), J. A.
Rayne (1956-1958), L. M. Roberts (1957), J. C. Walling (1959), J. E. Zimmerman
(1961).
2 A. Sommerfeld, Z. Physik, 47 :1, 43 (1928). C. Eckart, Z. Physik, 47 :38 (1928).
W. V. Houston, Z. Physik, 47 :33 (1928); 48 :449 (1928); further papers in Bibliography.
3 W. V. Houst.on, loc. cit ..: Phys. Rei'., 34 :279 (1929). F. Bloch, Z. Physik, 52 :555
(1928). J. Frenkel and N. Mirulobow, Z. Physik, 49:885 (1928).
4 P. Debye, Ann. Physik, 43 :49 (1914). L. Brillouin, Compt. Rend., 158: 1331
(1914); Ann. Phys. (Paris), 17 :88 (1922).
of the fact that the electron goes through atom after atom, the periodicity
of the problem is such that we have our solutions of the problem in the
form of regular electron waves, with no damping at all. This possibility,
a result of wave mechanics, by which electrons can go through many
atomic distances without finding obstacles, removes the puzzle found in
the Drude-Lorentz theory, in which it was hard to see how an electron
could go even a single atomic distance without being stopped by a colli-
sion, and yet such a short mean free path would lead to much too small
a conductivity.
To get damping of an electron wave according to wave mechanics,
we must look for something besides propagation in a periodic potential;
and we shall soon see that almost any disturbance of the periodic lattice
will have the effect of damping the wave. The phenomenon which we
must look for is the scattering of the electron waves by lattice irregulari-
ties. Scattering is familiar from optics. We know that as a plane wave
of light enters a scattering medium, like a gas or liquid, wavelets will be
scattered by each scattering center, such as a molecule or a dust particle,
and these scattered wavelets will rob intensity from the incident wave.
The scattered waves involve propagation of the wave in all directions
from the scattering center. As light becomes more and more scattered,
with multiple scattering, by which light already scattered once is scat-
tered again, it will be traveling uniformly in all directions. We see some-
thing of this effect in the atmosphere: the blue color of the sky is a result
of scattered light (blue because the short waves scatter more than the
long ones), and it reaches us from all directions because it has been scat-
tered at various points in the atmosphere. On a clear day we still see
the sun, though not as strongly as if there had been no scattering; the
fraction of sunlight scattered on its way to us on a clear day is not very
large. On a hazy day, however, there is more scattering, we do not see
the sun at all, but we have a large amount of scattered light coming from
all directions. All this can occur without any true absorption: by
absorption we mean the real loss of the light, on account of a change of
wavelength or character, ending up as thermal motion, while with scat-
tering the light is still there, but traveling in a different direction.
In a similar way the electron wave can be scattered, with the result
that it is converted from a plane wave, having a definite momentum,
to waves traveling in all directions, and thus not corresponding to a net
momentum at all. This scattering obviously results in a loss of the net
current flowing in the material; the random motion in the scattered wave
can result in random currents, but not in any average current. Thus
it is the type of phenomenon which can be described in terms of a mean
free time for scattering, or in terms of a resisting force or a mobility:
an electron, traversing such a scattering medium, will gradually lose its
forward momentum, on account of the scattering, and this is equivalent

to a resisting force. We even have an analogy between the way in which
our electron wave can traverse a regular crystal, and a somewhat similar
situation in the case of light. A light wave passing through a regular
crystal is not scattered, even though the crystal contains a great many
atoms which individually produce scattered wavelets. A careful treat-
ment of the optical problem shows that the wavelets interfere destruc-
tively and produce no scattered wave, provided only that the atoms are
regularly arranged. The only effect proves to be that of refraction, a
change in the phase velocity of the wave as it passes through the medium.
This holds even when the wavelength gets comparable in dimensions with
the interatomic distance, as we find in the range of x-rays, except in the
single case where the wave satisfies the conditions for Bragg reflection;
that is the only case in which the scattered wavelets from the various
atoms interfere constructively and produce a scattered beam. The same
thing is true of electron waves. We shall discuss these scattering prob-
lems in more detail in Chaps. 6 and 7.
The reason why a gas or liquid scatters light, while a transparent
solid does not, is that there are fluctuations of density in the gas or liquid,
which we do not have in the solid, and which result in imperfect destruc-
tive interference between the scattered wavelets. The theory shows that
it is fluctuations of index of refraction which can produce scattering.
These fluctuations can be produced, in the first place, by impurities
distributed through the material. They can also be produced by fluctua-
tions of density arising from pressure differences. In particular, a plane
wave of sound traversing a liquid causes scattering of a particular sort,
sometimes known as the Debye-Sears effect. 1 There are periodic planes
of condensation and rarefaction as a result of the sound, and these lead
to fluctuations of the index of refraction, which depends on the density.
The variations of density encountered in the sound wave, unlike those
from random fluctuations, are regularly arranged, and the scattered
wavelets then can interfere in a regular fashion. The mathematical
problem of studying their interference is like that met in x-ray diffraction,
where we have scattering from the variations of density in the crystal
planes. It proves to be the case then that the Debye-Sears reflection
from the planes of condensation and rarefaction obeys the Bragg law,
though with a slight modification. The sound waves are moving; thus
the reflection is like reflection from a moving mirror, which results in a
Doppler effect of the reflected light, a slight change of frequency. One
characteristic of the Debye-Sears reflection is then a very slight change
in the frequency of the reflected light.
1 P. Debye and F. W. Sears, Proc. Natl. A cad. Sci. U.S., 18 :409 (1932). P. Debye,
Z. Physik, 33 :849 (1932); further papers in the Bibliography.
We have emphasized the Debye-Sears effect on account of its close

relationship to scattering of light, or of x-rays, by the thermal agitation
of the lattice. It is this latter scattering which was discussed by Brillouin
(Zoe. cit.) in the paper already referred to, and it is usually called Brillouin
scattering. As we shall show in Chap. 7, the thermal agitation can be
analyzed into a superposition of plane waves of an acoustical sort, which
can have all wavelengths, down to limiting waves whose lengths are of
the order of magnitude of interatomic distances. The scattering of light
by the thermal agitation of the molecules can then be analyzed into
scattering by the various plane waves, each behaving as in the Debye-
Sears effect. Even x-ray scattering by the thermal agitation can be
described in this way, since the shortest ultrasonic waves are short enough
to scatter x-rays, according to the Bragg law. One can, as a matter of
fact, give a complete theory of x-ray and optical scattering by the fluc-
tuations of density arising from thermal agitation by such a method, as
we shall show in Sec. 7-4. The net results are not very different, how-
ever, from what we get by considering the scattering by the individual
atoms, each in thermal agitation, assumed to scatter independently.
That simple picture also leads to a fairly adequate understanding of this
aspect of scattering.
There is one feature of the scattering process which the Brillouin and
Debye-Sears treatment leads to in a very simple way: the change of fre-
quency of the scattered light, which we have seen to arise from the
Doppler effect. This change of frequency, in the x-ray range, is also
known by another name: it is the Compton effect. 1 Generally the
Compton effect is described in corpuscular language, rather than in the
language of waves. A photon, striking an atom and being scattered,
has a certain momentum. There is conservation of momentum in the
scattering process. If then the photon after the collision travels off in
some different direction, representing the scattered beam, the difference
in momentum between its initial and final momentum must be made up
by the atom, which then must have a certain momentum after the
episode. If the atom has momentum, it must also have velocity and
1 In the Bibliography at the end of this volume, work on the Compton effect is
included by the following authors: G. Beck (1926), F. Bloch (1934), G. Burkhardt

(1936), A. H. Compton (1923), P. A. M. Dirac (1926-1927), W. Gordon (1927), S.
Kikuchi (1931), G. Wentzel (1927-1929), E. J. Williams (1926). We shall postpone
to another volume a treatment of the rather extensive problem of the Compton scat-
tering from bound electrons in atoms, which has a profound effect on the scattering
from individual atoms, and which gives valuable information concerning the momen-
tum distribution of the electrons within the atom. The names of J. W. M. DuMond,
W. E. Duncanson, and others are concerned with this work, which is not included in
the Bibliography. However, papers included in the Bibliography by A. J. Freeman
(1959-1960), mainly concerned with x-ray atomic-scattering factors, have a bearing
on Compton scattering as well.
16 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chop. 1
kinetic energy, so that if it were originally at rest, it must have gained

kinetic energy in the collision. Conservation of energy then requires
that the photon must have lost a compensating energy; and since its
energy is h11, its frequency must have been decreased by the scattering
process. This is the Compton effect; the wave-mechanical theory of
the effect, referred to above, operates with the ultrasonic waves which
we have been describing and the Doppler effect met on scattering from
these moving waves, traveling as they do with the velocity of sound.
The two pictures, the particle and wave pictures, lead to identical results.
We have gone into such a long description of the scattering of light,
mainly to show that the scattering of electron waves does not introduce
any new principles into the problem. We can treat scattering of electron
waves if we remember that any distortion of the lattice, produced either
by impurity atoms or by thermal agitation, will result in variations of
the electrical potential energy within the lattice. That is, we shall have
a perturbing potential energy V 1 (x,y,z) fluctuating from point to point,
and our problem of scattering can be handled by considering Schrodinger's
equation for an electron in the periodic potential and such a fluctuating
perturbation. In the next chapter, and in Appendix 1, we shall see how
to handle the effect of such a fluctuation on the motion of a wave packet.
It is also possible to go further and handle the effect of perturbation~
like this on the individual wave functions, showing that they will in fact
be scattered much like light waves. Just as in the case of light, we shall
find scattering by impurity atoms. We shall also find scattering by
thermal agitation, which can be handled by the analogue to the Brillouin
or Debye-Sears scattering, scattering by the various ultrasonic waves, or,
alternatively, as scattering by the individual displaced atoms, treating
an atom displaced from its equilibrium position by thermal agitation as
something like an impurity atom.
This picture of scattering by the atoms displaced by thermal agitation
leads in a plausible way to one important result of the scattering theory
which can be verified by more careful analysis. We naturally expect
the amplitude of a scattered wavelet to be proportional to the displace-
ment of the scattering atom from its equilibrium position, and hence the
intensity of the scattered wavelet, being proportional to the square of
its amplitude, to be proportional to the square of the displacement of
the scattering atom. But the intensity of the scattered wavelet deter-
mines the probability of scattering of the particle. Furthermore, in the
region of temperatures high enough for equipartition of energy to hold,
the square of the displacement of the atom, which is proportional to its
energy of oscillation, will be proportional to the temperature. We expect,
then, that the probability of scattering of an electron by thermal agita-
tion will be proportional to the absolute temperature. This, then, is the
origin of the observed proportionality of resistance to the absolute tem-

perature. At low temperatures, where equipartition does not hold and
the amplitude of oscillation of the atoms is less than equipartition would
suggest, we expect to find as well that the scattering of electron waves
is less than indicated by the proportionality to temperature, and the more
exact calculation, in fact, leads to this result.
The detailed theory of scattering of electrons by thermal agitation
operates, as we might expect, by means of the plane ultrasonic waves,
and the electron scattering by these waves, according to the Brillouin
effect. One feature which that method brings in, and which is of impor-
tance in the general picture, is the analogue to the Compton effect, the
way in which the kinetic energy of an electron will be slightly decreased
when it is scattered by the plane ultrasonic waves. This means that the
electron has given a small kinetic energy to the atomic lattice, at each
collision. We shall, of course, have to expect this to happen in any ade-
quate theory of electrical resistance. An electric field, acting on elec-
trons, and accelerating them, constantly does work on them. The
momentum of the electrons is dissipated on collision with the atoms;
but if the excess kinetic energy were not also dissipated, we should have
a situation in which the random kinetic energy of the electrons continu-
ously increased, without passing this energy on to the atoms. The recoil
of the atoms, analogous to the Compton effect, furnishes the mechanism
for energy interchange between the electrons and atoms by which effec-
tive thermal equilibrium is maintained between them. When an electric
field continually acts on a conductor, we know that the work which it
dissipates in the conductor appears as the Joulean heat, raising the tem-
perature of the conductor. This increase of internal energy, of course,
must, in equilibrium, be distributed between energy of the atoms and
of the electrons. The specific heat of the electrons, however, as we have
seen, is very small compared with that of the atoms, so that we must
expect that almost all the Joulean heat appears as energy of the atoms.
The mechanism which we have just described allows this energy, which
in the first instance is delivered by the field to the electrons, to be rapidly
transferred to the atoms.
We have now seen that the electronic wave can be scatte~ed, leading
to a mean free time, mean free path, or mobility, by any irregularity
in the lattice, including temperature agitation. Though scattering by
temperature agitation is proportional to the temperature at high tem-
peratures, the scattering by other irregularities i::, approximately inde-
pendent of temµerature. As exall!ples of oiher irregularities we may
mention not only the obvious ones of impurities, but also irregularities
resulting from cold work and other distortion of the crystal. Clearly,
furthermore, in an alloy in which the atoms of different sorts are arranged
somewhat randomly, we shall have irregularities for that reason, and

consequent scattering. We can then use our simple expressions of Eq.
(1-4) or (1-7) for conductivity to draw some simple conclusions regarding
the conductivity of a metal. In such a material the number N of free
electrons is essentially independent of temperature. Then if we have
no impurities or irregularities, so that all the scattering is produced by
temperature agitation, we shall assume that the probability of scattering,
given by the term -mg dx/dt in Eq. (1-1), is proportional to the tempera-
ture, so that the conductivity will be inversely proportional to tempera-
ture, or the resistance proportional to temperature, as is known to be
the case. On the other hand, if there is additional scattering from irregu-
larities, there will be an additional term in Eq. (1-1), so that g will be a
sum of two terms, one proportional to temperature, the other independent
of temperature. The result will then be a specific resistance which is the
sum of two terms, one the thermal term proportional to the temperature,
the other a constant independent of temperature, generally called the
residual resistance, since it is present even at the absolute zero of tem-
perature. This approximate additivity of the thermal and residual
resistances is found experimentally, where it is known as Matthiessen's
rule. It is well known experimentally that the residual resistance arises
from the presence of impurities, cold working, or alloying. We note that
the proportionality of the thermal term in the resistance does not hold
at low enough temperatures, where it becomes much smaller; more elabo-
rate theory 1 shows that this term, at low temperatures, varies with the
fifth power of the temperature.
1-6. The Fermi Statistics and Metallic Conductivity. The discussion
of the preceding section has seemed very straightforward, but we have
been entirely forgetting that on account of the Fermi statistics the elec-
trons in a metal fill the conduction band to a height of several volts in
energy, that they obey the exclusion principle, and that, as a consequence,
it is completely incorrect to suppose that an electron has its velocity
reduced to zero after each collision. This cannot happen: the energy
level associated with zero kinetic energy is already filled. We may well
expect, then, that the exclusion principle will have a profound effect on
conductivity, which we have so far entirely missed. We must now con-
sider this question. We shall, in fact, find that the effect is profound;
but it turns out to work out in such a way that the results we have been
stating, regarding the conductivity, effects of scattering, and so on, are
still substantially correct. It is this fact which made it possible for a
considerable period to use the classical theories of Drude and Lorentz,
without serious trouble.
Let us assume that at an initial instant of time the electrons are in
equilibrium. They will then fill up the energy levels below the Fermi
1 F. Bloch, various papers 1928-1930, in particular z. Physik, 69:208 (1930).
level, with a rapid decrease of density in the neighborhood of the Fermi

level, from the maximum of two electrons per level to zero. We may
indicate this in a momentum space, as in Fig. 1-3. We can draw energy
contours, lines of constant E, in this p space (or the corresponding k
space), and, in particular, we can draw one for the Fermi energy. If
the electrons are free, this Fermi energy will correspond to a sphere (or
circle in two dimensions). Now let us consider what happens when the
field is applied. .If it is along the x axis, the points representing the
momenta of the electrons will start to move along the p., axis, in the way
shown. This will correspond to the build-up of a current, which like
the electronic velocities will increase proportionally to the time (in the
absence of a resistive term in the equation of motion). However, this
increase will not continue, on account
of the scattering of the electron waves
Displaced
by the lattice irregularities. sphere
To get a simple descrjption, let us
Displacement
take that method of considering the
scattering in which we assume that
an electron moves for a time t1 , then
is scattered. In Fig. 1-3 we have
shown the displaced distribution of
occupied levels after this time t1 . Frn. 1-3. Undisplaced sphere, Fermi
Now let us see what sort of collisions surface in free-electron gas. Dis-
we shall have. The kinetic descrip- placed sphere, displaced along direc-
tion of the Fermi statistics is very tion of external force by action of
force during time t,.
simple: we calculate the probability
of an electronic transition as if the
Fermi statistics did not apply, but then exclude any transition into a
state already occupied by an electron. Now in the process of scattering,
as described by wave mechanics, without application of Fermi statistics,
an electron would change its momentum, but with very small change in
energy (the change is merely that resulting from the atomic recoil, as
we have seen previously). In other words, its momentum will change
from its original value to some other value corresponding to very slightly
lower energy. A set of points in momentum space corresponding to a
given p, in other words, will become dissipated by scattering into a dis-
tribution approximately on the surface of a sphere in p space. But now
we see that if the wave we are considering corresponds to a value of p
well below the Fermi energy, it cannot be scattered at all, on account
of the exclusion principle. All the energy levels into which it could go
are already filled. Thus its chance of scattering is zero. Only if it is
very close to the Fermi level will it find empty states into which it can go,
and only in that case will it be scattered. On the other hand, once it is
up at the top of the Fermi distribution, its probability of being scattered
will be just about the same as if the exclusion principle did not act; for
it will have only a small chance of finding the level occupied into which
it would be scattered.
We then build up the following picture of the process of scattering.
Under the action of the impressed electric field, the points representing
the electrons move uniformly through momentum space, in the direction
of the external force. This motion is not interfered with by the scatter-
ing, until the regular motion, like a procession, has carried the points
up to the energy of the Fermi level, and perhaps slightly above. Then
the probability of scattering will begin to operate, and after a further
time of the order of t 1 the electron will be scattered, its momentum point
after the scattering being found somewhere near the boundary of the
occupied region in the momentum space, roughly on the Fermi surface.
This will lead to an equilibrium situation: the distribution will reach a
steady state when it is displaced by the amount which it reaches in
approximately the time t1, But this is essentially equivalent to the
situation which we met in classical statistics, as described previously.
The velocity of each electron will have increased by the same amount
in the time t 1, and the problem of finding the conductivity will be exactly
as in Eq. (1-7). Thus we justify our statement that, though the situa-
tion is really very different from what it would be without the Fermi
statistics or the Pauli exclusion principle, still the net result, as far as
conductivity is concerned, is the same.
In the discussion of this section, we have been making several drastic
and unjustified assumptions. First, we have been assuming that we
were dealing in a real metal with free electrons, whereas we know from
the discussion of Volume 2 that the real wave functions and energies are
very different from those for free electrons. Obviously we must con-
sider the energy-band structure in our discussion of conductivity, and
we expect in this way to find the verification of the statements which we
have made regarding the distinction between metals, semiconductors,
and insulators. Second, we have been treating the acceleration of the
electrons by classical mechanics. Obviously we cannot do this; we must
ask how they would be accelerated by an external field in wave mechanics.
And we cannot handle the momentum as a definitely determined quantity,
as we have just been doing, on account of the uncertainty principle.
Instead, we must set up wave packets, of such a size as. to take account
of the uncertainties of coordinates and momenta, and must consider the
acceleration of these wave packets in an external field. These important
questions regarding the wave-mechanical interpretation of conductivity
will be the first topic to be taken up in the next chapter, after which we
shall be in a position to understand the conductivity of different types
of solids.
2
Electrical Conductivity in Metals and
Semiconductors
2-1. An Electron in a Periodic Potential and an External Field. We

now come to the problem of the conductivity of a crystal whose electrons
move in a periodic potential, rather than moving freely, and the first
mathematical problem which we meet is the effect of an external electric
field on the motion of electrons in a periodic potential. We shall include
also a constant external magnetic field in our discussion, since the study
of electrical conductivity in an external magnetic field gives results of
great importance in connection with energy-band theory. There are two
theorems regarding the motion of an electron in an external field plus a
periodic potential which have wide applicability, which are somewhat
complicated to prove rigorously, but which can easily be made plausible
by arguments which prove to be legitimate when they are examined in
more detail. We shall give those arguments, and state the theorems, in
the present section; more rigorous proofs are given in Appendix 1.
These theorems relate to the motion of a wave packet. In wave
mechanics, we cannot study the acceleration of an individual electron,
on account of the uncertainty principle; the best we can do is to set up
a wave packet. Let us first give some attention to the type of wave
packet we could set up, if we wished to describe the situation where the
electron was known to have approximately a given wave vector k, in
the nth energy band, and at the same time was at approximately a given
point of space. We wish to have the momentum p = kn well concen-
trated; that is, we shall build up the wave packet as a linear combination
of a set of Bloch waves whose reduced wave vectors are all located within
a small fraction of the Brillouin zone, concentrated near the desired
reduced wave vector k. If the extension of the region of momentum
space occupied by the reduced wave vectors of the Bloch waves used in
constructing the wave packet has dimensions of the order of magnitude
of flp,., t:.p11 , t:.p., the extension of the packet in coordinate space, according
21
22 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chap, 2
to Heisenberg's principle of uncertainty, will be of the order of magnitude

of Ax, Ay, Az, where
Ap.,Ax = h Ap, Az = h (2-1)
These relations can be rewritten in the form Ak,, Ax = 211", etc. Now
we know that the extension of k., associated with the whole Brillouin
zone is of the order of magnitude of 211"/a, where a is one of the primitive
translation vectors of the lattice; it has just this value for a cubic lattice.
Thus our condition that Ak,, be small compared with the extension of
the Brillouin zone shows that it is small compared with 211"/a; and Eq.
(2-1) then shows that Ax is large compared with a, so that the wave packet
is large compared with a unit cell of the crystal. But even with a wave
packet as large as this, it need not trouble us, as long as it is small com-
pared with the scale of variation of the perturbing fields which we shall
use. Since these are ordinarily on a macroscopic scale, like the electric
and magnetic fields in an ordinary solid arising from outside sources,
our wave packet will be effectively small, even if it extends over a good
many unit cells.
We must remember, in making these applications of the uncertainty
principle, that the quantity k, or its related momentumlike quantity
p = kh, which we meet in studying the Bloch waves, is not really the
momentum of the electron. The Bloch wave, as we know, can be made·
up by superposing an infinite number of plane waves, corresponding to
all the wave vectors k + Ki, where K; represents the wave vectors from
the reciprocal lattice. The average momentum of an electron in a Bloch
wave would be made up as a suitable average of the momenta of these
various plane waves, and is not by any means equal to kh. Similarly
we make up a wave packet by superposing Bloch waves, and if they all
have approximately the same values of k, the average momentum asso-
ciated with the wave packet will be approximately that of the Bloch
waves which constitute it. It is this average momentum, and the related
average velocity, of the wave packet, equal to the average momentum
divided by the mass, which we shall discuss in the next paragraph. To
distinguish the quantity p = kh from the true momentum, it is conven-
tional to refer to p = kh as the crystal momentum, or sometimes as the
pseudomomentum. This is the quantity which has come into our dis-
cussion of the size of wave packets. The reason why that discussion is
correct is that the formation of a wave packet involves the superposition
of waves of nearby wavelengths, in such a way that they interfere con-
structively inside the wave packet, but destructively outside. The
Bloch waves have wavelengths related to the wave vector k by the
de Broglie relation, and this is all that is required to lead to the uncer-
tainty relations.
Sec. 2-1) ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 23
Now we shall consider the first of the two theorems which we have
mentioned earlier. This is one giving the average velocity of a wave
packet in a periodic potential. We have just mentioned that this average
velocity should not be related in the normal way to the crystal momen-
tum p, but rather to the average momentum averaged over the wave
function. We should expect that the average velocity could alterna-
tively be found as the group velocity of the waves; and this proves to be
the case. We recall [see J. C. Slater, "Quantum Theory of Atomic
Structure," vol. 1, eq. (2-2) and appendix 3,] McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, New York, 1960, that the standard formula for group velocity is
aH aH
Vgy = dpy Vg, = iJp, (2-2)
Here p,,, Pv, p, are momenta related to the wavelength through the
de Broglie relation, and hence in the present case they should be the
crystal-momentum components, not components of the true average
momentum of the wave packet. Consequently, if the energy in the nth
energy band is given in terms of the wave vector by the expression En(k),
we should expect that
I aEn I aEn
Vgx = h ak,, Vgy = h aicy (2-3)
It is this relation which proves to be satisfied. In Appendix 1 we find
the average, over a Bloch wave or a wave packet, of the velocity operator,
which of course equals the average of the momentum operator, divided
by the mass of the electron, and we show that it is equal to the value
of Eq. (2-3); the proof of Appendix 1 is a straightforward one, not depend-
ing at all on the concept of group velocity.
In the presence only of the periodic potential, a wave packet would
continue indefinitely with constant values of crystal momentum, energy,
and velocity, like a freely moving particle in classical mechanics. We
wish, however, to consider the effect on the wave packet of an additional
perturbing field, electric or magnetic, of the type which could be intro-
duced from outside in an ordinary experiment on conductivity in the
presence of a magnetic field. Let there be a perturbative potential
energy V 1, depending slowly on position, and a time-independent vector
potential A, giving the magnetic field by the equation B = curl A. Let
the combined electric and magnetic force acting on an electron, as a
result of these fields, be F, given by
F = -e[E + (v X B)] (2-4)
where as before -e is the charge on the electron, E is the electric field

(so that the electric force is - grad V 1), v is the velocity of the wave
packet, given by Eq. (2-3), and Bis the magnetic field. Then the second
theorem which we prove in Appendix 1 is that
dpx = F dp11 = F dp. = F (2-5)

dt x dt 11 dt z
or the time rate of change of the crystal momentum kli is given by the
perturbative force. Though this looks like Newton's second law, of
course it is not equivalent to it, for it deals with the crystal momentum
rather than the real momentum, and the force acting on the wave packet
does not include the force arising from the periodic potential, which
represents the major part of the force.
Though Eq. (2-5) is thus not identical with Newton's second law,
nevertheless we can make it plain that these equations must hold, at
least in the absence of a magnetic field, by a simple argument based on
the conservation of energy. In the absence of a magnetic field, the total
energy of the wave packet is the sum of En, the energy in the energy band
in the absence of a perturbation, and Vi, the perturbative potential
energy at the position of the wave packet. We know that we must have
conservation of energy, so that the wave packet must move so that
En + V1 stays constant. But this is a result of Eqs. (2-3) and (2-5).
We can write these equations in the form
dx _ I aEn
(2-6)
dt - h akx
with similar equations for the y and z components. Then we have
d(En + V1) = a(En + V1) dx + a(En + V1) ~J!.. + a(En + V1) dz
& ~ & ~ & ~ &
+ a(En + V1) dkx + a(En + V1) dk + a(En + V1) dk,
11 = O (2_7 )
akx dt ak11 dt ak, dt
when we remember that En is independent of x, y, and z, and V I is inde-
pendent of the components of k. This proof of conservation would not
have held if we had not had Eq. (2-5) for the acceleration of the wave
packet. Our argument continues to hold in the presence of a magnetic
field; for the magnetic force, being proportional to v X B, is at right
angles to the velocity of the wave packet, so that it does no work, and
does not affect the energy.
2-2. The Acceleration of a Wave Packet in an Electric Field. We
shall now start to examine the consequences of the two theorems of
Eqs. (2-3) and (2-.5), governing the motion of wave packets in a periodic
potential plus a perturbative field. We start with the case of a constant
external electric field, such as we should meet in the simple case of
electrical conduction. We can illustrate most properties of the result
Sec. 2-2] ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 25
with a one-dimensional case, which we therefore use for the first part
of our discussion. Under the action of a constant force along the x
direction, we know that the crystal momentum will increase uniformly
with time, according to Eq. (2-5). Let us then ask how the velocity
will change with time.
It is easier to answer this equation if we show the energy En in the nth
band as a function of k,., the wave vector, and at the same time show the
velocity v,. = (1/h)(aEnfak,.), proportional to the derivative of the curve
of En versus k,.. We show these two curves, for a simple case, in Fig. 2-1.
We now start at time t = 0 with the wave vector k,., or the crystal
momentum p,. = lik,., equal to zero, which as we see from the figure
implies that the velocity is also equal to zero. In the constant external
\JW\.L
Fm. 2-1. Energy E,. in nth band, and vz, velocity along the x direction, as functions
of kz, in a simple one-dimensional model of a crystal.
field, k,. will increase uniformly with the time. As it approaches 1r/a,
however, or the edge of the Brillouin zone, and we come to the maximum
of the energy curve, the velocity goes to a maximum, decreases, and is
zero just at 1r / a. It then goes negative, to a large negative value, and
gradually increases to zero, which it reaches when k,. equals 21r/a, just
as it was when k,. was zero. How, we ask, can we explain physically this
peculiar situation, by which a positive force, and a positive time rate of
change of crystal momentum, can sometimes be associated with a nega-
tive acceleration?
The explanation is tied up with the Bragg reflection, about which we
spoke in Volume 2, Secs. 6-6 and 7-6. As the wave vector of the electron
approaches 1r/a, its wavelength approaches 2a, the value for which Bragg
reflection occurs. There is then a very great chance of reflection, or
reversal of the velocity. This is the phenomenon which is occurring
in the neighborhood 1of this value of the wave vector. After the reflec-
tion, the electron will be traveling in the opposite direction, and further
application of the force will gradually slow it down, reverse its velocity,
speed it up again, until again it reaches the correct momentum or velocity
for Bragg reflection, and so on. It is in this way that the periodic
dependence of velocity on k,. is to be understood. ·
Mathematically, if the electron is almost free, its wave function is
made of the wave whose wave vector is k.,, with only a slight mixture
of those with wave vectors k,. + K;,. for any value of K;,. different from
zero, until we almost reach the situation for Bragg reflection. Here the
vectors K;,. equal 21rj/a, where j is an integer. Ask,. increases from zero
and approaches the value 1r/a, the other wave with wave vector k., - 21r/a
approaches a wave vector -1r/a, degenerate with the original wave.
Just at the edge of the Brillouin zone these two waves have equal ampli-
tudes, and since they correspond to equal but opposite momenta, the
average momentum is zero, and hence the velocity of the wave packet
is also zero. As k., increases beyond 1r/a, the wave with wave vector
k,. - 21r/a rapidly takes over and acquires almost the whole amplitude
in the expansion of the wave function, and by the time k,. equals 21r/a,
this other wave has a wave vector of zero, and behaves just like the
wave corresponding to k., = 0, at the origin of k space. The whole cycle
then repeats periodically as k,. continues to increase without limit. The.
explanation, then, of the way in which a force along the positive x axis
can produce acceleration in the negative x direction is that it is not the
only force acting: it merely brings the electron, or the wave packet, up
to the wave vector or wavelength· at which Bragg reflection can become
operative, a much stronger effect, which reverses the direction of the
velocity.
It is interesting to ask not only how the wave packet moves under the
action of a constant field, but also how it moves under the action of a
force such that it never gets far from the minimum of energy. Near
the minimum the energy is a quadratic function of k.,; we may write it
as a series expansion starting with the terms
p2 k!h2
E = Eo +. 2m* = Eo + 2m*
where E 0 is the energy at the minimum, and m* is a quantity of the
dimensions of a mass, but not, in general, equal to the electronic mass
(unless it should happen to turn out that the curvature of the energy
surface at its minimum was the same that we should get for a free elec-
tron). Then Eq. (2-3) tells us that v,. = k,,h/m*, and from Eq. (2-5)
we have
(2-8)
This is the ordinary Newtonian equation of motion for a particle of

mass m *. On account of this behavior of the motion, m * is called an
effective mass. We recall that it has significance only so long as we are
near enough to the minimum of the energy curve so that it can be
replaced by a parabola.
Similarly, near the maximum of the energy curve, which would come
in Fig. 2-1 at kx = 1r/a, we should have
E = E - (kx - 1r/a)2 (2-9)
1 2m**
where E1 is the value of the energy at the maximum, and m** is another
constant. In a similar way we have Vx = -(kx - 1r/a)/m**, and
** d 2 x _ F _ aV 1 (2-10)
m dt 2 - - "' - ax
Near the top of the band, in other words, we have another effective mass;
but more surprisingly, the force accelerates the particle in the opposite
direction to what we should expect, as if the electron had the opposite
charge to its real charge, so that it acted like a positive electron. This
is really, of course, nothing but an expression of the same thing which
we saw when considering a steady force: it is in this neighborhood that
we are meeting Bragg reflection, and the particle does, in fact, accelerate
in the opposite direction to what we should expect from the action of
the external force alone.
In both cases we have taken up, we note that the effective mass m*
or m** can be quite different from the real electronic mass. Thus if
the energy band is very narrow, so that there is small curvature at the
bottom of the band, m * will be large, sometimes very much larger than
the electronic mass. On the other hand, at the top of a band like that
shown in Fig. 2-1, where the curvature is great, m * * will be very small.
By comparison with cases taken up in Volume 2, Chap. 10, we see that
we can often have cases in which the roles of maximum and minimum
are reversed, so that the maximum of the band comes at k = 0. There
are other cases where the maximum or minimum of the band comes
inside the Brillouin zone, rather than at k = 0 or at the boundary of
the zone. There are also cases, particularly for bands of higher energy,
where both top and bottom of the bands have very large curvature,
corresponding to very small effective masses.
Now let us consider the current carried by partly filled and by filled
bands, and the way in which an ext.ernal field affects this current. In
the first place, we observe that if the energy levels are filled up to a cer-
tain energy, the net current is zero. We remember that with a finite
crystal there will be energy levels at equally spaced points along the kx
axis. With a partly filled band these levels will be full on both sides
of k., = 0, out to equally great positive and negative values, and clearly
there will be as many electrons with negative as with positive velocities.
But now let us assume that a constant external field acts on the distribu-
tion. Then all wave packets move uniformly to the right along the k.,
axis, so that after a lapse of time, there will be a net velocity, and hence
a net current proportional to the force and the time which has elapsed.
Then we shall have a situation similar to that described in Sec. 1-6. If
we are in a region where the energy of the electron is a quadratic function
of the momentum, with an effective mass m*, so that Eq. (2-8) holds,
the velocity of each electron will have increased by the same amount
(-eE/m*)t 1 in the time t1, and the problem of finding the conductivity
will be as in the free-electron case, except that we are to use the effective
mass m * instead of the real mass. The situation is not changed in any
important detail if the energy band is filled to a position such that we
can no longer use Eq. (2-8) to indicate the acceleration of the wave packet.
Our qualitative discussion, in terms of the displacement of the occupied
levels in the momentum space, still holds.
The situation is quite different, however, provided we have a filled
band. In this case we have states uniformly filled for an interval 21r/a
along the k., 11Xis. In such a case, by the periodicity of the function,
the total current of all the electrons is always zero. We can see this
analytically by a simple calculation. The average current, determined
by the average velocity, must be proportional to the integral of the
velocity with respect to k,,, from one value of k., to a value greater by
21r/a, because such integration with respect to k., is equivalent to summing
over all electrons or wave packets. But by Eq. (2-3) this velocity is
proportional to the derivative of E with respect to k.,. Thus the integral
of this quantity with respect to k., is the difference of energies at the two
ends of the interval of integration, and if this interval is 21r/a, the differ-
ence is zero on account of periodicity. Hence we have the justification
of the statement which we have made earlier: a substance in which all
electrons are in filled energy bands, none in partly filled bands, is neces-
sarily an insulator, whereas if we have partly filled bands, a current
can be carried.
An interesting situation arises in case we have a band almost filled,
with just a few empty levels near the top of the band, and then apply
an ext.ernal field. This situation is important on account of its occurrence
in some semiconductors, as well as in some metals. If all levels but one
are filled, and a field is applied, it is clear that the kx representing the
empty level or hole will move along the k,, axis just as the kx of a wave
packet would move. Thus, from our result of Eq. (2-10), the hole will
be accelerated as if it were a particle of positive charge. Let us next ask
what the resulting contribution to the current will be. The current aris-
ing from the effect of the electric field is really carried by all the electrons
filling the occupied energy levels. We have already seen that if all levels
were filled, the current would be zero. Thus the current carried by all
levels but the hole must be the negative of the current that would be
carried by an electron occupying the empty level. That is, the current
resulting from the acceleration of the hole is the current that would
result from a positive electron in that level. Both from the standpoint
of acceleration and of current, then, the hole acts as if it were a positive
electron with an effective mass m **. This interpretation of a hole near
the top of an energy band as acting like a positive electron is one which
is of great usefulness in the discussion of conductivity.
Parenthetically, it is interesting to note the close resemblance of this
mechanism to the theory of the positron. In the relativistic theory of
the electron we treat the energy of the electron as being the sum of its
ordinary kinetic energy and its rest energy moc 2, where mo is its rest mass,
c the velocity of light. Thus the allowed energy levels of an electron
start with the large positive value m 0c 2 and extend to all higher energies.
However, the relativistic equations of motion permit also a set of energy
levels of negative energy value, starting at -m 0c2 and extending indefi-
nitely downward from there to negative energies. This situation is like
that of energy bands, with two allowed bands, the one for negative
energies and the other for positive energies, with an energy gap of
allowed energies between -m 0c2 and m 0c2 •
Under ordinary circumstances, the lower band is assumed to be
entirely filled and hence to contribute nothing to the flow of current; all
ordinary electrons are those found in the upper band. However, under
some circumstances, holes can appear in the lower band, and these holes
will act like positive electrons according to the same arguments which
we have just used in the theory of semiconductors. These are the
positrons, or positive electrons. And the creation of a positron-electron
pair, by absorption of radiation, consists simply in raising one of the
electrons from the lower, filled band to the upper, almost empty band,
resulting in an electron of the ordinary sort in the upper band, leaving a
hole acting like a positron in the lower band. The minimum quantum
of energy permitting such pair formation is obviously given by h11 = 2moc2,
the width of the gap; this is close to a million electron volts.
In an entirely analogous w'ay, if we have an insulator with all its lower
bands filled, its upper bands empty, and absorb light whose quantum h11
is given by the gap width or more, it can raise an electron from the top
of the lower band to the bottom of the upper one, creating essentially an
electron and a positive electron, each of which then can carry current
under the action of an external field. This is a simple model of the
30 · INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chap. 2
phenomenon of photoconductivity; and it shows us at once that there

will be a low-frequency or long-wave limit to the effect, beyond which a
photon is too small to be able to raise an electron through the width of
the gap. In contrast to the relativistic case, however, the gaps here will
be only a volt or two wide, so that the required radiation will be in the
visible or neighboring parts of the spectrum, rather than in the gamma-
ray range as with the problem of pair formation.
We have used the one-dimensional case in discussing our problem of
the behavior of ari electron in a periodic potential and an electric field;
but our methods extend without trouble to the three-dimensional case.
The general results are unaltered. One complication which can arise is
worth mentioning. When we investigate the behavior of a wave packet
near a minimum or maximum of the band, to get an effective mass, we
find a mot!;l._complicated situation. Near such a minimum, the energy
will be a quadratic function of the momentum; in general this leads to
an ellipsoidal sort of variation. In such a case we can choose axes x, y, z
along the principal axes of the ellipsoid, and then we find
2 2 2
E = Eo + 2m.,
p., + P11 + Pz
2m 2m.
(2-11)
11
where in general m.,, my, mz will be different. If we had not chosen the
principal axes as coordinate axes, we should also have found cross terms, '
as for instance in p,,p11 , and should have found that the coefficients of this
quadratic form, representing essentially the reciprocal of the effective
mass, would have formed a tensor. This tensor behavior of the effective
mass, by which an electron or hole can be accelerated to quite different
amounts, depending on the direction of the force, is of importance in some
cases of crystals with unsymmetrical structure, or in case the energy
minimum or maximum does not lie at the center of the Brillouin zone.
We shall find examples later of cases with different effective masses in
different directions. If we are expanding E near an energy maximum,
we can use Eq. (2-11) with negative values form,,, my, m., as in Eq. (2-9).
Near a saddle point, some of these quantities m will be positive, some
negative.
2-3. Conductivity of Metals and Semimetals. We have now seen
how wave packets accelerate in the presence of an external electric field,
and we can combine this information with what we have learned in the
preceding chapter about electron scattering to begin to understand the
conduction process in actual metals. In Fig. 2-2 we sketch schematically
the appearance which the Fermi surface, or surface of constant energy
equal to the Fermi energy, might have in several simplified cases of two-
dimensional crystals with simple square lattices. The case a is that of a
monovalent metal in which the free-electron approximation is satisfac-
0 0
0
9 0
2
(a) (h)
( C)
FIG. 2-2. Appearance of Fermi surfaces, both undisplaced, and displaced by action
of force along x direction during time t 1 , for three idealized cases of two-dimensional
square lattices. Case (a), free-electron metal. The circles marked 1 are the Fermi
surfaces, with one occupied energy band. Outside the circles, where marked zero,
there are no occupied energy bands. The black region between the undisplaced and
displaced surfaces is filled with occupied states on account of the displacement pro-
duced by the field, while the shaded region on the other side is emptied of occupied
states for the same reason. The Fermi surface occupies half the square Brillouin zone.
Case (b), similar model of a divalent metal or a semimetal. Region marked 1 has one
occupied band, that marked 2 has two occupied bands, and that marked O has none.
Case (c), case similar to copper, monovalent metal with very non-free-eler.tron type of
energy bands. Areas marked 1 have one occupied band; those marked O have none.
In each case the squares indicate the Brillouin zones. k = 0 corresponds to the center
of the square.
tory. In this case the Fermi surface will be a sphere, or in two dimen-
sions a circle. Since there will be one free electron per atom, or per unit
cell if there is one atom per unit cell, the volume inside the spherical
Fermi surface must be half the volume of the square Brillouin zone,
which would accommodate two electrons per cell, one of each spin. In
the presence of an applied electric field along the x axis, the spheres
would start to move to the right, as we have discussed in Sec. 1-6 and
Fig. 1-3, and after a time t 1 those electrons which have moved to higher
energies than the Fermi energy will have a chance of being scattered.
Let us, however, consider other cases in which the electrons must be
discussed by energy-band theory, and are far from free.
The case of Fig. 2-2b shows the sort of situation met in a divalent
metal, or in a semimetal. This figure is drawn as in Volume 2, Fig. 7-6,
in which different surfaces (or curves) separate the regions in which there
are different numbers of occupied energy bands below the Fermi energy.
Here the number 1 indicates that throughout most of the Brillouin zone
we have one occupied band below the Fermi energy, holding two electrons
per atom. There are some regions marked 2, however, in which there
are two occupied bands below the Fermi energy, and others marked 0,
in which there are no occupied bands. Since a divalent metal with one
atom per unit cell has two electrons per atom, it is necessary that the
area of the region marked 2 should equal that marked 0, so that the·
excess of electrons present in the one region should balance the deficiency
in the other.
We could consider that the electron distribution was composed of three
parts: first, a distribution of electrons, two per state, filling the whole
_Brillouin zone; second, an excess distribution of two more per state,
filling the regions marked 2; third, a distribution of holes, two per state,
in the regions marked 0. The true situation in a divalent metal of course
is much more complicated than this, since the structure is different, many
divalent elements have two atoms per unit cell, and the Fermi surfaces
are not spheres, but this simple example illustrates the principles. A
semimetal is similar to the case shown, but is one in which the areas
marked 0 and 2 would be extremely minute compared with the area of
the Brillouin zone. In the distribution just described, the distribution
of two electrons per state, filling the whole zone, will carry no current.
The excess electrons in the regions marked 2 will carry current, and the
holes in the regions marked O will also carry current. The current carried
by either the excess electrons or the holes will be given by a formula like
that of Eq. (1-3), only with the effective mass m* or m** in place of the
free-electron mass m. Since the current, and conductivity, depend on e2,
the currents and conductivities arising from the electrons and holes will
add.
The number of electrons, N, appearing in a formula like Eq. (1-3) or

(1-4), for the excess electrons, would be just the number of electrons
contained in the region 2 in Fig. 2-2b. Similarly the number of holes
would be the number in the region 0, which in this case equals the number
of electrons. We have drawn Fig. 2-2b so that the energy of an excess
electron is given by a formula like k 2/i 2 /2rn *, and that of a hole by a
formula like -(k - ko) 2/i 2/2m**, as in Eq. (2-9), so that the free-electron
model can be used, except for using the effective mass. In the case of a
semimetal, the numbers of electrons and holes, on this basis, would be
extremely small. In real cases we can often have many different pockets,
as they are called, of electrons, and other pockets of holes, bounded by
surfaces of nonspherical shape, and the situation is much more compli-
cated than this, and often cannot be expressed in terms of an effective
mass at all.
An example of a case where the effective-mass concept is inapplicable
is shown in Fig. 2-2c. This again represents a monovalent metal, but
one in which the free-electron approximation does not hold. The area
marked 1 must equal the area marked 0, but the whole geometry of the
situation is quite different from that found in (a). As a matter of fact,
the case found in (c) is more like that actually found in copper, while
that in_(a) is more like that in an alkali metal. Here we can still use the
same general picture of conductivity, however. If an electric field is
applied along the x direction, the whole picture will start to move in the
x direction, since each wave packet moves that way with a constant
velocity. Hence there will be some regions (indicated by solid lines in
the figure) in which the field will introduce extra electrons, while there
will be others (shaded in the figure) where the field will remove electrons,
or introduce holes. As in the previous cases, this acceleration will con-
tinue for a time t 1, after which collisions will stabilize the situation, leaving
a displaced Fermi surface, with a consequent current proportional to the
external field and to t1• It is clear that it will be much more complicated
to compute the conductivity in this case, but the general result will not
be qualitatively different from that found in the other cases.
In Fig. 2-2 we have illustrated some of the sorts of situations which
we can find with metals or semimetals. The case of insulators or semi-
conductors is of course much simpler: the entire Brillouin zone will corre-
spond to having the same number of energy bands below the Fermi level,
which falls in a gap between bands. Thus, as we have indicated before,
such a substance will carry no current. The reason why a semiconductor,
in contrast to an insulator, in fact does carry some current, is that our
picture of an ideal crystal at the absolute zero of temperature is not
correct for it. If the temperature is raised, the Fermi statistics will
result in having some electrons excited above the Fermi level into the
conduction band, which would normally be empty, leaving behind holes

in the valence band, which would normally be full. Hence we can have
current carried by both the electrons in the conduction band, and by
the holes in the valence band. A semiconductor carrying current for
this reason is known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
Most actual semiconductors, however, carry current on account of
the presence of impurity atoms, which of course disturb the regularity
of the lattice. If an impurity atom has more electrons than an atom
of the semiconductor, it places these excess electrons in the conduction
band, and the conductor is called an n-type semiconductor (having nega-
tive carriers), while if it has fewer electrons than an atom of the semi-
conductor, it removes electrons from the valence band, resulting in holes
in that band which act like positive carriers, so that this is called a p-type
semiconductor. We shall return to these problems of semiconductors
in Sec. 2-5. Before doing so, however, we wish to consider a little more
closely just what is involved in a proper treatment of the theory of con-
ductivity, which so far we have only sketched in a very qualitative way.
Also, before going further with semiconductors, we shall come in the next
section to a discussion of the Hall effect, which gives experimental infor-
mation on the number of electrons and holes carrying current, in a metal,
semimetal, or semiconductor.
As for a more accurate treatment of the theory of conductivity, we
shall not attempt it in this volume. There are many good books going
in detail into the theory of transport phenomena, including both
electrical and thermal conductivity. Among the recent ones, Ziman's
"Electrons and Phonons" is particularly to be recommended. Earlier
works include those of Mott and Jones, Frohlich, Seitz, and Wilson,
among others. Details of the titles of these and other books are given
in the Book List in the Bibliography at the end of this volume. Let
us list some of the features which enter into a proper treatment, aside
from the discussion which we have given of the effect of a perturbing
potential on the motion of a wave packet in a periodic potential.
First one must analyze in detail the effect of thermal oscillations on
the scattering of electron waves. This demands first of all a study of
the sinusoidal potential V1, as in Eq. (2-6), set up by the sinusoidal sound
wave. This has been attacked in a variety of ways, which are outlined
for instance in Ziman's book, mentioned above. One of the simplest
approaches is to build up the periodic potential as a sum of spherical
potentials arising from the various atoms in the crystal, and merely to
find the modification of this potential if the atoms are rigidly displaced
as they would be in a sound wave, rather than being located at the precise
positions of the undistorted lattice. This simple approach leads to one
result, which it shares in common with the more sophisticated discus-
sions: it is only the longitudinal sound waves, rather than transverse ones,
which lead to a sinusoidal perturbed potential, in a first approximation.
A more realistic discussion is that first applied to semiconductors by
Bardeen and Shockley,1 in which they introduced what is called a defor-
mation potential. In a longitudinal sound wave, different parts of the
crystal are compressed or expanded. Bardeen and Shockley considered
a homogeneously compressed or expanded crystal, in which of course the
potential energy would be modified as compared with the undistorted
crystal. To a first approximation, this modification could be described
as the addition of a constant to the average potential, and in a sinusoidal
sound wave, this would lead to a sinusoidal potential V 1, called the defor-
mation potential. In the earlier days it was quite hard to estimate this
deformation potential accurately, but in recent work carried out on lead
telluride by the augmented-plane-wave (APW) method 2 it has proved
possible to derive a deformation potential quite accurately from first
principles.
Next, having set up the sinusoidal perturbing potential which arises
from the sound wave, we must consider the scattering of an electron wave
by it. This is a straightforward calculation, very similar to the cases
of x-ray scattering which we shall take up later in Sec. 6-5. As a matter
of fact, by using the methods of Appendix 1, we can convert this problem
into that of the solution of Schrodinger's equation for a particle in a
sinusoidal potential, which we discussed in detail in Volume 2, Sec. 6-6.
It leads to a quantitative theory of the electron analogue of Brillouin
~cattering, which we have described qualitatively in the preceding
c\apter. It gives the probability of scattering of an electron by a lattice
wave of known amplitude.
Then one must apply kinetic theory to find the modified distribution
of electronic velocities or momenta, under the simultaneous action of the
external accelerating field, and the scattering. We must remember that
there is really no fixed time t 1 before a collision, but rather a probability
of collision. The probability of collision in a given case depends, on
account of the Fermi statistics, on the availability of a state into which
the electron can be scattered. The probability of scattering cannot be
assumed to be the same for all electrons, independent of their velocity
or momentum. On account of all these complications, the complete
theory of conductivity is very involved, and yet it does not depend on
principles beyond those which we have sketched. The equation of sta-
tistical mechanics defining the perturbed distribution of electrons in
momentum space, the so-called Boltzmann equation, ii:; set up and dis-
cussed in any text on kinetic theory. Its solution, however, is compli-
1 J. Bardeen and W. Shockley, Phys. Rev., 80 :72 (1950).
2 L. G. Ferreira, Phys. Rev., 137:Al601 (1965).
cated. It is not enough merely to assume, as we have done in our

elementary treatment, that the perturbed distribution is just like the
initial Fermi distribution, but moved along the direction of the external
field by the amount which the wave packets would have drifted, in the
momentum space, in an average time t 1• More accurate displaced
distributions must be found, and this is greatly facilitated by a variation
principle, discussed in such texts as that of Ziman, which shows that the
displaced distribution can be set up by minimizing a certain integral
This allows us to proceed a little as we do in solving Schrodinger's equa-
tion by using the principle of minimizing the energy. We can set up
trial distribution functions, and vary the parameters to minimize the
integral in question. This process of minimizing is closely related to the
thermodynamic principle of maximizing the entropy.
All these features enter into a complete discussion, and the final result
can be a complete calculation of the conductivity of the crystal, under
the influence of thermal oscillations. Similar discussions must be given
of the scattering of the electron waves by the disturbance of potential
arising from impurity atoms, dislocations, and other sources of scattering.
Then one must consider the two types of scattering together. The
reader will see that the problem is a very involved one, which has led
to a great deal of work. When the whole problem has been carried
through, the net result is that one derives conductivities of the right
order of magnitude, and for the alkali metals one gets fairly good quanti-
tative agreement with experiment. One must leave for the future,
however, a more extensive quantitative treatment. The treatment of
deformation potential in PbTe, which we have quoted, proceeding by
means of the APW method, probably is an indication of the sort of result
which we may hope to have in the future.
2-4. The Hall Effect. Hall discovered many years ago 1 that if a mag-
netic field is applied transverse to a conductor carrying a current, a differ-
ence of potential automatically appears across the conductor, transverse
both to the direction of current flow and to the magnetic field, and pro-
portional both to the current and to the magnetic field. Putting it in
terms of quantities which do not involve the dimensions of the conductor,
there is a transverse electric field which is automatically set up, propor-
tional to the magnetic field and the current density. The Hall constant
is defined as the transverse electric field per unit magnetic field and per
unit current density. We can understand by a very simple argument
why the Hall effect should come about.
We recall that an electron in an electric and a magnetic field is acted
on simultaneously by an electric force, proportional to the electronic
charge and the electric field, and in the direction of the field, and by a
1 E. H. Hall, Am. J. Math., 2 :287 (1879).
magnetic force, proportional to the electronic charge, its velocity, and

the magnetic field, and in the direction at right angles to the plane deter-
mined by the velocity and magnetic field. Expressed in vector language,
the force is
F = q[E + (v X B)) (2-12)
where q is the charge, E the electric field, and v x B the vector product
of velocity and magnetic field. We have seen in Sec. 2-1 that in studying
the motion of a wave packet, it is this force which gives the time rate
of change of the crystal momentum.
In the Hall effect, since the velocity v of the electron is along the con-
ductor, B transverse to it, the vector v X B is also transverse. In other
words, if the electron traveled along the conductor under the action of
the magnetic field, there would be a transverse force, tending to push
it to one side of the conductor. This, of course, could not go on for long,
for the electron would strike the surface of the conductor, stop there, and
remain as a surface charge. This surface charge would start establishing
a transverse electric field inside the conductor, and this process would
go on until the transverse electric field was built up to a large enough
value so that the net transverse force, given by Eq. (2-12), was zero, and
the further electrons would travel straight down the conductor without
transverse acceleration. For this to be the case, it is clear from Eq.
(2-12) that the magnitudes of the transverse E and the product of v and B
must be equal, or E = vB, where now we are dealing only with the mag-
nitudes of the quantities. But we recall that the current density J is
given by N qv, where N is the number of carriers per unit volume, q the
charge. Hence we have
1
E = JB = RJB where R = Nq (2-13)
Nq
Here R is the Hall constant; we have demonstrated that the Hall effect
should occur as it is found experimentally.
If we are dealing with an electron, q should be set equal to -e. The
sign convention is so chosen that if the current is carried by electrons
of negative sign, the Hall constant is negative, whereas positive carriers
would result in a positive Hall coefficient. Our simple derivation result-
ing in Eq. (2-13) proves to give the correct result for the case of electrons
with a Fermi distribution, as we meet them in a monovalent metal. For
the classical Maxwellian distribution, more careful study shows that
Eq. (2-13) must Le multiplied by a simple numerical eoefficient.
In the early days of measurement of the Hall effect, before 1900, Hall
found that many metals showed negative Hall constants, as we should
expect from electronic conductivity; but some metals showed positive
Hall constants. This led Hall1 to an assumption of conduction by holes

acting like positive electrons, similar to the picture to which we are led
by the wave-mechanical theory of energy bands. We may now reason-
ably suppose that in those metals showing positive Hall constants, we
are dealing with a situation similar to that indicated in Fig. 2-2b, and
that for some reason the contributions of the holes outweigh those of
the electrons.
To understand these matters further, we must ask how the formula
for the Hall constant is worked out in wave mechanics. The derivation is
complicated, and it will not be given in the present volume; treatments
are given in some of the texts in the Bibliography at the end of this
volume, such as those quoted in the preceding section. But in the simple
cases where Eq. (2-8) or (2-10) holds, the result is simple, and as we should
guess: where Eq. (2-8) holds, we have R = - I/Ne, and where Eq. (2-10)
holds, we have R = I/Ne. In other words, the effective mass cancels
out of the expression, just as the mass cancels out in the classical expres-
sion for the Hall constant, so that in such cases a measurement of the
Hall constant gives a valid measurement of the number of free electrons
in the conduction band.
Unfortunately, in intermediate cases the formula for the Hall constant,
which of course must go continuously from one of these limiting cases
to the other, is extremely involved and is hard to correlate with other
observable quantities. There is, however, one intermediate case in which
the formula is rather simple and is particularly useful in cases of semi-
metals and semiconductors. This is the case illustrated in Fig. 2-2b,
where we simultaneously have a rather small number of electrons in
the bottom of one band, to which Eq. (2-8) applies, and a rather small
number of holes at the top of another, governed by Eq. (2-10). Let
there be n. electrons per atom, nh holes per atom, and let N be the number
of atoms per unit volume. Let the mobilities of electrons and holes be
µ, and /Lh, respectively. Then we have
(2-14)
This formula reduces to the correct limiting value when either n, or nh

is zero. It shows, moreover, that a suitable number of electrons and
holes taken together can balance their contributions to the Hall constant,
so that we can get intermediate cases between those of all positive -and
all negative carriers. A derivation of Eq. (2-14) is given, for instance,
in Ziman's book, ''Electrons and Phonons," cited earlier.
1 E. H. Hall, "A Dual Theory of Conduction in Metals," published privately, Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1938, summarizes ihese conclusions.

~c. 2-4] ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 39
When we examine the Hall constants for the various metals, we find
interesting results. For the alkali metals the constants come out rather
close to -I/Ne, where N is the number of atoms per unit volume, indi-
cating, therefore, that we are justified in treating these metals as having
one free electron per atom, satisfying the conditions for Eq. (2-8). For
the metals Cu, Ag, and Au this is approximately true, though not as
accurately as for the alkalies. For some other metals we get much poorer
agreement with the expected number of electrons; we presumably are
to explain this by assuming that the conditions of Eqs. (2-8) and (2-10)
are not fulfilled.
Most interesting, perhaps, are the semimetals As, Sb, and Bi. These
materials have extraordinarily large Hall constants, and other magnetic
effects associated with them are unusually large. This is usually inter-
preted in terms of the assumption that for these materials the electrons
almost exactly fill one band, with very few electrons extending into
another band, as we mentioned in Volume 2, Sec. 10-6. Thus we have
the conditions for Eq. (2-14), with very small values of nh and n.. The
denominator will be very small compared with the numerator, unless
we happen to have cancellation of the positive and negative terms in
the numerator, which we do not seem to have in these cases; thus the
Hall constant will be very large, as observed. Even in spite of this
situation of very small effective numbers of free electrons, the conduc-
tivity is not as small as we might expect from Eq. (1-4); this must mean
that the effective mass m* or m** is quite small, or the mobilities corre-
spondingly large. The Hall constant for Bi is negative, but that for
Sb is positive, indicating that the numerator of Eq. (2-14) has opposite
signs in the two cases, the negative electrons being more important cur-
rent carriers for bismuth, but the positive holes for antimony.
From these remarks, it is clear that the Hall effect provides a piece
of information about conductors which we cannot get in any other way:
indication in a rather direct way about the number of current carriers
and the sign of their charge, whereas conductivity gives information
complicated by the effective mass, and complicated by the fact that the
square of the charge, rather than its first power, enters, so that positive
and negative carriers act alike. In the study of semiconductors, which
we shall next consider, the Hall effect is even more important than with
metals. Here we have very few carriers of current, and as a result, the
Hall constant is very much larger than in the case of metals, and easier
to observe. With semiconductors, using Eq. (2-14) for the Hall constant,
and Eq. (1-6) for the conductivity, it has been possible in many cases
to establish reliable values for the separate numbers of positive and
negative carriers, and for the mobilities. In the next chapter we shall
see that another magnetic effect, the cyclotron resonance, and related
40 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS {Chap. 2
phenomena, allow us in some cases to get direct experimental measure-

ment of the effective mass.
There has been a great deal of study of the Hall effect, and other
related galvanomagnetic effects, partly from a fundamental point of
view, partly as a means of exploring experimentally the questions which
we have just been mentioning, for individual substances. In the Bibli-
ography at the end of this volume, one will find papers dealing with these
topics under the following authors:
B. Abeles (1954, Ge; 1956, Bi), E. N. Adams (1959, 1962), N. E. Alekseev-

skii (1956, Te; 1958), R. S. Allgaier (1960, PbS, PbSe, PbTe), Kh. I.
Amirkhanov (1961, InSb, InAs; 1963, lnSb), A. I. Anselm (1960-1961)i
J. Appel (1958-1959), P. N. Argyres (1958-1960), R. G. Arkhipov (1963,
graphite), B. M. Askerov (1961), J. Babiskin (1957, Bi), P. I. Baranski,
(1964, Ge), F. G. Bass (1956-1957), R. T. Bate (1959, lnSb), A. C. Beer
(1957-1959), G. B. Benedek (1955, Ge), T. G. Berlincourt (1955, graph-
ite; 1958, Cu), W. Bernard (1963, Ge), G. I. Bir (1962), F. J. Blatt (1957),
D. Blochinzev (1933), M. D. Blue (1959, Cu alloys), V. N. Bogomolov
(1963, TiO2), E. S. Borovik (1954, Pb, Cu, Mg; 1959, Cr), R. Bowers
(1961, Na), M. D. Brodsky (1965, Pu), R. F. Broom (1956, InSb), H.F.
Budd (1963-1964), W. M. Bullis (1956, 1958, Ge), E. Burstein (1962),
H. B. Callen (1954, Te), R. G. Chambers (1963), B. R. Coles (1956),
P. A. Connell (1957, Bi), J. R. A. Cooper (1959, Ag alloys), T. Deutsch
(1961, alkalies), V. N. Dobrovolskii (1962), B. Donovan (1953, 1955),
Y. G. Dorfman (1939, Ag), J. R. Drabble (1956-1959, Bi 2Te 3), P. Drude
(1900), I. M. Dykman (1962), A. C. Ehrlich (1964, Ni-Cu-Fe), J. E.
Enderby (1963, liquid metals), S. Epstein (1963, Sb), L. M. Falicov
(1965), E. Fawcett (1963-1964), R. Fieschi (1955), Yu. A. Firsov (1958,
1963), G. Fischer (1960, Te; 1962, GaTe, GaSe), S. Foner (1953, Co-Ni;
1955, permalloy; 1956, Fe; 1957, Ti, V, Cr, Mn; 1958, Ni 3Mn, Fe-Co),
N. H. Frank (1930), V. Frank (1957-1958, Cu, Ag, Au, Pd, Pt, Zr, W,
Mo, Ta, Nb, Al, 4d- and 5d-transition groups), H. P. R. Frederikse
(1956-1957, InSb; 1958, lnAs), S. J. Freedman (1961, Sb), H. Fritzsche
(1958, Ge), T. Fukuroi (1957), A. N. Gerritsen (1940, Bi), K. Gesi (1963,
titanium hydrides), D. V. Gitser (1960, Bi, Bi-Te), M. Glicksman (1956),
L. Gold (1956-1957, Ge, Si), 0. A. Golikova (1961, Ge), L. Grabner
(1960), A. J. Greenfield (1964), A. I. Gubanov (1957), L. E. Gurevich
(1962-1963), E. H. Hall (1879), T. C. Harman (1962-1964), K. Hashi-
moto (1963, Bi 2Se 3), J. C. Haslett (1959, InSb), D. J. Howarth (1957),
H. J. Hrostowski (1955, In.Sb), C. S. Hung (1950, Ge), A. R. Hutson
(1957, ZnO), J.P. Jan (1957), H. Jones (1936, Bi; 1951), H.J. Juretschke
(1955, Sb; 1958, transition-metal diborides), M. I. Kaganov (1958),
H. Kamimura (1963, Ge, Si), E. A. Kaner (1958), L. P. Kao (1958),
E. I. Kaplunova (1957), J. R. Klauder (1961, Cu), M. I. Klinger (1955,

1957), E. I. Kondorskii (1964), I. Ya. Korenblit (1960, Bi2Te 3 ;1962),
L. L. Korenblit (1955), W. E. Krag (1964, Ge), ~- Kubo (1958-1959),
J. E. Kunzler (1961), G. S. Lane (1964, Zn, Cd), D. Langbein (1962),
B. Lax (1955, Ge, Si), L. S. Lerner (1962-1963, Bi), W. F. Leverton (1951,
Bi), I. M. Lifshits (1956-1960), A. I. Likhter (1963, graphite), H. J.
Lippmann (1958), D. Long (1957, Si), W. F. Love (1959, Cu, Cu 3 Au),
F. L. Lummis (1957, PbS), J. W. McClure (1958, graphite), D. K. C.
MacDonald (1952), 0. Madelung (1955, 1959), R. Mansfield (1956-1957),
S. Mase (1960, Bi), J. Messier (1963, Si), Yu. G. Miller (1961), E. J.
1\/[oore (1958), B. R. Nag (1963), Yu. N. Obratsov (1955; 1960, Ge),
T. Okada (1955-1957, Bi), R. V. Parfenev (1962, Te), R. Peierls (1929),
G. E. Pikus (1956), N. N. Porfireva (1959), P. J. Price (1957), G. N. Rao
(1964, Sb), J.M. Reynolds (1954, Bi), H. Roth (1959, Te), A. I. Schindler
(1953, Cu-Ni), K. Schroder (1964, Cr-Fe, Cr-V), S. Simons (1961, mono-
valent metals), R. J. Sladek (1960, Ge), M. S. Sodha (1958), A. Sommer-
feld (1928, 1931), D. E. Soule (1958, graphite), C. Strachan (1959), J. A.
Swanson (1955), K. Tanaka (1961, Bi), W. B. Teutsch (1957, Au-Cr),
I. M. Tsidilkovskii (1958), M. Tsuji (1958), R. Yamamoto (1965, Ge),
C. Zener (1935, alkalies), J. M. Ziman (1958).
2-5. The Behavior of Semiconductors. 1 After our digression on the
Hall effect, we shall now consider semiconductors. Let us first consider
an intrinsic semiconductor; that is, a substance which, like an insulator,
has a lower, filled band, the valence band, and an upper empty band,
the conduction band, with an energy gap between; but in which the gap
is narrow enough so that appreciable numbers of electrons can be excited
to the conduction band, leaving an equal number of holes in the valence
band, by application of moderate temperatures. In such. a material,
following Eq. (1-6), the conductivity will be
(2-15)
where Nh, N. are the numbers of positive and negative carriers per unit
volume, µh and µ. the corresponding mobilities. The mobilities are not
very different in order of magnitude, and in temperature variation, in
semiconductors from what they are in metals, so that the striking differ-
ences from the case of metals come in the N's. Let us now see what
the Fermi statistics predicts about the dependence of these N's on
temperature.
Let us assume that the distributions of energy levels in the empty
and filled bands are as given in the conditions for Eqs. (2-8) and (2-10).
That is, they are as given in Eq. (1-13), using m* or m** in place of m.
· 1 The treatment of the present section follows the lines of the paper by J. C. Slater,
Phys. Rev., 76 :1592 (1949), which can be consulted for further details.
Then it is a straightforward task, using Eq. (1-8) for the Fermi distribu-
tion, to compute the sum iF(E) over all states of both spins. This, as
we have seen in Sec. 1-4, must equal N, the total number of electrons.
When we make this calculation as a function of Er, the result is as shown
in Fig. 2-3, where we have assumed, for simplicity, that m * for the con-
duction band equals m ** for the valence band. From this figure we
see that when Er is midway between the two energy bands, or in the
middle of the gap, T,F(E) will be equal to the number N of electrons
which must be accommodated. This then establishes the position of
the Fermi level and shows that the situation is more complicated than
for the case of the metal, where the Fermi level is just at the top of the
occupied bands.
rf(E)
Top of Now that we know the position of the
valence bond Fermi level, we can use Eq. (1-8) to find
+ the number of electrons in the conduc-
_ ___._-:::;;,,,-+-..:::.....-+-- E tion band and the number of holes in
Bottom of the valence band. At ordinary .temper-
conduction
bond atures, with ordinary semiconductors,
the energy gap is very large compared
Frn. 2-3. Number of occupied with kT. If !lE is the width of the
states, '2:-F(E), as function of
energy, for intrinsic semiconduc- energy gap, we then see that in the
tor. '2:-F(E) = D corresponds to expression of Eq. (1-8), where we hav~
enough electrons to balance posi- the exponential exp (E - Er)/kT, this
tive r,harge in crystal. exponential is at least as great as
exp (!lE/2kT) for all energy levels in the
conduction band, and unity can be neglected in comparison with it. That
is, if E is the energy of a level in the conduction band, measured up from
the bottom of that band, F(E) for one of the levels in the conduction
band will be given by
F(E) = exp (-!lE/2kT) exp (-Ek/T) (2-16)
If now we calculate the number of energy levels per unit range of energy,
using Eq. (1-13) or its equivalent, it is a simple matter of statistical theory
to convert the sum of F(E) into an integral, and carry out this integration
over the levels of the conduction band. 1 The calculation gives for the
number of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band
\' 2
I.. F(E) = h3 (21rm*kT)¾ exp (-AE)
2kT (2-17)
It is easy to show that the number of holes in the valence band, obtained
by summing 2(1 - N (E)] over the levels of that band, has the same
1 The method is given in J.C. Slater, "Introduction to Chemical Physics," McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York, 1939, chap. IV.

value as Eq. (2-17), where we remember that we are assuming that

m* = m**; if we do not make that assumption, the formulas are slightly
more complicated, but not different in essentials. The number of elec-
trons and holes must, of course, be equal, in order that the total sum of
F(E) over all levels may have the correct value.
As a result of Eq. (2-17), we now see that the number of both electrons
and holes has the small factor exp ( -t:..E/2kT), decreasing very rapidly
to zero as the temperature goes to zero. This factor will be the most
important one in the expression of Eq. (2-15) for the conductivity. It
is convenient to describe the results by plotting the logarithm of the
conductivity as a function of 1/T. In that case, the result will be very
nearly a straight line; the dependence of mobility on temperature, and
the factor T¾ in Eq. (2-17), make a relatively small departure from the
straight line arising from the exponential function, and in fact their
temperature dependences approximately compensate each other. Such
straight lines are experimentally found for intrinsic semiconductors, and
from the slope of the line we can find the gap width t:..E. Intrinsic semi-
conductors seldom are found, however, on account of the great impor-
tance of impurities, which we shall next discuss. It is almost impossible
in most cases to prepare a semiconductor pure enough so that it behaves
like an intrinsic semiconductor. We have taken up this case mostly as a
preparation for the more common case of the impurity semiconductor.
Let us now ask what effect we expect an impurity atom to have on a
semiconductor. To be specific, let us consider the semiconductors Si
and Ge, which have been most carefully investigated. These substances,
ai;; we know, have four valence electrons per atom, and crystallize in the
diamond structure, in which each atom has four nearest neighbors, so
that the electrons are just sufficient to form covalent bonds with the
neighbors, leading to the filled valence band and empty conduction band
which are observed, and which were discussed in Volume 2, Sec. 10-4.
Let us now assume that one of the lattice sites is occupied, not by the
Si or Ge atom which should be there, but by an impurity atom of N, P,
As, or Sb, an element which normally has five electrons in its outer shell.
Let us assume, for the moment, that this impurity atom loses one of its
electrons, so as to have just the four which would be required to fit into
the covalent structure. Then we still have just the right number of
electrons to form all the covalent bonds and to fill the valence 'levels.
There will, however, be a disturbance in the lattice: the impurity atom
is really a positive ion, and it will exert a perturbing force on its neighbors.
This perturbation can be described as a potential V1 , such as we intro-
duced in Sec. 2-1. Being the potential of a positive ion, it will be like a
Coulomb potential, just as if we had a proton at the position of the
impurity atom, but with one difference: the semiconductor germanium
has a fairly high dielectric constant, and this means that instead of the
factor 471'Eo in the denominator of the expression of Coulomb's law we
must use 471'E, where E is the permittivity of the dielectric, greater than
Eo by a factor equal to the dielectric constant. Thus the Coulomb force
will be a number of times smaller than the field of a proton.
In this perturbing field the energy levels of the electrons will no longer
be as they would be in an unperturbed periodic potential. In Sec. 2-1
we have shown how to handle a wave packet in the presence of such a
perturbation as we have here; we see that it moves like a particle of
mass m* (if we are in the conditions where we can use Eq. (2-8)], in the
presence of the potential V1 . The derivation of Appendix I shows that
in a case like this, we can also set up a Schrodinger equation for a particle
of mass m* in the potential V1 and treat the perturbed wave functions
according to wave mechanics; our earlier results on the motion of wave
packets are really only the limiting case of the wave-mechanical method
applied to the classical limit. An electron in the field of our impurity
atom will then obey a Schrodinger equation like that of a particle of
mass m * in a Coulomb field which is a number of times smaller than the
field of a proton.
This Schrodinger equation is, of course, just like the hydrogen problem,
except for the magnitudes of the charge and mass, and it will have corre-
sponding solutions, corresponding to the wave functions and energy
levels of hydrogen. The effect of the smaller Coulomb force is to decrease
the magnitudes of the energies and increase the size of the orbits. The
same effect will also arise from the mass m *, which is found in this case
to be considerably less than the real electronic mass. The net effect,
then, is to have in the neighborhood of the impurity atom wave functions
for the electron, like hydrogen wave functions, only on such an extended
scale that they spread over many atom diameters, with energy levels
like the hydrogen spectrum, but on a much smaller energy scale, the Is
level corresponding, not to the 13.6 volts of the Rydberg energy, but
perhaps to Yi o volt, if we use reasonable estimates of the constants
involved. In addition to these discrete levels, there will be the con-
tinuum of levels associated with energies so high that the electron can
escape from the ion. This continuum of levels corresponds essentially
to the conduction band.
When we look a little more closely into the relation between these
levels and those which would be present in the absence of the impurity
atom, we find that the following situation holds: We draw in Fig. 2-4
the top and bottom of the conduction band, as well as the top of the
valence band, all modified by adding the V1 arising from the perturbing
atom, as a function of position at points of a line drawn through the
perturbing atom. The discrete impurity levels, arising as described in
Sec. 2-5}. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 4S
the preceding paragraph, are shown in the figure, below the conduction
band. Their extension will be roughly in the region shown, where the
classical kinetic energy is positive. The levels of the continuum are also
shown, filling the energies of the unperturbed band. The wave functions
of this continuum are modified, however, by the presence of the impurity
atom. Our classical solution of Sec. 2-2, for the periodic potential plus
the perturbing field, implies that the classical velocity is real, provided
we are dealing with energies within an energy band, but goes to zero at
either edge of the band and is imaginary in the gaps between bands.
The corresponding solution of Schrodinger's equation falls off exponen-
tially when the conditions are such that we are in a gap. . Now in the
figure above, we see that the higher energy levels of the continuum lead
to a situation where the energy falls within the gap, at points near the
impurity atom, on account of the dis-
Conduction band
tortion of the boundary of the band by
the perturbing potential V 1 . Hence
the wave functions of these energy -._ _ ___
levels will fall off exponentially as we Donor level ~\.-=-7
Valence band
approach the impurity atom. By
more elaborate means, 1 we can show
that not only do these levels of the
continuum have a deficiency in their
wave function near the impurity atom Frn. 2-4. Valence and conduction
where the discrete wave functions bands near an n-type impurity atom,
have their intensity, so that the total showing donor levels.
charge density, if all levels are filled,
is relatively unaffected by the impurity atom, but also the total number
of levels in the band, including the discrete levels, is the same with the
impurity atom present as it was without. The number of discrete
levels introduced is just compensated by a decrease in the number of
levels in the continuum, corresponding to the decrease in effective volume
of the solid on account of the region cut out near the impurity atom by
this exponential decrease in the continuum wave functions as. they
approach the impurity atom.
We may now consider the effect of these modifications of the wave
functions and energy levels on the behavior of the substance. The
valence band will be modified just as the conduction band is, as we see
from Fig. 2-4. We recall that we have enough electrons to fill the
valence band, and one besides. The valence band, as we have just seen,
stili has the same number of energy levels, in spite of its perturbation.
Thus, when these levels are all filled, we shall have one electron left over.
1 This point, and others related to this treatment of impurity atoms, is taken up in
Appendix 2.
At the absolute zero, this will go into the next lower level available to it,
the lowest discrete level surrounding the impurity atom. Thus it will
be bound and not available for conduction. As the temperature increases,
however, it needs only a small amount of thermal excitation to raise this
electron to the continuous levels of the conduction band, so that it can
take part in conduction. Thus a much smaller temperature will lead to
appreciable conductivity than with an
~ Conduction band intrinsic semiconductor.
--------.....::::_ Of course, to have appreciable effect,
Impurity levels
we must have a good many of these
Volence band impurity atoms, though the necessary
number proves to be rather small com-
Fm. 2-5. Symbolic representation pared with the total number of atoms;
of impurity levels. 1 impurity atom to 1,000 is a large
number for this purpose. Let us as-
sume that we have impurity atoms of this sort distributed at random
through the crystal. At each of these there will be discrete impurity
levels, of the sort we have considered, the energy lying slightly below the
bottom of the continuous conduction band, and the corresponding wave
function localized in the neighborhood of the impurity atom. Such a
situation is often symbolized as in Fig. 2-5,
:U(E)
the dashes indicating impurity levels, the
conduction and valence bands being drawn
as they extend through the material.
Let us now inquire how the existence of Top of
volence
these impurity levels changes the statistical bond
situation. We have a certain, rather small
number of additional energy levels and an
equivalent extra number of electrons. We Bottom of
must now make a new plot of '1:,F(E) as a conduction
band
function of E F, in order to find the revised
Fermi level. By comparison with the plot
at the beginning of this section, Fig. 2-3, we
find that '1:,F(E) has not changed to an Fm. 2-6. Total number of
appreciable extent by the presence of the electrons as function of
impurity levels, on account of their small energy, n-type semiconductor.
number. However, the significant change
comes because this summation must now add to a larger total, on account
of the electrons donated by the impurity atoms. We then find EF as a
higher horizontal line, as shown in Fig. 2-6. This leads to a Fermi level
much closer to the bottom of the conduction band than before. As a
result of this, when we compute the number of electrons in the conduction
band, getting a result analogous to Eq. (2-17), we find in the exponential
Sec. 2-5} ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS AND SEMICONDUCTORS.. 47
not the energy difference AE/2, which was the distance from the Fermi
level to the bottom of the conduction band for the intrinsic semiconductor,
but the much smaller value which we have just found. This results in a
much increased number of electrons in the conduction band. On the other
hand, in computing the number of holes, we have to use the energy differ-
ence between the new Fermi level and the top of the valence band, which
is much larger than for the intrinsic case, and the result is that there are
many fewer holes than before. In this case it is obviously no longer
necessary for the number of electrons to balance the number of holes;
rather, the number of electrons, minus the number of holes, gives the
number of electrons contributed by the impurity atoms.
The general behavior of the number of conduction electrons in this
case is then as follows: At the absolute zero of temperature, there are
none. We do not have to go to a very Logorithm of
high temperature, however, to excite conductivity
the electrons from the impurity atoms,
so that we have a contribution to the Intrinsic conductivity
number of conduction electrons, equal
approximately to the number of im-
purity atoms, which remains approxi-
mately independent of temperature up
to high temperatures. As the tempera-
ture is increased, the intrinsic conduc-
tivity starts, and at sufficiently high
temperature it becomes greater than
the conduction arising from impurities. 1/r
Thus if we plot the logarithm of the Fm. 2-7. Logarithm of conduc-
conductivity as a function of 1/T, the tivity of semiconductor as function
result is as in Fig. 2-7. The straight line of I/T.
represents the intrinsic conductivity,
the slope being connected with the quantity AE/2, as we have seen earlier.
However, at larger values of 1/T (that is, lower temperatures), the con-
ductivity, instead of continuing to decrease as it would for an intrinsic
semiconductor, becomes approximately constant. At even lower temper-
atures it would start to decrease again, but in many actual cases it is not
followed down to low enough temperatures to observe this phenomenon.
The type of semiconductor which we have been discussing is that in
which there are impurities which can give up electrons to the conduction
band; as we have mentioned earlier, these are called n-type semiconduc-
tors, and their impurities are of the donor type. We have mentioned
that there also exist p-type semiconductors, with acceptor-type impuri-
ties, which result in conduction by holes, or positive carriers. Impurities
of this type are substituted atoms which have too few electrons to take
48 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METAL~ [Chap. 2
their place properly in the band; thus, in Si or Ge, Al or Ga would be a

p-type impurity. Let us see how our picture is to be modified in this
case. The impurity atom replaces a Si or Ge atom in the lattice; let
us assume, for a moment, that an extra electron is supplied, so that the
energy band is filled. This extra electron will be located on the impurity
atom, converting it into a negative ion. This will have the effect of
raising the top of the valence and conduction bands, by the Coulomb-
potential-energy term arising from a negative charge, as in Fig. 2-8. We
shall now have discrete levels at the top of the band, coming from the
holes, acting like positive electrons, executing hydrogenlike orbits about
the negative ion. As in other cases, the modified band still has the same
~Conduction bond
Volence bond
Fm. 2-8. Valence and conduction bands near a p-type impurity atom, showing
acceptor levels.
number of levels as in the unperturbed crystal. The extra electron which

we added to fill the band then will be in the top level of the valence band,
which is the discrete level. If this electron is now removed, to make the
crystal electrically neutral, this level will be vacant. It is then a vacant
impurity level slightly above the top of the valence band. As the tem-
perature is raised, an electron can be excited from the continuum of the
valence band to this impurity level, leaving a hole in this continuum,
which will then lead to conduction by a positive carrier. The Fermi
level, instead of being just below the conduction band, will be just aboye
the valence band, and if we have many such acceptor impurity atoms,
there will be a corresponding number of positive carriers of current at
ordinary temperatures, but very ,few electrons in the conduction band.
The net result, as far as the relation between temperature and conductiv-
ity is concerned, will be as for the n-type semiconductor. One case can
be distinguished from the other, however, by the Hall effect.
3
Cyclotron Resonance and Related
Phenomena
3-1. The Qualitative Nature of Cyclotron Resonance. We have seen

in Sec. 2-4 that the Hall effect can give valuable information regarding
the electrons in a metal or a semiconductor. A number of other, more
recently discovered effects involving magnetic fields have proved to be
very informing regarding the nature of energy bands; two of these are
cyclotron resonance, and the de Haas-van Alphen effect. We shall take
up these and related phenomena in this chapter, and outline the informa-
tion they give regarding band structure. We shall start by describing
cyclotron resonance in terms of a simple classical model, and then shall
show how it works out in the case of real crystals. The phenomenon
is a resonance effect, as its name suggests, between an applied electro-
magnetic field, and the rotational motion of an electron in an impressed
constant magnetic field.
A classical electron of charge -e, in the presence of a constant external
magnetic field B, experiences a force -e(v X B), where vis the velocity.
This is at right angles to the magnetic field; consequently the component
of velocity along the field is not affected by the field, and remains con-
stant. As to the motion in the plane perpendicular to the field, the plane
in which the force acts, the electron executes a circular path, with constant
angular velocity w, called the cyclotron frequency. We can show this
by very elementary methods. If the radius of the circle is R, the linear
velocity v is given by wR. The acceleration of the electron toward the
center of the circle is v 2 / R = w 2 R. The mass times this acceleration
must equal the magnitude of the force, evB = ewRB. Hence we have
mw 2R = ewRB w=!..B (3-1)

rn
where m is the electronic mass. The reason for the name cyclotron reso-
nance is that in a cyclotron, in which we have positive ions in a constant
49
so INSULATO~S, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chap. 3
magnetic field, the angular frequency of rotation is given by this same

equation, but with the mass of the positive ion instead of the electron.
On account of the much smaller mass of the electron, the cyclotron fre-
quency w given by Eq. (3-1) is much higher for the electronic case.
In a cyclotron, one accelerates the particle by applying a radio-fre-
quency impulse to the electrodes, or dees, the frequency equaling w. A
pulse or packet of particles circulates round and round the circle, receiving
an acceleration each time it passes through the dees. Thus its energy
builds up, without changing the angular frequency; the radius of the orbit
increases, the orbits gradually spiraling outward. The radius is con-
nected with the energy by the relation E = mv 2/2 = mw 2R 2/2. When
the radius becomes large enough, the particles are removed from the
beam, having been accelerated to a large energy. In the cyclotron reso-
nance experiments with electrons, a similar method is used for accelerat-
ing the electrons: an oscillating high-frequency electric field is applied
in the plane perpendicular to B, whose frequency is w. This accelerates
the particles, as in the cyclotron, but the acceleration is not observed
directly by investigating the particles, but indirectly: as the frequency
of the electric field is adjusted, we find absorption of high-frequency
power when its frequency equals the cyclotron frequency. From our
observation of this resonance frequency, w can be found.
The object of the experiment is to find the cyclotron frequency, which·
for a classical electron, as we see from Eq. (3-1), equals eB/m. For a
wave packet in a crystal, if we can describe it by means of a single effec-
tive mass, the cyclotron frequency is eB/rn*. Its measurement thus
gives us a way of finding the effective mass. However, the really inter-
esting applications of the method come in cases where we cannot use a
single effective mass, but where, rather, we have an energy expression
like that of Eq. (2-11), with several effective masses. It gives us the
possibility, as we shall now show, of establishing the form of the energy
as a function of wave vector, in the neighborhood of a maximum or
minimum.
To explain how this is done, let us suppose that the energy can be
expanded about a minimum as a quadratic function of the momentum,
but that the principal axes of the ellipsoid are not necessarily known.
Consider a wave packet which at t = 0 is located on a given energy
surface. This surface will be an ellipsoid in momentum space. As we
know from Eq. (2-5), the time rate of change of the crystal momentum
will be the force -e(v x B), where by Eq. (2-3) the velocity v of the
wave packet is given by v = (1/h) gradk E, where E is the energy, a
function of the wave vector k, and gradk signifies differentiation with
respect to the components of k. But the gradient of E is necessarily
perpendicular to the surface E = constant, or to the energy surface.
Sec. 3-1] CYCLOTRON RESONANCE AND RELATED PHENOMENA 51
Since v X B is at right angles to v, it must lie in the energy surface.

Hence we prove the theorem that the vector representing the time rate
of change of the crystal momentum lies tangential to the energy surface.
This implies that the energy is not changed by the action of the magnetic
field; so that this result, for the motion of a wave packet in a periodic
potential, is identical with that of a free electron, the magnetic field doing
no work on the particle, or leaving its energy constant.
Next we note that the vector v X B must be at right angles to the
magnetic field B. Hence if we take a plane perpendicular to B, cutting
through the ellipsoid of constant energy in the momentum space, and
passing through the point of this energy surface corresponding to the
position of the wave packet at t = 0, the intersection of the plane and
the ellipsoid will represent the path of the wave packet in the momentum
space, under the action of the magnetic field. This intersection is an
ellipse; and all such intersections, corresponding to different components
of crystal momentum along the direction of the magnetic field, will be
similar ellipses. Let us then look into the motion of the wave packet
around the ellipse. It is obvious that for a particular ellipse, a definite
time will be required for the packet to go once around the ellipse. The
motion will then be periodic, but it is a somewhat complicated task to
compute the period, in terms of the various effective masses of Eq. (2-11);
we shall carry through this calculation in Sec. 3-6. The period will be
the same, irrespective of the component of crystal momentum along the
direction of the field, provided that component is small enough so that
the quadratic approximation of Eq. (2-11) still holds. We can see this
by a simple argument. If we double the linear dimensions of the ellipse,
we double the value of v, therefore double the value of dp/dt; but since
the circumference of the ellipse is twice as great, the same time will be
required to traverse this circumference, with the doubled value of velocity
in momentum space. Hence there is a definite value of the cyclotron
frequency, for a given direction of magnetic field; but the value will
depend on the direction of the field.
This is enough information so that we can understand in a qualitative
way how the method of cyclotron resonance can be used to investigate
the maxima and minima of the energy bands. We shall illustrate by
using the example for which the method was first worked out, that of
finding where the minimum of the conduction band lies for germanium.
In Volume 2, Fig. 10-16, where we showed the energy bands of ger-
manium, we indicated that the lowest point of the conduction band lay
i,,t the point L, with the wave functions of symmetry L 1. This point,
we remember, is at the extremity of the 111 direction, at the edge of the
Brillouin zone. On the other hand, there is a minimum of the band '11,
along the 100 direction, which is almost as low. How can we tell experi-
mentally which of these wave vectors corresponds to the lowest energy?

The distinction was made experimentally, not theoretically, and by the
use of cyclotron resonance.
We note first that if the lowest point were at the point L, then the
surface of constant energy, slightly above the minimum energy, would
consist of eight ellipsoids of revolution in momentum space. Each one
(o)
C=:> 0 C=:>
0
0
( c)
0
(d)
FIG. 3-1. Diagram to illustrate cyclotron resonance in germanium, bottom of conduc-

tion band. Ellipses represent intersection of plane perpendicular to magnetic field
with the ellipsoidal energy surfaces. (a) Magnetic field along x axis, assuming ellip-
soidal energy surfaces have major axes along the Ill directions; (b) magnetic field
along 11 I direction, energy surfaces as in (a); (c, d) magnetic field along x axis, and
111 direction, respectively, if major axes of ellipsoidal energy surfaces are along ±x,
±y, ±z axes.
would have one axis (which proves to be the major axis) along one of the
eight directions similar to 111; on account of symmetry around this axis,
it is easily shown that the other two axes of the ellipsoid must be equal
to each other (in the actual case, the minor axis). The ellipsoids then
would have to be cigar-shaped. The e0nters of these ellipsoids would
be at the points L in the momentum space. If then the magnetic field
were along the x axis, a surface perpendicular to this field would cut the
eight ellipsoids in four elliptical curves, as shown in Fig. 3-Ia. These
would point outward in the four 45° directions. On account of their

similar shape, the time taken for a wave packet to travel around each
of the curves would be the same. There would then be a single cyclotron
frequency for a magnetic field along x. On the other hand, for a magnetic
field along the 111 direction, x = y = z, we should see quite a different
pattern. As we see from Fig. 3-Ib, we should be looking straight down
the major axis of two of the ellipsoids, those pointing along 111 and
-1-1-1, while the other six ellipsoids would point out in six directions
making angles of 60° with each other. These latter ellipsoids would be
cut by planes perpendicular to the magnetic field in ellipses, while the
remaining two would be cut in circles. The ellipses would correspond
to one cyclotron frequency, the circles to another. Hence for a magnetic
field along 111, we should find two cyclotron frequencies.
Now let us consider the alternative situation if the lowest energy in
the conduction band had been along the direction ~- Then for an energy
slightly above the minimum value, there would have been six different
ellipsoidal surfaces corresponding to the same energy, which again might
be cigar-shaped, but with their axes along ± x, ± y, ± z. If in this case
the magnetic field were along x, the intersection of a plane perpendicular
to the field with the energy surfaces would give circles for the two surfaces
along ± x, but we should have four ellipses, with angles of 90° between
them, for the other four ellipsoids, as in Fig. 3-lc. Hence in this case
we should find two cyclotron frequencies. For a magnetic field along 111,
on the contrary, we should see only three ellipses, all similar to each other,
making angles of 120° with each other, as in Fig. 3-ld. Hence we should
find only one cyclotron frequency. The two cases, therefore, lead to
opposite conclusions.
Experiment1 in this case decided in favor of the first hypothesis. Fur-
thermore, by careful study of the values of the cyclotron frequency as a
function of the orientation of the magnetic field, and by working out in
detail the theory which we have sketched above, it is found that one can
get very accurate correspondence between the theory and experiment,
and can use the experiment to find the effective masses in the different
directions. In this particular case of germanium, we have two effective
masses, one for the axis along 111, which is one of the principal axes of
the ellipsoid, and another for either of two axes at right angles to 111.
3-2. Landau's Treatment of Free Electrons in a Magnetic Field. We
have seen by the simple discussion of the preceding section that detailed
information about energy bands can be found from magnetic-resonance
ex1Jerimcnts. "\Ve shall now go on to a more quantitative study of this
1 G. Dresselhaus, A. F. Kip, and C. Kittel, Phys. Rev., 98 :368 (1955). See par-
ticularly fig. 5, which shows the three cyclotron frequencies degenerating to two along
the 111 direction, and to one along 100.
and related problems. As a first step, we need to understand the theory

of the motion of electrons in a magnetic field in detail, first for free elec-
trons, then for electrons in a periodic potential. We shall start the
discussion of the free-electron case in the present section, first using a
method devised by Landau 1 for handling the problem of the diamag-
netism of metals.
The Hamiltonian for an electron of charge - e, mass m, in a magnetic
field whose vector potential is A, is
H = (p + eA)2 (3-2)
2m
(A discussion of this Hamiltonian is given, for instance, in J. C. Slater,
"Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure," vol. 1, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1960, appendix 4.) To convert this Hamil-
tonian into an operator, we proceed in the usual way, replacing p by the
operator -ifiV. We then find for Schrodinger's equation with the time
eliminated
_ !!!_ V2V1 _ iehA , V VI + e2A 2 VI = EV1 (3-3)
2m m 2m
where E is the energy. We assume a constant magnetic field B, along
the z direction. There is no unique way to write its vector potential,.
but to secure agreement with Landau, we shall write
A,,= A,= 0 A 11 = Bx (3-4)
which leads to the correct magnetic field through the relation B = curl A.
If we insert Eq. (3-4) into Eq. (3-3), we find for Schrodinger's equation
- !!!_ v2VI - iehB x iJV1 + e2B2 x2,Jt = EV1 (3-5)

2m m iJy 2m
We can solve this equation by writing

VI = X(x) exp i(k,,y + k,z) (3-6)
When we substitute this expression into Eq. (3-5), we find
_ !!!_ d 2X + e2B 2 (x + ky'li) 2 X = (E _ k!h 2) X (3-7)

2m dx 2 2m eB 2m
This is the Schrodinger equation for a harmonic oscillator whose angular

frequency w is given by eB/m, as in Eq. (3-1). For the energy we then
have
(3-:8)
1 L. Landau, Z. Physik, 64 :629 (1930).

where n is a quantum number. The functions X(x) are the ordinary

solutions of the linear-oscillator problem, but expressed as functions of
x + k,/h/eB, so that for a given k 11 , the center of the function X(x) is at
- k/1,/ eB instead of at the origin.
We see that in the magnetic field the motion in the xy plane is quantized;
the resulting levels are called the Landau levels. They are closely
related to the cyclotron frequency found in the cyclotron resonance
experiment. If we are dealing with the quantum theory, we expect an
impressed radiation field of angular frequency w to induce transitions,
changing from one value of the quantum number n to another. Since
we are dealing with a linear-oscillator type of problem, there will be a
selection rule limiting changes of n to ± 1. Hence the emitted or
absorbed photons will have energies of liw, so that the emitted or absorbed
angular frequency will be w, agreeing with the classical explanation of
cyclotron resonance.
There is a large amount of degeneracy in these energy levels, for we
notice that the energy does not depend on the quantum number k 11 • To
find the number of degenerate levels, we shall assume that the electron
is confined in a rectangular box, with dimensions X 1, Y 1, Z 1 along the
three coordinate axes, and shall use periodic boundary conditions rather
than requiring that the wave function go to zero on the boundary. The
quantity k 11 will then take on values for which exp ik 11 Y1 = 1, which
requires that
k 11 = 21r . . t
y 1 times an m eger (3-9)
Thus the quantity k 111i/eB takes on values of h/eBY 1 times an integer.

These represent the values of x at which the functions X can be centered.
In the periodic distance X 1 , the number of allowed values of x will be
X 1 divided by the spacing, or
Number of degenerate levels = X 1 Yi/(h/eB) (3-10)
In other words, we can set up strips parallel to they axis, of width h/eBY 1
along the x direction, and of length Y1 along y, so that each strip has an
area of h/eB. Each level is assigned, so to speak, to one of these strips.
The number of degenerate levels is the number of strips which can fit
into the cross-sectional area X 1 Y 1 of the container in a plane perpendicu-
lar to the magnetic field.
The treatment which we have given, following the method of Landau,
is perfectly correct, but it does not show any obvious relationship to
the circular orbits which we have discussed in Sec. 3-1. On account of
the high degree of degeneracy, we can make linear combinations of func-
tions of one energy (that is, one value of the quantum number n, and
one k,), and find many alternative forms of the solution. In the next
section, we shall show that by setting up a solution in cylindrical coordi-
nates, we can get results suggesting the circular orbits much more directly.
3-3. Free Electrons in a Magnetic Field in Cylindrical Coordinates.
Instead of proceeding as in the preceding section, using rectangular
coordinates, let us set up cylindrical polar coordinates r, cJ,, z, and express
Schrodinger's equation in these coordinates. It is more convenient for
this purpose to write the vector potential in the form
A 11 = ½xB A.= 0 (3-11)
which leads to the same magnetic field as the vector potential of Eq. (3-4).
When we substitute this into Schrodinger's equation, Eq. (3-3), we find
2 2
- -h
2m
2
V 2if, - -iehB
2m
( - y -iJ
iJx
+ x iJy
-iJ) if, + -e B (x + y )if, =
· Sm
2 2 Eif, (3-12)
which in cylindrical coordinates becomes

- 1,,2 (;)2y; + 1 iJif, + 12 a2if,2 + iJ2if,) - i,ehB iJif, + e2B2 r2if, - Eif, (3-13)
2m iJr 2 r iJr r iJcJ, 2
iJz 2m iJcJ, Sm
We can now obtain a solution of the form
if, = R(r) exp ijcJ, exp ik,z (3-14) .
in which j, as usual in -problems of cylindrical symmetry, must be an
integer. When we insert this expression- in Eq. (3-13), we find
- 1,,2
2m
(d2R
dr
+ 1 dR -
2r dr
i2 R) + e2B2 r2R -
r2 8m
(E - ehjB
2m
- k;h2) R
2m
(3-15)
To solve this equation, we now follow a procedure introduced by Fock, 1

in a discussion of the problem of a linear oscillator in a magnetic field,
which results in a Schrodinger equation of the same form, and later
applied to the present problem by Dingle. 2 This procedure is given in
Appendix 3. The result is that we have eigenfunctions given by
R = r;exp [-(ireB/2h)r 2l[B 0 + B 1rr 2eB/h + B (1rT eB/h)
1 2 2 2
+ · · · + Bn(1rr eB/h)n] 2 (3-16)

where n is an integer, and
4(n +1 - s)
B. = -B,-i (j + 2s - l)(j + 2s + 1) - (j - l)(j + 1) (3-l 7 )
The eigenvalues are given by
E = (n + + !)
j
2
ehB
m
+ k;h2
2m
(3-18)
1 V. Fock, Z. Physik, 47 :446 (1928).

1 R. B. Dingle, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A211 :500 (1952).
The energy which we have found agrees with the value of Eq. (3-8),
if we identify the present integer n +
j with then of Eq. (3-8). We have
a different form for the wave functions, however, though by general
principles we know that one of the wave functions corresponding to a
given energy must be capable of being expressed as a linear combination
of the functions for the same energy determined by Landau's method.
This linear combination, however, may be very involved, and our present
method obviates the need of finding it.
Let us now consider the general nature of this solution. The depend-
ence on <f, is exp ij<f,, as in any cylindrically symmetrical problem. The
function R, a radial wave function, has nodes arising from the poly-
nomial; there are n nodes. Just as with the hydrogen problem, the
equivalent of the classical circular orbit is that for which the radial quan-
tum number n is zero. In other words, for the circular orbit, we have
11 = r; exp [-('11'eB/2h)r 2] (3-19)
This is a function which has a high maximum at a certain value of r; it

can be -expanded about that maximum approximately as a Gaussian func-
tion. The standard method of doing this is to expand ln R about its
maximum in a power series. We have
In R = j In r - 'll'eB r 2
2h
d In R j 1reB
~=;:-Tr (3-20)
d 2 In R j 1reB
dr 2 = - r2 - h
The first derivative, d In R/dr, is zero when
1rr2 = -jh (3-21)

eB
That is, the area of the orbit (if it is considered to be a circle of radius r,
where the wave function has its maximum) is j times the fundamental
unit h/ eB which we discussed in the preceding section. For this value
of r, the second derivative is -2'Jl'eB/h. Hence we can start a Taylor
expansion of In R in the form
In R = constant - (1reB/h) (r - yjh/1reB) 2 + ··· (3-22)
When we now take the exponential of this quantity, we have approximately
R = exp [ - ('ll'eB /h)(r - v'jh/1reB) 2] X constant (3-23)

which is a Gaussian function which has its maximum when r has the value
given by Eq. (3-21).
The function which we have given in Eq. (3-23), which is approximately
equal to the true wave function for n = 0, would be the exact wave func-
tion for the ground state of a linear-oscillator problem in which the poten-
tial energy had a minimum at r = yjh/1f'eB, and for which the angular
frequency of the oscillator was the cyclotron frequency, as one can verify
from the solution of tl).e linear-oscillator problem. This solution, for the
ground state of the oscillator, can be written in the form exp [ - (1rmw/h)x 2],
where xis the displacement, m the mass, w the angular frequency. This
would agree with Eq. (3-23), if we had w = eB/m, the cyclotron fre-
quency. We can see why we have this relationship, by considering the
limit of Eq. (3-15) for large values of the quantum number j.
In the limit of large j, the wave function would be concentrated near
the circle whose radius is given in Eq. (3-21), and which therefore corre-
sponds to larger. In this limit, the term 1/r dR/dr can be neglected in
Eq. (3-15) in comparison with d 2R/dr 2• Furthermore, the effective
potential energy,
1,,2p
--
2mr 2
+ --
e2n2
8m
r2 (3-24)
can be expanded in the neighborhood of its minimum in power series;

the value, up to quadratic terms, is
ehjB
2m
+! B 2 (r _
2 m
e2 {]h)
'\J;;Ii
2
(3-25)
Aside from the additive term ehjB/2m, this is the potential energy of a lin-
ear oscillator of angular frequency w = eB/m, centered at r = yjh/1f'eB.
It is only natural, then, that the ground-state wave function should be
that of such an oscillator. Furthermore, the energy of the ground state
of the oscillator would give the correct energy of the problem. From
Eq. (3-15) we see that the energy E equals ehjB/2m + k!h.2/2m plus the
energy of the linear-oscillator problem. The latter contributes the addi-
tive term ehjB/2m, adding to the similar term already present, as well
as the ground-state energy of the oscillator, ½hw. Hence we find for
the energy the amount (j + ½)hw + k!h 2/2m, as we should have.
Not only the state n = 0 of the radial problem is given by the linear-
oscillator case, but higher states as well. From Eq. (3-16) we see that
the states for n ~ 0 consist of the function which can be approximated
by Eq. (3-23), multiplied by a polynomial of degree n. This is the form
which we should have for the state of a linear oscillator corresponding
to quantum number n. Furthermore, examination of the polynomials
given by Eq. (3-16) and comparison with the polynomials met in the
linear-oscillator problem shows that they agree in the limit of large j.

The energy of the linear oscillator of course leads precisely to the expres-
sion of Eq. (3-18). In other words, the linear-oscillator approximation
to the solution of Eq. (3-15) gives exactly the correct energy levels, but
only approximately the correct wave functions. In the limit of large r,
or large j, however, the wave functions as well approach the correct
limiting values.
The wave function which we have found for n = 0 is the one corre-
sponding to the circular orbit in the classical theory of the motion of an
electron in a magnetic field. We have noted that its energy is (j + >~)hw
+ k;h 2/2m, and the area of the orbit isjh/eB. The relation of these two
quantities agrees with the classical relation, except for the additive con-
stant½- Thus, in Sec. 3-1, we found that the energy Eis related to the
radius R of the orbit by the equation
(3-26)
In this equation the energy of translational motion along the z direction,
k;h 2/2m, was omitted. If we replace the energy by jhw, and replace
7rR 2 by jh/eB, we find that these quantities satisfy Eq. (3-26), when we
recall the definition of w.
The wave functions for n ,;,t, 0 do not correspond to circular orbits
surrounding the origin. At this point, we must recall the great amount
of degeneracy, which we have pointed out earlier. These other orbits,
or wave functions, do not correspond directly to classical orbits, as the
circular case n = 0 does. Rather, they furnish a large number of degen-
erate functions, from which it would be possible to construct linear com-
binations representing circular orbits surrounding points other than the
ongm. It is only the case n = 0 which has a close relationship to the
classical circular orbit.
We may now ask: Why was it desirable to set up the type of solution
we have given? If we construct a wave packet out of wave functions
of approximately a given energy, this wave packet will rotate in an
appropriate circle in a phne perpendicular to the magnetic field, with
the cyclotron frequency, as a classical particle would move, no matter
which type of functions we use to construct the wave packet; we could
use, for instance, the functions of the type given by Landau. If we
started with such functions, however, it would be a complicated process
to construct the wave packet, and we should have no physical feeling
for the result. With the cylindrical solution, on the other hand, the
single solution for a given j, corresponding ton = 0, forms a very good
first approximation to a wave packet of the circular type. It is localized
already as far as the radius is concerned. We should have to superpose
similar waves with different but neighboring values of k, to localize it
along the z direction, and waves with different but neighboring values
of j to localize it with respect to the angle cJ,, which would be necessary
to get a wave packet relatively concentrated in phase, so that an external
electric field of angular frequency w could resonate with it, and cause
the packet to absorb energy. We should ordinarily also use a superposi-
tion of waves with values of n close to zero, to get just the desired wave
packet. But the net result would be very much like a packet circulating
around the circular wave function given by our solution corresponding
to n = 0. The reason for using this solution, in other words, is to get a
good physical picture of the wave function corresponding to the classical
circular orbit, just as a hydrogenic wave function corresponding to zero
value of the radial quantum number resembles the classical circular
Bohr orbit.
Now that we have worked out our wave functions for the circular
orbits, we note one very interesting fact, which has been emphasized
by Onsager: 1 the areas of the circular orbits are quantized, as we see from
Eq. (3-21); they are integral multiples of the fundamental unit h/ eB.
This statement of course cannot be taken in a rigorous fashion, since
there is no rigorous way of defining the radius of a wave function, but
it holds if we define it as the radius at which the wave function has its
maximum value, as we have done in deriving Eq. (3-21). Onsager states
this result in a slightly different way. He notes that the flux of magnetic
field through the orbit equals the area times the magnetic field (which
is normal to the orbit). Thus, from Eq. (3-21), this flux, which is 1rr2B,
equals jh/ e:
Magnetic flux through orbit = jh (3-27)
e
This theorem of Onsager's will prove to be important, as we shall see in

the next section, because it holds for electrons moving in a periodic poten-
tial, as well as in free space. It is a fundamental property of electronic
orbits in a magnetic field.
With our circular orbits, of area given by Eq. (3-21), we could well
assign an area of h/ eB to each orbit, equal to the area of the ring contained
between two circles corresponding to two successive integral values of j.
The degeneracy of states with a given energy must, of course, be the same
with this method of treating the problem as with Landau's method.
Thus as in that case we find the number of degenerate levels by finding
how many times this area h/ eB would fit into the cross section of the
container.
3-4. The Relation of Onsager's Theorem to the Quantum Condition.
We have mentioned in our discussion of Eq. (3-27) that Onsager's theo-
1 L. Onsager, Phil. Mag., 43 :1006 (1952). ·
rem, stating that the magnetic flux through an orbit equaled jh/ e, where
j is a quantum number, has a fundamental significance, holding not
merely for free electrons but for electrons in a periodic potential as well.
As a first step in discussing this situation, we shall show that for free
electrons there is a close connection between Eq. (3-27) and the Sommer-
feld quantum condition. We shall find, in fact, that !f p • dr, integrated
around the orbit, equals jh, and that this relation is equivalent to Eq.
(3-27).
In discussing this relation, we must recall that the relation between
momentum and velocity in the presence of a magnetic field is not the
simple one which we have in the absence of a field. By one of Hamilton's
equations, we have
dx iJH Px + eAx
dt = Vx = ilpx = m (3-28)
with similar results for Vv and v,. Let us set up a classical motion in a
circle surrounding the origin, with radius R. We have x = R cos wt,
y = R sin wt, Vx = dx/dt = -wR sin wt, Vy = wR cos wt. Furthermore
we have Ax = -yB/2 = -(RB/2) sin wt, Av = xB/2 = (RB/2) cos wt.
Thus we have
Px = mvx - eAx = ( -mwR + eRB/2) sin wt
= ( -eRB + eRB /2) sin wt = - (eRB /2) sin wt
(3-29)
Pv = mvy - eAv = (mwR - eRB/2) cos wt
= (eRB - eRB/2) cos wt = (eRB/2) cos wt
Let us now use these results to compute !f p • dr = !f p · v dt. This
is the sum of !f Px dx and !f Pu dy, and we should expect it to be quantized
according to Sommerfeld's quantum condition; we shall consider the
reason for this later. We have
P · V = PxVx+ PvVb = (ERB/2)wR(sin 2 wt + cos 2 wt)
= eR Bw/2
2 (3-30)
Since this is a constant, its integral with respect to time, around a com-
plete cycle, equals its constant value, multiplied by the period of rotation,
which is 2n-/w. Hence we have
!fp • dr = (eR 2Bw/2)(2n-/w) = 1rR 2eB (3-31)
If we set this integral equal to jh, we have
R,2 = jh (3-32)
1r ' eB
in agreement with Eq. (3-21).
We may ask why Sommerfeld's quantum condition should be expected
to hold, in this form. We recall its fundamental meaning: it states that
the number of wavelengths in the orbit is an integer. By de Broglie's

relation, the momentum equals h/X, where X is the wavelength. Hence
ji'p • dr is identical with h times the number of wavelengths in the orbit,
from which the quantum condition follows at once. This relation holds
in a magnetic field as well as without it. We replace p by the operator
-ih'v, whether there is a magnetic field or not, and if the wave function
varies like exp 21rix/X, where x is the distance along the orbit, the opera-
tor p operating on the wave function gives h/X times the function, quite
aside from the question as to whether there is a vector potential or not.
In the present case, the quantum number j is the one measuring the num-
ber of wavelengths around the circle. This is obvious from the form of
the wave function in cylindrical coordinates, in which we have found
that it depends on the angle cf, through the exponential function exp ijct,,
which directly shows us that the function goes through j periods of sinus-
oidal oscillation when ct, increases by 21r.
Now that we see the fundamental significance of Onsager's relation,
we may well expect that it can be used in more general cases than that
of the free electron. This proves to be the case, and its use provides us
with the key to the approximate treatment of electrons in a periodic
potential and a magnetic field. The exact solution of Schrodinger's
equation in such a case is extremely difficult, in contrast to the case of
free electrons, and we shall not attempt to discuss the rigorous solution.
However, the use of the Sommerfeld quantum condition goes through
simply here, as with the free electrons, and it gives results adequate for
most purposes, and as accurate as the use of Sommerfeld's quantum
condition usually is: that is, it can give us information about the energy
levels, correct except for a possible ambiguity as to whether to use an
integer times h, an integer plus a half, or whether the quantum condition
is not rigorously accurate at all, either with whole or with half integers.
We may expect that the error will not be greater than this, and this proves
to be enough to get many valuable results regarding the motion of elec-
trons in a periodic potential plus a magnetic field. We now go on in
the next section to this problem.
3-5. Onsager's Theorem for the Periodic Potential. Let us .apply the
argument of the preceding section to the case of an electron moving
in a periodic potential, as well as a constant magnetic field. The funda-
mental equation which we must use is Eq. (2-5), which we may write
in the form
dk
h dt = -e[E + (v x B)] (3-33)
saying that the time rate of change of the quantity -lik is given by the
classical force acting on the electron. We recall that this equation gives
Sec. 3-5] CYCLOTROM RESONANCE AND RELATED PHENOMENA 63
the acceleration of the wave packet. In the present case we have no

electric field, so that we may rewrite Eq. (3-33) in the form
dk = -e (dr
h dt dt X B) (3-34)
where we have replaced the velocity v of the wave packet by dr/dt, where
r is its vector position. Since B is a constant magnetic field, we may
integrate this equation with respect to time, and we obtain
hk = -e[(r - ro) X BJ + hko (3-35)
Here we have introduced quantities r0 and k 0 of the nature of constants
of integration, whose behavior we shall now describe.
The quantity liko represents the constant component of crystal momen-
tum. The quantity ro has a component along B equal to the component
of r along B, so that r - ro is at right angles to B. The component of ro
at right angles to B is arbitrary, but independent of time, allowing the
orbit to be centered at any point of space. We see that dro/dt is parallel
to B, so that it makes no contribution to dk/dt. It is the drift velocity
of the electron along the direction of the field, which is effective in setting
up the helical motion, and the vector r - r 0 represents the projection of
the orbit in the plane perpendicular to the field, which is required for
the application of Onsager's theorem.
From Eq. (3-35) we see that the vector h(k - ko), the component
of the vector position in momentum space perpendicular to the
magnetic field, is at right angles to the vector r - ro, the projection
of the radius vector in ordinary space on the plane perpendicular to the
field. An immediate result of this fact is that the orbit of the wave
packet in k space is similar to the projection of the orbit in ordinary space
on a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field, but rotated through 90°
[!bout the direction of the magnetic field, and the areas are related by
the equation
e2s2
Area of orbit in k space = ¥
X projected area of orbit in ordinary space (3-36)
Now let us find the quantity §p • dr, which we have seen in the preced-
ing section should equal Jh, where j is a quantum number. The integra-
tion is to be around the projected orbit in the plane perpendicular to the
magnetic field. From Appendix 1 we know that
hk = p + eA (3-37)
Thus we must find §(lik - eA) • dr. Now from Eq. (3-35) we know
that hk = -e[(r - r 0) X BJ + hk 0 • As for the other term, the expres-
64 INSULATOl!S, S_EMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chap. 3
sion for the vector potential, Az = -yB/2, A 11 = xB/2, A, = 0, from

Eq. (3-11), can be replaced by the form
A = - (r - ~) X B · eA = - ; [(r - ro) X BJ (3-38)

:;"-
which differs from the earlier value by a constant, (r 0 X B) /2, which
does not affect the magnetic field. The expression (3-38) allows the
magnetic field to be in an arbitrary direction, rather than along z. Then
the expression lik - eA becomes liko - (e/2)[(r - r 0) X B], the term in
-eA contributing -½ as much as the term in lik. As far as lik 0 is con-
cerned, it gives nothing, since ko is perpendicular to dr. Then we have
f P · dr = - ; f [(r - ro) X B] • d(r - r 0) (3-39)
By a familiar vector identity we can rewrite this in the form
f P · dr = ; B • f [(r - r 0) X d(r - r 0)] (3-40)
Now ½J'[(r - ro) X d(r - ro)] equals in magnitude the area of the pro-
jection of the orbit in ordinary space on the plane perpendicular to the
magnetic field, by familiar vector geometry, since ½[(r - r 0) X d(r - r 0)]
is the area of a triangle formed from the vectors r - ro and d(r - r0), and
the sum of all such triangles equals the area of the orbit. The quantity
½J'[(r - ro) X d(r - r 0)] is a vector, perpendicular to the plane of the
orbit, and therefore parallel to B, so that the scalar product in Eq. (3-40)
is merely the magnitude of B times the magnitude of the area of the
orbit. Hence we have
Area of orbit in ordinary space = J'p • dr/eB = jh/eB (3-41)
where we have set the phase integral J'p • dr equal to jh, as in the case
of free electrons. In Eq. (3-41) we have the generalization of Eq. (3-32)
to the general case of electrons moving in a periodic potential, verifying
the general significance of Onsager's theorem.
_From Eq. (3-36) we can transform Eq. (3-41) into a form involving
the area of the orbit ink space. We have at once
A rea of orb. . k 21rjeB

it m space = - h - (3-42)
where we recall that j is an integer. This equation will prove to be of

fundamental significance in the de Haas-van Alphen effect, which we
shall discuss later.
3-6. The Cyclotron Frequency for Ellipsoidal Energy Surfaces. We

shall now take the case where the energy surfaces in k space can be
approximated by a quadratic expression, as in Eq. (2-11), and shall find
the cyclotron frequency. We set
(3-43)
where we have chosen the zero of energy to lie at the bottom of the energy
band, and have chosen the rectangular axes to lie along the principal
axes of the ellipsoid. This means that the axes may be rotated with
respect to those natural to use considering the crystal symmetry. We
shall consider magnetic fields oriented in any arbitrary way with respect
to the coordinates.
We now recall that the area of a triangle formed from the vectors
k - ko and d(k - ko) is ½[(k - k 0) X d(k - k 0)], and that if we inte-
grate this around the orbit, we get the area of the orbit in k space. Fur-
thermore, from Eq. (3-33), we have Ji d(k - ko)/dt = -e(v X B). We
then have
1 [ (k - ko) X d (k dt
2
- ko) ]
= - 2eh [(k - k 0) X (v X B)]
- 2~ (v[(k - ko) · BJ
- B[(k - k 0) • vl) (3-44)
where we have used a vector identity. Since k - ko is perpendicular
to B, the first term on the right side vanishes, and Eq. (3-44) reduces to
!2 [(k - k)
° X
d(k -
dt
ko)] = eB2h [(k - k). ]
O V
eB [ aE
= 2t,,2 (k - ko)x okx
+ (k - ko)v akv
aE + (k aE]
- ko), ak,
_ eBE _ eB (ko,,kx + kouku + ko,k,) (3_45 )
- Ji 2 2 m,, my m,
In this derivation we have used Eq. (2-3), v = (1/h) gradk E.

We now integrate over the period, with respect to time. On the left
we have the area of the orbit, in k space. The first term on the right,
eBE/h 2 , a co11sta11t, must be multiplied by the period 21r/w, where w is
the cyclotron frequency. The remaining terms on the right are time-
dependent, so that we replace them by their time average value, multi-
plied by 21r/w. We note that k 0 represents the average value of k.
Hence, when we solve for the energy, we have
E = wh2 f b' . k
21reB X area o or 1t m space
+h 2 ( k5:,,
2mx
+ k5y
2my
+ ko,)
2m,
= jhw + Ji2 ( 2mx
k5x + k5y + k5,)
2my 2m,
(3-46)
in which we have used Eq. (3-42). The first term in Eq. (3-46) repre-
sents the quantized energy arising from the motion in the plane per-
pendicular to the magnetic field, and the remaining terms represent the
kinetic energy of motion along the direction of the field.
The first point to notice regarding Eq. (3-46) is that the energy is
related to the cyclotron frequency by an equation like Eq. (3-8), as in
Landau's theory of free electrons. The angular frequency w is still the
cyclotron frequency, j is a quantum number, but since we are using the
Sommerfeld quantum condition, rather than using wave mechanics, we
do not have the half quantum number found in the expression n + }'2
in Eq. (3-8); this modification should properly be made in Eq. (3-46).
Next, by analogy with Eq. (3-1), we may define an effective mass m*
related to the cyclotron frequency for a magnetic field in an arbitrary ·
direction, by the equation w = eB/m*. We may also define a second
effective mass, m**, such that the last terms in the energy, in Eq. (3-46),
arising from the drift velocity, can be written in the form h 2k~/2m **.
In terms of these two effective masses, Eq. (3-46) can be rewritten in the
form
(3-47)
where the quantum number j should properly be replaced by j + ½ to

take care of the half quantum numbers of wave mechanics.
The next problem is to find the two effective masses m* and m** in
terms of the direction of the magnetic field. If the direction cosines of
the field are a, (3, 'Y, we shall show that these quantities are given by 1
(3-48)
1 See W. Shockley, Phys. Rev., 90 :491 (1953), for formula form* and its application
to problems of cyclotron resonance.

As a first step in demonstrating these values we shall set up the equations

of motion ink space, given by Eq. (3-34), finding the velocity from the
equation v = (1/h) gradk E, with E as given in Eq. (3-43). We then have
dk., = -eB (ky k. )

-dt -my 'Y -
m. /3
-
-eB ( -k. Ol - -
k., 'Y) (3-49)
dt m. m.,
dk,
dt
= -eB (k., /3 _ a)
m., my
k.11
We now take the case where the crystal momentum is constant, that
is, where there is no elliptical motion, so that the area of the orbit in k
space, as given in Eq. (3-46), is zero. To have the crystal momentum
independent of time, the right side of each equation of Eq. (3-49) must
vanish. We shall have this situation, as is obvious by inspection, if
(3-50)
From this equation we see that the constant crystal momentum is not
in the direction of the magnetic field; if it were, the components ko.,, koy,
ko, themselves would be in the ratio of a to {3 to 'Y, rather than the ratios
ko.,/m.,, etc. The reason for this is simple. With an ellipsoidal energy
surface, as is given in Eq. (3-43), the velocity is not in general parallel to
the crystal momentum. The velocity, given by the equation v = (1/h)
gradk E, has components hko,/m.,, hk0y/m,11 hko./m.. From Eq. (3-50) we
see that these components are in the ratio of a to {3 to 'Y, so that it is the
velocity, rather than the crystal momentum, which is parallel to the mag-
netic field, as is required by the condition that v X B should be zero for a
constant crystal momentum. The magnitude of the velocity is hko/m **
Let us now satisfy Eq. (3-50) by the assumption
ko., = am.,C ko. = -ym,C (3-51)
where C is a constant. We then have

k5., + k511 + k2 • = (a2m; + {32m; + ,,2m;)C2
k5., + kg11 + k5, = (a m., + [j2my + ,,2m.)C2
2 (3-52)
m., m 11 m,
k2 k2 k2 .
o:
m.,
+ myo; + ~
m,
= (a2 + 132 + ,,2)Q2 = c2
From Eq. (3-52) we find that the second term of Eq. (3-46), giving the
68 INSULATORS, SEMtCONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chap; :J - --
drift velocity contribution to the kinetic energy, is
;,,2 (k~., + k~11 + ki.) = ;,,2 (a2m., + 132m11 + -y2m.)C2

2m,, m11 m. 2
- ;,,2 a2m., + 132my + -y2m. (k2 + k2 + k2 )
- 2 a2m; + 132m~ + -y2m! oz 011 o,
;,,2k2
= __ o (3-53)
2m**
where m** is given in Eq. (3-48). Thus we have verified this part of
Eq. (3-47).
Next we shall consider the cyclotron frequency, and the determination
of the cyclotron mass m*. We let the crystal momentum be the sum
of the constant value which we have just been discussing, and a time-
dependent part, representing the rotation about the elliptical path in k
space found as the intersection of the energy surface of Eq. (3-43), and
the plane corresponding to a constant component Po of crystal momentum
along the direction of the magnetic field. As far as the constant part
of the crystal momentum is concerned, it gives no contribution to either
side of Eq. (3-49). These equations therefore can be considered as the
equations relating the time-dependent parts of the components of the
crystal momentum. If we had m., = mu = m,, we should have in Eq. -
(3-49) the equations of motion of a free electron in a magnetic field, which
we have already solved. The treatment we use is one which reduces
Eq. (3-49) to this form. We let
k: = k.,/Vmz a'/m* = a/v'm11m.

k~ = Icy/'\!'my /3'/m* = 13/v'm.,,m. (3-54)
k: = k,/v"m: -y'/m* = -y/y"m.,m11
In terms of these substitutions, Eq. (3-49) is transformed to
dk: = _ eB (k' , _ k'R') (3-55)

dt m* 11'Y z/J
with corresponding equations for the other two components. These

equations of motion have the required form, with mass m*, provided
a', {3', -y' are direction cosines, which demands that the sum of their
squares be unity. This condition is
1 a 2mx + f1 m + 'Y m.
2 11 2
(3-56)
m *2 = - m.,mymz
which agrees with the value of m* given in Eq. (3-48). Thus we com-
plete our discussion of the correctness of this equation.
Sec. 3-7) CYCLOTRON RESONANCE AND RELATED PHENOMENA 69
3-7. Cyclotron Resonance Frequency for the General Periodic Poten-

tial. The case of an ellipsoidal energy surface, which we have been
discussing in the preceding section, is a special case, and it is important
to consider the cyclotron frequency and related problems for general
energy surfaces. Fortunately there is an application of the correspond-
ence principle of quantum mechanics which we can make to get at the
value of the cyclotron frequency in the general case. We shall first put
the results we have obtained so far in a form which is adaptable to the
use of this theorem.
In the correspondence principle (see for example J. C. Slater, "Quan-
tum Theory of Atomic Structure," vol. 1, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1960, appendix 10), one introduces phase integrals J, equal
to the integrals j'p dq met in the Sommerfeld quantum conditions. One
writes the energy as a function of these phase integrals. Then it can
be proved from classical mechanics that the frequencies 11; met in a
multiply periodic motion are given by the equations
aE (3-57)
JI; = aJ;
If we have only one frequency, and one phase integral, we have
w aE (3-58)
11 = 21r = aJ
We shall now inquire how this equation applies to the case we have
treated already.
In Eqs. (3-41) and (3-42), we have seen that for our case of the orbits
in the magnetic field, we have
J = §p · dr = eB X area of orbit in ordinary space
2
h X area of or b.rt m
= eB . k space (3-59)
For the part of the energy arising from the quantized motion, we find
in Eq. (3-46), for the ellipsoidal energy surface, that we have
Energy = jhw = jh11 = J 11 (3-60)
In this case, in other words, there is a linear relationship between the

energy and the phase integral J, as there is for a linear oscillator, so that
the derivative aE/aJ, required for Eq. (3-58), is a constant 11, independ-
ent of the energy or the amplitude of oscillation. In this limiting case,
in other words, we have a fixed cyclotron frequency (for a given oritnta-
tion of the magnetic field), independent of energy.
This is a special case, however. In a general case the energy will
vary nonlinearly with J, or the area of the orbit in either ordinary space
70 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, ANO METALS ,, [Chap. 3
or k space. Hence in this general case we shall have the cyclotron fre-
quency given by
aE 211" aE
"' = 211"11 = 211" - = - X . .
aJ eB a(area m ordmary space)
= 211"eB X aE (3-61)
h, 2 a(area in k space)
In other words, we shall find a cyclotron frequency depending on the

energy; and a measurement of cyclotron frequency as a function of energy
will allow a direct experimental determination of the way in which the
area of the cross section of the orbit in a plane perpendicular to the mag-
netic field, either in ordinary space or in k space, depends on energy.
3-8. Limitations and Extensions of the Method of Cyclotron Reso-
nance. We have now investigated the mathematical aspects of the
motion of wave packets in magnetic fields and periodic potentials, and
can return to the discussion of cyclotron resonance. The method has
been used with great success for studying semiconductors, such as ger-
manium, indium antimonide, and a number of others. In such semi-
conductors, we can have charge carriers at the bottom of the conduction
band and the top of the valence band, for both of wli:ich the ellipsoidal
type of expansion is appropriate, so that we have cyclotron frequencies
independent of the energy, to the first approximation. By using n- or
p-type samples, we can have the charge carriers largely in either the
conduction or the valence band, so that separate experiments can be
made for each band. Experiments of the type of those sketched in
Sec. 3-1 lead to the general determination of the positions of the energy
minimum in the conduction band, and energy maximum in the valence
band, in the Brillouin zone, and use of the formulas for effective mass
given in Sec. 3-6 allows the three mass coefficients mz, my, m, to be deter-
mined; in all the cases investigated so far, two of these are equal, so that
the energy surface is an ellipsoid of revolution.
There is one serious difficulty connected with the experiment, arising
from the scattering of the wave packet representing the electrons cir-
culating about the cyclotron orbit by the thermal oscillations and
impurities and irregularities of the lattice. It is this scattering which is
responsible for the ordinary electrical resistivity, as we have been con-
sidering it in the preceding chapters. It is clear that it is impossible to
detect a resonance experimentally, unless we have at least a complete
period of oscillation, or preferably a number of periods, to observe. If
we have only a fraction of a period, the resonance will be so broadened
that it cannot be observed with any accuracy. It is therefore necessary
for the success of cyclotron resonance experiments that the mean free
time before a collision, as discussed in Sec. 1-1, should be at least as long
as one period of the cyclotron frequency. If we denote this mean free

time as r [the quantity t1 of Eq. (1-7)], we need to have wr at least com-
parable with unity, and preferably greater, for successful cyclotron
resonance.
For a given cyclotron frequency (that is, for a given magnetic field),
the lower the resistivity of the material, the longer will be its mean free
time, so that the better the chance of a successful cyclotron resonance
experiment. The reason why germanium and indium antimonide are
so satisfactory for the experiment is that they have high mobility for
the charge carriers. The experiments naturally are made at very low
temperatures, so that the thermal scattering will be minimized as far
as possible, and on very pure and perfect crystals, to minimize scattering
by lattice imperfections. Even with these precautions, the mean free
time is comparable with the cyclotron period, using magnetic fields of
ordinary magnitudes. For most other materials, with lower mobility,
the experiment is impossible under these conditions.
It is obvious that the situation would be improved if the cyclotron
frequency could be raised, lowering the period so that many cyclotron
periods would be included in the mean free time. This demands increas-
ing the magnetic field, since we recall that w = eB/m*. For this reason
there is a great deal of experimental effort at the present time devoted
to producing much larger magnetic fields than have been previously avail-
able, so as to push the cyclotron frequency up from the microwave range,
where it is found for magnetic fields of ordinary size, into the infrared.
Some experiments of this type have already been carried out, and it is
hoped that in the future many more will become possible, as experimental
facilities are made available. This should make it possible to use cyclo-
tron resonance methods on many more materials.
In addition to cyclotron resonance, the existence of the Landau levels
suggests a different type of experiment, often called magnetic interband
transitions, which has proved to be of a good deal of importance. We
have seen from Eq. (3-47) that the Landau levels can be found for an
ellipsoidal energy surface by using the appropriate cyclotron frequency
determined from the appropriate effective mass. These levels are like
the Zeeman levels in an atom, split apart by an amount proportional
to the magnetic field. In a semiconductor, we shall have one set of
Landau levels for the valence band, another for the conduction band,
with different spacings, on account of the different effective masses for
the two bands. Optical transitions are possible from one or another
of the Landau levels of the valence band to one of the Landau levels of
the conduction band, with absorption of radiation. In other words, in
the absorption spectrum of the material, we must expect to find lines,
whose frequency depends on the magnetic field, like the Zeeman effects
of atomic spectra. These effects are observed, as described in some of the

papers quoted in the bibliography at the end of this section. They
furnish a verification of the results of cyclotron resonance, and in many
cases supplement those results.
Closely associated with the absorption effect found in these magnetic
interband transitions is an effect on the refraction. As in any case of
Zeeman effect, it is found that the absorption lines are associated with
circularly polarized vibrations. When we consider the corresponding
index of refraction, we find that circularly polarized light of one sense
of rotation travels with one velocity, that with the other sense of rotation
with another velocity. A result of this is tha,t plane-polarized light,
which can be analyzed into two circularly polarized components rotating
in opposite directions, has a plane of polarization which gradually rotates
as one passes through the material. This is a form of the Faraday effect,
discovered by Faraday over a hundred years ago, and furnishing the
first experimental indication of the relation between magnetism and light.
It is satisfactorily explained in terms of the Drude theory, and now forms
one of the useful experimental ways of investigating Landau levels.
In the experiments on magnetic interband transitions, one often
observes a considerable number of Landau levels in both valence and
conduction bands. It is found that these levels are not equally spaced,.
as they would be for an ellipsoidal energy surface; the spacing changes
with energy. This allows one to estimate the departure of the actual
energy surfaces from the ellipsoidal type, or in other words to estimate
the higher terms in the power-series expansion of the energy as a function
of crystal momentum, the series whose first terms are given in Eq. (3-43).
This involves a dependence of cyclotron frequency on energy, and the
situation is sometimes described as a change of effective mass, as we go
up in the band, where we can define the effective mass as eB/w.
The situation regarding metals is quite different from that met in
semiconductors. In the first place, as we know from Chap. 2, the elec-
trons whose behavior is important for the conductivity of a metal are
those which lie close to the Fermi surface, so that it is clear that the
information arising from cyclotron resonance and related phenomena here
will deal with the behavior of the Fermi surface. Ordinarily the ellip-
soidal approximation for the energy as a function of crystal momentum
will not be applicable here; we shall consider Fermi surfaces for real
metals in Sec. 3-10. Hence we must use the methods of Sec. 3-7 for
dealing with the cyclotron frequency in this case.
A second situation arising with the cyclotron resonance experiments
in metals comes from the existence of the skin depth. It is a well-known
result of electromagnetic theory that an electromagnetic field of high
frequency does not penetrate a good conductor very far; its amplitude
falls to 1/e of its value in a distance defined as the skin depth o, given
by the formula 1
o=~ (3-62)
where u is the conductivity, µ 0 is the constant equal to 41r X 10- 7 henry /m

found in the mks units. At the frequencies concerned with cyclotron
resonance, for a good conductor, this skin depth is small enough so that
the field penetrates into the metal only a small distance compared with
the diameter of the cyclotron orbit, which we can find from the discussion
of Sec. 3-5. It is obvious, then, that cyclotron resonance experiments
cannot be carried out in such cases in the same way as for a semiconduc-
tor, for which the conductivity is so much lower that the skin depth is
very large. Various ingenious schemes are in use to avoid this difficulty,2
mostly based on allowing the orbits to spend most of their time below
the skin depth, but to penetrate into the surface layer of the material
once per period, at which time the microwave frequency field can act
on the wave packets of charge carriers. By various schemes of this sort,
very valuable results have been obtained by cyclotron resonance for some
of the better metallic conductors. For many metals, however, a differ-
ent but related experiment, the de Haas-van Alphen effect, which we
shall discuss in the next section, provides more useful and more easily
obtained information.
The effects which we have been discussing in this section, namely,
cyclotron resonance, with its closely related magnetic interband transi-
tions, and Faraday effect, have been the subject of a great deal of experi-
mental and theoretical effort during the past few years, and a great deal
of very valuable information regarding many individual materials has
been found by such experiments. The reader will find papers in the
Bibliography at the end of the volume dealing with these topics by the
following authors:
P. W. Anderson (1955), G. Ascarelli (1962, AgBr), J. E. Aubrey (1957,

Bi; 1960, Pb; 1961, Bi), M. Ya. Azbel (1956-1960; 1962, Bi), W. S. Baer
(1964, CdS), D. M. S. Bagguley (1957, 1961, Ge, Si; 1963, InSb), G. A.
Baraff (1965), G. A. Barnmidze (1962), G. A. Begiashvili (1961), H. S.
Bennett (1965), P. A. Bezuglyi (1957, Sn; 1958, Pb; 1959, In), I. M.
Boswarva (1964, InSb), W. S. Boyle (1957, InSb; 1958, 1960, Bi), R. N.
Brown (1960, 1963, Bi), E. Burstein (1956, InSb; 1957, 1959), J. L. Callies
(1964, Te), J. G. Castle (1961, In), R. G. Chambers (1956), W.R. Datars
1 See Eq. (5-17); also, for instance, J. C. Slater and N. H. Frank, "Electromag-
netism," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1947, chap. X, sec. 6.

2 See bibliography at the end of this section, particularly papers by M. Ya. Azbel
(1956-1960), E. A. Kaner (1957), and A. F. Kip (1957-1961).

74 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS ·[Chap. 3
(1961-1962, Sb; 1963, KCl), R. N. Dexter (1954, Ge; 1955, Bi; 1956, Si,
Ge; 1959, CdS), R. B. Dingle (1956), B. Donovan (1962-1963, Ge), Ya. G.
Dorfman (1956), G. C. Dousmanis (1960-1962), G. Dresselhaus (1953,
Ge; 1955, Si, Ge, lnSb, Ge-Si alloys), M. S. Dresselhaus (1962), R. C.
Duncan, Jr. (1962, Ge), Y. Eckstein (1965, Bi), W. E. Engeler (1963, Bi),
G. E. Everett (1962, Bi), V. Evtuhov (1962), E. Fawcett (1956, Sn, Cu;
1959-1960, Al; 1962, W), Yu. A. Firsov (1959), R. C. Fletcher (1955),
M. Fukai (1964), A. A. Galkin (1963, Al), J. K. Galt (1955, Bi; 1956,
graphite; 1959, Zn, Bi; 1960, Zn; 1961, Cd), G. M. Genkin (1962), L. Gold
(1956), R. R. Goodman (1961, Ge), C. C. Grimes (1963, Al, Na, K),
G. E. Gurgenishvili (1964, Ge), Yu. A. Gurvich (1963), J. Halpern (1964),
E. Hanamura (1962, Ge), H. Hasegawa (1963, Si), L. C. Hebel (1965,
Bi), V. Heine (1957), J. C. Hensel (1959-1960, 1962, Ge; 1965, Si), R. C.
Hwa (1958), M. Inoue (1962, graphite), M. C. Jones (1960, 1964),
Yu. Kagan (1960, Ge, Si), K. K. Kanazawa (1964, CdTe), E. A. Kaner
(1957-1958), Y. H. Kao (1963, Bi; 1964, Bi-Sb), H. Kawamura (1962-
1964, Ge), D. C. Kelly (1957), R. J. Keyes (1956, Bi, lnSb, InAs),
M. S. Khaikin (1959-1960, Sn; 1962, Pb, Bi), A. F. Kip (1957, Sn; 1960-
1961, Cu), C. Kittel (1957), T. Kjeldaas, Jr. (1959), J. F. Koch (1962,
Sn; 1964, Cu), W. Kohn (1961), L. I. Korovin (1961), W. Kroll (1930),
L. Landau (1930), D. N. Langenberg (1959, Al, Cu; 1964, Au), B. Lax
(1956, Bi; 1957, graphite; 1960, Bi; 1961, lnSb; 1962), V. N. Lazukin
(1956), B. W. Levinger (1960-1961, Ge), I. M. Lifshits (1961-1962),
V. N. Lugovoi (1961), J. M. Luttinger (1955, Ge; 1956), D. C. Mattis
(1959), W. Mercouroff (1961-1962, Ge), P. B. Miller (1962), D. L.
Mitchell (1963, Ge), S. J. Miyake (1965), T. W. Moore (1962, Al), T. S.
Moss (1959, GaAs, InP, InSb; 1964, AlSb, GaP), R. Nii (1963-1964,
PbTe), Y. Nishina (1962), P. Nozieres (1958, graphite), H. Numata
(1964, PbTe), T. Ohta (1959-1960), M. Okazaki (1962, Ge), E. Otsuka
(1964, Ge), E. D. Palik (1961, lnSb, InAs, InP, GaAs; 1963, lnAs),
J. C. Phillips (1959-1960), G. E. Pikus (1961), H. Piller (1963, GaSb),
P. M. Platzman (1964), A. M. Portis (1959), J. J. Quinn (1965), E. I.
Rashba (1960), R. R. Rau (1955, Ge), C. J. Rauch (1960, Si; 1961-1962,
diamond), B. W. Roberts (1961, Ga), S. Rodriguez (1958), A. C. Rose-
Innes (1958, Ge, Si), B. Rosenblum (1961), L. Rosenfeld (1929), L. M.
Roth (1959, 1964), H. Sato (1963, Ge), K. Sawamoto (1963-1964, CdS),
K. Sekido (1964), S. S. Shalyt (1962, InAs, InSb), W. Shockley (1953),
G. E. Smith (1963, Bi), S. D. Smith (1959, InSb), F. W. Spong (1965, Al),
M. C. Steele (1955, Sb), M. J. Stephen (1959), M. J. Stevenson (1959,
CdAs2; 1961, 2-5 semiconductors), P. J. Stiles (1962, PbTe), P. M. Stone
(1965), M. Suffczynski (1961, Ge), H. Suzuki (1961-1962), M. Tinkham
(1956, Bi), A. V. Tolub (1959), Yu. I. Ukhanov (1962, Si), R. F. Wallis
(1958, InSb), W. M. Walsh, Jr. (1962, W), A. K. Walton (1962, Pb
salts), R. C. Williams (1961), G. B. Wright (1961), R. C. Young (1962,

Pb), J. Zak (1964), H. J. Zeiger (1957-1959), S. Zwerdling (1956, InAs,
InSb; 1957-1959, Ge, GaSb; 1960, Si; 1961-1962, InSb).
3-9. The de Haas-van Alphen Effect and Related Experiments. It
was observed by de Haas and van Alphen 1 that the diamagnetic suscepti-
bility of bismuth showed an oscillatory dependence on magnetic field,
and that if the susceptibility were plotted against 1/B, the period of the
oscillations was constant. Since then the phenomenon has been observed
for many other metals. 2 The explanation, first given by Peierls, 3 depends
on the Landau levels. We start with Eq. (3-42), which states that the
area of the orbit in the k space must be 21rjeB/li, where j is an integer.
Now let us fix our attention on a given component of crystal momentum
parallel to the magnetic field. In the Brillouin zone, this determines a
plane perpendicular to the field, the distance from the origin to the plane
being the component of crystal momentum parallel to the field. The
orbit then must lie in this plane; it will be the intersection of an energy
surface with the plane. The shape of the orbit may be complicated, but
its area is given by Eq. (3-42), so that only certain energies are allowed.
If we are dealing with a metal, the Fermi surface will be cut by the
plane in question in a curve, corresponding to the Fermi energy. There
will be a discrete set of curves, given by Onsager's quantum condition
(3-42), lying within the Fermi surface. Thus the Fermi surface will
correspond to a given value of j, which ordinarily would not be an integer.
In other words, we have a discrete set of quantized energy levels below
1 W. J. de Haas and P. M. van Alphen, Communs. Phys. Lab. Univ. Leiden, 212a
(1930); 220d (1932).

2 References to work dealing with the de Haas-van Alphen effect will be found in the
Bibliography at the end of this volume, under the following authors:
P. B. Alers (1957, Sn), J. R. Anderson (1963, Fe), J. Appel (1956), T. G. Berlincourt
(1954, Cd, Zn; 1955, As), W. S. Boyle (1959, Bi), G. B. Brandt (1962, Cr; 1963, In),
N. B. Brandt (1959, 1961, Bi), M. H. Cohen (1960, Bi), J. H. Condon (1964, Ca),
W. J. de Haas (1930), J. S. Dhillon (1955), R. B. Dingle (1952-1953), T. Fukuroi (1957,
Zn), A. A. Galkin (1963, Al), D. F. Gibbons (1961, Zn), W. L. Gordon (1960, Mg),
A. D. C: Grissie (1964, Cd), E. M. Gunnerson (1957, Al), F. T. Hedgcock (1962,
Zn-Mn; 1963, Zn alloy), V. Heine (1956), R. T. Higgins (1965, Zn), H. Ichimura
(1960), A. S. Joseph (1962, Zn; 1963, Ni; 1964, Re, Cu; 1965, Ag), J. B. Ketterson
(1963, Sb), C. Kittel (1963, Fe), W. Kohn (1961), A. M. Kosevich (1955, 1957-1958),
J. M. Luttinger (1961), A. Marchand (1957), K. Okamura (1962, Rb), L. Onsager
(1952), W. C. Overton (1955, Bi), R. Peierls (1933), A. B. Pippard (1963), M. G.
Priestley (1962, Al), W. A. Reed (1963, Zn, Ga), Y. Saito (1962, In,Bi; 1963-1964, Sb,
Bi), D. Shoenberg (1936, 1939, Bi; 1951, Al, Sb; 1952-1953, 1959, Cu; 1960, Cu, Ag,
Au; 1962, Ag, Au), D. E. Soule (1958, graphite), W. J. Spry (1960, graphit~), P .•T.
Stiles (1961, PbTe, PbS), L. R. Testardi (1963, Bi 2Te 3), A. C. Thorson (1961, K, Re,
Nb, Ta, InBi; 1963, Zr), D. Weiner (1962, Bi-Te), S. J. Williamson (1964), G. E.
Zilberman (1958-1959).
3 R. Peierls, Z. Physik, 80 :763 (1933).
76 INSULAT-ORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chap. 3
the Fermi energy, the last integral value of j corresponding ordinarily

to an energy slightly below the Fermi energy. On account of this quan-
tization of the energy levels, the total energy of all electrons in the metal
will not be the same as in the absence of a magnetic field; we must add
up the energies of the quantized orbits, rather than integrating a con-
tinuous energy distribution up to the Fermi level.
As the magnetic field is changed, the Landau levels will change their
position, and we must expect that the total energy will fluctuate with the
magnetic field, arriving at approximately the same value each time a
L3.lldau level coincides with the Fermi level. Now it can be shown that
the magnetic moment is proportional to the derivative of the energy with
respect to the magnetic field, so that the moment, and hence the magnetic
susceptibility, will also fluctuate with the magnetic field, going through
one period when the number of Landau levels with energy less than the
Fermi energy increases by unity. We note that Eq. (3-42) can be written
in the form
1 . 27re/h
(3-63)
B = J area of orbit in k space
We expect the magnetic susceptibility to come back approximately to
the same value when j increases by unity; that is, we should have a
periodicity of the susceptibility with 1/B, the period being 27re/li divided
by the area of the orbit in k space. From this fact we have the beginning
of the explanation of the de Haas-van Alphen effect.
The situation is more complicated than this sketch would indicate,
however. We are really dealing at the same time with all different values
of the component of crystal momentum parallel to the magnetic field.
Each of these will determine a different plane in the Brillouin zone, and a
different intersection with the Fermi surface, each having its appropriate
area of orbit in the k space. Hence to get the total effect we must super-
pose oscillatory curves with all different periods. We shall get a net
result, only if some areas of orbits are statistically emphasized in the
summation. This will, however, be the case. We can see this by con-
sidering the simplest case, that where the energy surfaces are spheres.
If we cut a spherical energy surface by a family of equally spaced parallel
planes, corresponding to equally spaced values of the quantity po, we
shall find many more cross sections close to the maximum cross-sectional
area of the sphere than with any other value. In other words, an extreme
cross section is emphasized in such a superposition. The same situation
will hold in the general case: the oscillations which will stand out in the
de Haas-van Alphen effect will be those corresponding to the extreme
cross-sectional areas of the orbit in k space, either maximum or minimum
values. Since the experiment can be carried out with the magnetic field
in any direction, it is obvious that we can map out in this way the extreme
cross-sectional area of the Fermi surface as cut by planes in any orienta-

tion in space. It is this type of information which the de Haas-van
Alphen effect has been able to yield for a number of metals.
A number of other experiments have been devised, capable of giving
similar information. One of these relates to ultrasonic attenuation in
an experiment suggested by Pippard. 1 Let us assume a magnetic field
in a metal in a given direction, so that the orbits are quantized in the
wa.y we have been discussing in the plane normal to the magnetic field.
We now consider the orbits in real space, rather than in k space; from
Sec. 3-5 we know that this orbit has the same shape as the orbit ink space,
but is rotated 90° with respect to it, and we know how to find the dimen-
sions of the orbit. Pippard now discusses the situation which arises
when an ultrasonic wave travels through the crystal in a direction normal
to the magnetic field, and with a transverse polarization such that the
direction of vibration is also normal to the magnetic field. Thus for
instance we might have the magnetic field along z, so that we are con-
sidering the orbit in the xy plane; we have a sound wave propagated
along x, with its direction of vibration along y. It is now found that
in a transverse sound wave, there is a small transverse electric field,
associated with the transverse displacement. Hence in the case we are
discussing, there will be a y component of electric field, its magnitude
varying sinusoidally with x.
Let us now assume that the extension of the electron orbit in space,
along the x direction, was equal to half a wavelength of the ultrasonics.
The ultrasonic frequency is so low that the electric field may be con-
1 A. B. Pippard, Phil. Mag., 2 :1147 (1957). Several other applications of ultrasonic

attenuation to energy-band determination have been suggested, some not involving
magnetic fields. References will be found in the Bibliography at the end of 'this
volume, under the following authors:
A. J. Akhiezer (1939, 1957), G. Akramov (1963), F. J. Blatt (1957, Ge, Si), E. I.

Blount (1959), I. S. Ciccarello (1964, MgO, Al 20 3), B. C. Deaton (1964, Cd, Zn), Y.
Eckstein (1964), L. Eriksson (1964, Sb), A. A. Galkin (1959-1960, Sn), J. D. Gavenda
(1962, Cd), D. F. Gibbons (1963, Zn, Cd), V. L. Gurevich (1959, 1961), L. H. Hall
(1964), M. J. Harrison (1958, 1960), T. Holstein (1959), T. S. Hutchinson (1960),
B. K. Jones (1964, Al), G. N. Kamm (1963, Al), E. A. Kaner (1960-1962), J. B.
Ketterson (1963, Sb), T. Kjeldaas, Jr. (1959), A. P. Korolyuk (1961), G. L. Kotkin
(l!J59), L. Landau (1937), D. N. Langenberg (1964), S. S. Liu (1965, noble metals),
G. G. E. Low (1958), K. Lucke (1956), L. Mackinnon (1960, 1962), A. R. Mackintosh
(1960, 1963, Tl; Pb), W. P. Mason (195.5-1964), J. G. Mavroides (1962, Bi), J.
Mertsching (l 961), P. B. Miller (J 96.5), R. W. Morse (1955-1961), A. Myers (1961),
T. Ol~en (1960-1 v63, 8n). Y. Osuka (1963-1964), A. B. Pippard (1955-1960), J. J.
Quinn (1962, 1965), J. A. Rayne (1962, In, W; 1963, Tl; 1964, W), D. H. Reneker
(J 958-1959, Bi), B. W. Roberts (1960, Al), S. Rodriguez (1958), V. P. Silin (1960),
II. N. Spector (1962-1964), M. S. Steinberg (1958), G. Weinreich (1957, Ge), T. 0.
Woodruff (1961 ).
78 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS __ [Chap. 3
sidered independent of time, during the mean free time of the electron
in its orbit. As the wave packet representing the electron circulates
around its orbit, it will be pushed in one direction by the electric field at
one extremity of its orbit, in the other direction by the field at the other
extremity, as shown in Fig. 3-2. Since it is circulating, both these pushes
will be in the direction of rotation, and will accelerate the electron,
thereby extracting energy from the ultrasonic vibration, and leading to
attenuation. In other words, if the ultrasonic wavelength is properly
chosen, we shall have attenuation, but not otherwise. The principal
y
effect will come from the electrons
at the Fermi surface (for they are
the only ones capable of having
collisions, and therefore absorbing
energy), and we have in this
way a means for finding the diam-
+-----+------4------1------4-x eter of the cross section of the
Fermi surface. Here, as with the
de Haas-van Alphen effect, it is
the extreme orbit which will con-
Frn. 3-2. Diagram to illustrate ultra- tribute the greatest amount to the
sonic absorption by cyclotron resonance experiment.
in transverse magnetic field. Ultra-
sonic sound wave is propagated along x. This ultrasonic effect and the
It is assumed to be a transverse wave, de Haas-van Alphen effect both
with oscillation along y, producing a have the advantage over cyclotron
transverse electric field, as indicated by resonance for a metal, in that they
arrows a half wavelength apart. Mag- depend on fields (the magnetic field,
netic field along z, perpendicular to
paper, resulting in circular cyclotron and the ultrasonic vibration), which
orbits assumed to be of size shown, such penetrate the metal without trou-
that the electric field will accelerate ble, in contrast to the high-fre-
electrons at both extremities of orbit, quency electromagnetic field in-
Producing resonance. volved in cyclotron resonance,
which is limited by the skin depth.
A number of other experiments have also been suggested and used 1
for giving information about the Fermi surface. Fortunately they give
results in general agreement with each other, and with the results of
energy-band calculations. These comparisons have been made in most
deta1l for copper, and in the next section we shall consider the Fermi
surface for that element, as an example of what may be expected for
other materials.
3-10. The Fermi Surface for Copper. The experiments, of the type
discussed in the preceding section, led to the form of the Fermi surface
1 For a discussion of some of these, see W. A. Harrison and M. B. Webb (eds.), "The
Fermi Surface," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1960.
for copper before the theory was able to give it,1 but in Volume 2, Sec.
10-5, we have quoted results of recent calculations of the energy bands
of copper, not available when the experiments were carried out, but which
lead to full agreement with experiment. We have stated in that section
that the energy bands were rather free-electron-like in the neighborhood
of the Fermi surface. If they were really free-electron-like, the Fermi
surface would be a sphere, capable of holding one electron per atom, and
therefore having a volume half the Brillouin zone. In this case, since
this sphere is contained entirely within the Brillouin zone, the Fermi
energy would intersect the energy
bands along the 100, lll, and llO
directions within the Brillouin zone.
We see, however, from Volume 2,
Fig. 10-22, that this is not the case:
along the 111 direction, the direction
A, the Fermi energy lies above the
point L~, within the large gap be-
tween the energies L~ and Li, a gap
which would not be present in the
free-electron case, as shown in Vol-
ume 2, Fig. 10-2. The consequence
of this is that the Fermi surface,
rather than being spherical, extends
outward along the 111 directions, FIG. 3-3. Intersection of Fermi sur-
and cuts the hexagonal faces of the face of copper with plane including 100,
110, and 111 directions (from center of
Brillouin zone. This is shown in Brillouin zone, r, to points X, K, and L,
Fig. 3-3, in which we show an inter- respectively). [From calculations of
section of the Fermi surface with a Segall, Phys. Rev., 125 :109 (1962), and
plane including the 110 and lll Burdick, Phys. Rev., 129:138 (1963).]
directions. We see that the ap-
proximately spherical Fermi surface has necks extending out to each of
these hexagonal faces.
When we consider the periodic nature of the reciprocal space, we see
that the Fermi surfaces in different unit cells of the reciprocal space join
each other by means of these necks, so that instead of having a separate
closed surface in each unit cell, there is one surface extending through all
space. This is better shown in Fig. 3-4, in which a model of the Fermi
surface has been constructed, and is shown in perspective, first within
one Brillouin zone, then as it extends through space. A situation of
this sort is much commoner in real metals than isolated closed surfaces
such as ellipsoids.
1 A. B. Pippard, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., A250:325 (1957). D. Shoenberg, Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc, A255:85 (1962).
'
The experiments which have been done on copper all verify in detail
this form of the Fermi surface, and the quantitative results are in very
close agreement with the theory. We see, then, that the cross sections
of the orbits which are detected by cyclotron resonance or de Haas-van
(al
(b)
Fm. 3-4. Perspective of Fermi surface for copper, in single Brillouin zone (a) and in
several adjacent cells (b). Note resemblance of (b) to section shown in Fig. 3-3.
Point L in Fig. 3-3 is center of hexagonal face in Fig. 3-4a.
Alphen effect are quite different from what one might have expected at
first sight. Thus, if the magnetic field is perpendicular to the orbit
shown in Fig. 3-3, it is the electrons circulating around the empty space
whose cyclotron frequency is observed. If the magnetic field is per-
pendicular to a hexagonal face, one can have electrons circulating around
the small cross section of one of the necks. In these ways, and by use
of other orientations of the magnetic field, one finds experimentally a
number of cyclotron frequencies, or a number of areas of cross sections,
which can be identified with these various features of the Fermi surface.
If the magnetic field were oriented in some arbitrary direction, not
in a symmetry direction, orbits are possible which never close, but which
go an infinite distance through the reciprocal space (and correspondingly
are infinitely long in ordinary space, though of course really they would
be stopped after a short time by collisions). In Fig. 3-5 we show an
Fm. 3-5. Open orbit in copper, along Fermi surface as shown in Fig. 3-4. It is
essential that such open orbits pass from one unit cell to the next by means of the
necks joining the portions of the Fermi surface in different unit cells.
example of such open or extended orbits. By cutting through these

Fermi surfaces with planes perpendicular to the magnetic field, and hav-
ing different values of po, it is clear that many different and very fantastic
shapes of orbits can be obtained.
When the theory of magnetoresistance, the effect of a magnetic field
on resistance, is investigated, it is found that there is a profoiind difference
in behavior depending on the direction of the magnetic field and the
consequent question as to whether there are open orbits or not. The
asymptotic behavior of the resistance in the limit of large magnetic fields
is quite different in the two cases. As a result of this, it is possible to
carry out experiments on magnetoresistance, in which the direction of
the magnetic field and the direction of the current are adjusted experi-
mentally, by means of which one can map out the directions in the lattice
82 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS. [Chap. 3
in which open orbits are possible, and where they are not. Striking
results are found from such experiments, in the way of very large differ-
ences in behavior for small changes in angle. Though we are still in the
early stages of being able to correlate the results of these experiments
with energy-band calculations, it is clear that such experiments will
throw a great deal of light on the nature of the energy bands.
A great deal of experimental work on magnetoresistance has been
carried out, leading to much useful information regarding energy-band
properties. References in the Bibliography at the end of this volume
will be found to this work under the following authors:
D. G. Adrianov (1964, Ge), N. E. Alekseevskii (1958, Au; 1959, 1962,

Cd, Zn, Tl), P. B. Alers (1953, Bi; 1956, Zn; 1957, Sn), R. S. Allgaier
(1959-1960, PbTe), P. N. Argyres (1956-1959), J. Babiskin (1957), R. J.
Balcombe (1963, Al), R. Barrie (1957), G. Bemski (1960, InAs), T. G.
Berlincourt (1955, graphite; 1958, Cu), W. Bernard (1964, Ge), E. I.
Blount (1960), R. F. Broom (1958, InSb), R. M. Broudy (1957), Y. A.
Bychkov (1960), H. B. G. Casimir (1940, Bi), R. G. Chambers (1957,
1960), C.H. Champness (1957, InAs; 1958, InSb), R. A. Coldwell-Horsfall
(1959), R. V. Coleman (1964, noble metals), K. F. Cuff (1961, PbTe),
J. de Launay (1958-1959, Cu), I. M. Dykman (1962), A. L. Efros (1961),
L. Esaki (1962, Bi), I. Estermann (1950, Ge), I. G. Fakidov (1958, Ge),
E. Fawcett (1961; 1962, Ni, Mo, W; 1964, Mo, W), G. Fischer (1958,
InSb), N. H. Frank (1930), A. J. Funes (1963, Cu), Y. Furukawa (1963,
Ge), F. Garcia-Moliner (1958, alkalies), D. F. Gibbons (1961, Zn),
M. Glicksman (1957, Ge; 1959, InP, GaAs), L. Gold (1956-1957, Ge,
Si), C. Goldberg (1957-1958, Ge), V. L. Gurevich (1958, 1962), J. Hajdu
(1960), F. T. Hedgcock (1964, Mg, Al+ Mn, Fe), E. D. Hinkley (1964,
Sn), J. J. Hopfield (1962, Bi), T. Irie (1956, PbS), H. Jones (1934),
A. H. Kahn (1959), Y. Kanai (1960, PbTe), P. Kapitza (1929), P. J.
Kemmey (1961, diamond), R. W. Keyes (1958, Ge, Si), J. R. Klauder
(1960, Cu; 1961), M. I. Klinger (1957, Ge type), C. D. Kuglin (1961,
PbTe), I. M. Lifshits (1956-1958), D. Long (1958, Si), 0. S .. Lutes (1965,
Al), B. Luthi (1956-1960), D. K. C. MacDonald (1950, alkalies; 1957),
I. M. Mackintosh (1956, InSb), S. M. Marcus (1963, Ni), V. A. Marsocci
(1965, Ni), M. Matyas (1962, GaSb), J. G. Mavroides (1957, Ge, Si),
N. Mikoshiba (1963), J. L. Olsen (1954, Cu), R. Olson (1957, Cu), G. L.
Pearson (1954, Si), R. Peierls (1930-1931), M. G. Priestley (1960, Cu,
Ag, Au), W. A. Reed (1964, Fe), C. Rigaux (1956), M. N. Ryabinin
(1961, Ge), L. Schubnikov (1930), F. Seitz (1950), W. Shockley (1950,
1953), K. Shogenji (1963, PbTe), R. J. Sladek (1958, InAs; 1960, InSb),
A. Sommerfeld (1935), E. H. Sondheimer (1947, 1950), D. E. Soule (1958,
graphite), H. Stachowiak (1962-1963), R. W. Stark (1962, Mg), R. B.
Stinchcombe (1961), H. H. Tippins (1963, AgBr), S. Tosima (1965),

A. M. Toxen (1965, Bi), E. P. Volskii (1962, Bi), W. F. Wei (1961, Ge),
C.R. Whitsett (1965, HgSe), E. Yamada (1961, PbTe), K. Yosida (1957,
Cu-Mn), N. H. Zebouni (1963, Cd).
The types of experiments which we have described, arising from the
de Haas-van Alphen effect, cyclotron resonance, and magnetoresistance,
are not by any means the only ones available in such a case as copper.
Quite a different type of experiment, which we have not mentioned, is
that carried out by Spicer and his associates, 1 by use of photoemission.
They allow monochromatic light to fall on the metal, whose quantum,
hv, is great enough to lift electrons from the conduction band to an
energy high enough to allow them to escape from the crystal. They
observe the velocity distribution of the emitted photoelectrons. In the
case of copper, they find not only the electrons which were emitted from
the 4s-like conduction band, but also those arising from the 3d band.
It is a complicated matter to correct for various effects such as elastic
and inelastic scattering of the electrons on their way out of the metal, and
the fact that the absorption probability of the photon may be different for
different electrons, but when they have done this, they are able to work
out an experimental density-of-states curve for the energy bands. In Fig.
3-6 we show the density of states for copper, found experimentally in
this way. For comparison, Berglund and Spicer show a calculated
density-of-states curve found by Burdick 2 from his calculated energy
bands as determined by the APW method. Burdick simply estimated
the number of states in a succession of finite energy intervals, which is
the reason why his curve shows the steplike behavior it does. It is clear
that the experimental values agree very well with the calculations, and
show detail which Burdick did not get from his calculations, on account
of using too large an interval. We see in this way that the d bands can
be investigated by experiment, as well as the conduction band.
Still another type of experiment leads to information about these d
bands. Light falling on the crystal can raise electrons from them to the
conduction band. In the photoelectric experiment the incident light
energy is great enough to remove the electrons from the metal. For
energies hv which are too small for this, one can still raise electrons to
higher, unoccupied bands above the Fermi level, but below the energy
required for emission. As we shall see later in Chap. 5, such absorptions
will be observable in the optical properties of the crystal, showing directly
in the imaginary part of the dielectric constant. The optical properties
of copper liave been measured many times, most recently by H. Ehrenrcich
1 C. N. Berglund and W. E. Spicer, Phys. Rev., 136 :AI030, AI044 (1964). See also
other papers by Spicer, and by L. Apker, in the Bibliography at the end of this volume.
• G. A. Burdick, Phys. Rev., 129:138 (1963).
and H. R. Philipp. 1 In Fig. 3-7 we show the imaginary component of the

dielectric constant, as a function of frequency, as determined experimen-
tally by Ehrenreich and Philipp, and as calculated by Berglund and Spicer
from the density-of-states curve (using certain simplifying assumptions
which they consider to be justified). They have calculated both from
their observed density of states, and from Burdick's calculations. It is
clear that the agreement between the experiment and either of these
calculations is very good indeed, though there is not entire agreement
between different authors as to the correctness of their interpretation.
In other words, one can verify many details of the calculated energy bands,
r,
. I
~ I - - - Experimental
0 I _.T7 Burdick
-i I I
0
.
C
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I l
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Energy minus Fermi energy, eV
Frn. 3-6. Estimate of density of states in copper. [From Berglund and Spicer, Phys.
Rev., 136 :A1044 (1964).] The dashed curve indicates the density determined
experimentally, from photoemission. The solid curve is from the calculation of
Burdick cited in description of Fig. 3-3.
both in the neighborhood of the Fermi surface, and the deeper-lying

bands.
The case of copper has perhaps been investigated more completely than
any other substance, in the way of having many types of experiments,
and accurate calculations to compare them with. As time goes on, how-
ever, we are finding more and more cases in which there are both reliable
calculations and many different types of experiments fqr comparison.
The present indication is that there is remarkably good agreement
between the calculated energy bands and the results of different types of
experiments dealing with electrical conductivity and optical properties.
As the work on individual materials increa13es, we are likely to find a very
fruitful field for research in the joint effort of experimenters and theorists
1 H. Ehrenreich and H. R. Philipp, Phys. Rev., 128 :1622 (1962).
to explain the very complicated properties of energy bands both of metals

and of semiconductors.
3-11. Bibliography on Electronic Properties of Specific Materials. In
the preceding chapters we have given a very brief and descriptive treat-
ment of some of the electric and magnetic properties of semiconductors and
metals, and other problems will be handled in descriptive ways in later
chapters. We shall not be covering all these topics in detail in this vol-
ume. The general field of electrical and transport properties of metals
and semiconductors, both in the absence and in the presence of magnetic
- - Ehrenreich and Philipp

- - - Calculated - experimental density of states
i
C
2.0
..f"L"L Calculated - Burdick density of states
8
·='
~ 1.5
~
-0
0
.!cc
"'
0
.I:; 0.5
0 .____ _.___-'------'------'----'--L--~--~
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Photon energy, eV
Frn. 3-7. Imaginary component of the dielectric constant for copper, from Berglund
and Spicer (loc. cit.). The optical data from Ehrenreich and Philipp are from Phys.
Rev., 128 :1622 (1962); the calculations of Burdick are those quoted in Fig. 3-3.
fields, is an extremely active subject of research at present, and its litera-

ture is very large. A great many references to papers in these various
fields are given in the Bibliography at the end of this volume, and even
this long list is very far from complete. At various points throughout the
book, we have given and shall give lists of papers dealing with particular
problems. Thus, in Sec. 2-4 we give a list of papers dealing with the
Hall effect and related galvanomagnetic effects; in Sec. 3-8, papers dealing
with cyclotron resonance, magnetic interband tramlitions, and the Faraday
effect; i11 Sec. 3-9, paper.::; dealing ,,·ith the de Haas-van Alphen effect,
and with the relation of ultrasonics to energy-band determination; in
Sec. 3-10, papers dealing with magnetorcsistance. In Sec. 5-5 we shall
list papers dealing with optical properties of substances; in Sec. 8-6, with
86 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND-METALS [Chap. 3
lattice vibrations; in Sec. 10-4, with cohesive energy; in Sec. 11-7, papers
dealing with problems in which the many-body aspect is a leading feature
of the treatment, including plasma oscillations.
These special lists do not include by any means all the papers listed in
the Bibliography, most of which deal with one aspect or another of the
problem of electrical or thermal conductivity, or other aspects of transport
theory, and with the application of these methods and others to the inter-
pretation of the properties of specific materials. In many cases, papers
using several experimental techniques deal with the same types of materi-
als. For that reason it is convenient to list the authors of papers dealing
with each general type of material. Such a list follows. The reader
should remember in this connection that the a priori calculations dealing
with energy bands of the various materials are discussed in Volume 2 of
this series, and a bibliography is given in that volume of calculations of
energy bands, which is not duplicated in the present volume.
Our list covers first the semiconductors and insulators, then goes on to
metals. It includes treatments of the energy bands, effective masses,
Fermi surfaces, etc., as determined by many different sorts of experiments,
such as those taken up in Chaps. 2 and 3, but also optical experiments and
others. We subdivide the papers into general categories of materials,
rather than listing each individual material separately.
Diamond, Silicon, Germanium, 3-5 and 2-6 Compounds
B. Abeles (1954, Ge), M. S. Abrahams (1959, In-GaAs), D. G. Adrianov
(1964, Ge), Ya. Agaev (1964, InSb), P. Aigrain (1955-1956, InSb), J. W.
Allen (1956, Ge), Kh. I. Amirkhanov (1961-1963, InSb, InAs), J.· B.
Arthur (1958, Ge), D. M. S. Bagguley (1961, Ge, Si; 1963, InSb), P. I.
Baranskii (1964, Ge), L. C. Barcus (1958, GaAs), J. Bardeen (1956-1958,
Ge, Si), G. A. Barnes (1958, Ge), R. T. Bate (1959, InSb), W. M. Becker
(1961, GaSb), R. L. Bell (1957, Ge, Si), G. Bemski (1960, InAs), G. B.
Benedek (1955, Ge), C. Benoit (1963, Ge), W. Bernard (1963-1964, Ge),
G. L. Bir (1961, InSb), J. L. Birman (1961-1962, ZnS, diamond), J.
Blanc (1961, GaAs), F. J. Blatt (1957, Ge, Si), E. Blount (1956, InSb),
H. C. Bolton (1961, diamond), I. M. Boswarva (1962, Ge; 1964, InSb),
W. S. Boyle (1957, InSb), R. Braunstein (1958, Ge-Si; 1959, GaAs), H.
Brooks (1955, Ge, Si), R. F. Broom (1956-1958, InSb), J. J. Brophy
(1956, diamond), M.A. C. S. Brown (1961, Ge), D. Brust (1964, Ge, Si),
W. M. Bullis (1956-1958, Ge), F. P. Burns (1957, InSb), E. Burstein
(1953, Si; 1956, Si, InSb), M. Cardona (1958-1960, Ge, Si; 1960, GaAs,
GaSb; 19Gl, lnAs, GaAs, InP; 1963), G. B. Carpenter (1960, diamond),
J. A. Carruthers (1957, Ge, Si), T. G. Castner, Jr. (1962, Si), C. H.
Champness (1957, InAs; 1958, InSb), V. A. Chuenkov (1958, Ge), C. D.
Clark (1959, 1964, diamond), P. E. Clegg (1964, diamond), E. M. Conwell
(1956-1960, Ge, Si), J. H. Crawford, Jr. (1955, Ge), P. Csavinsky (1963, Si,
Ge), D. Curie (1957, ZnS), A. J. Darnell (1964, InSb), W. G. Dash (1955,
Ge, Si), P. P. Debye (1954, Ge), R. N. Dexter (1954-1956, Ge, Si; 1959,
CdS), J. R. Dixon (1957, InAs), B. Donovan (1962-1963, Ge), G. Dressel-
haus (1953-1955, Ge, Si; 1955, InSb, Ge-Si), W. P. Dumke (1956, Ge;
1957, InSb), R. C. Duncan, Jr. (1962, Ge), H. Ehrenreich (1956, Ge;
1957-1959, InSb; 1959, InAs-P; 1960, GaAs; 1961, 3-5 compounds; 1962,
4,13-5, and 2-6 compounds), S. G. Ellis (1958, ZnS), I. Estermann (1950,
Ge), V. Evtuhov (1962, Ge, Si), I. G. Fakidov (1958, Ge), H. Y. Fan
(1955, Ge, Si; 1956-1959, Ge), G. Fischer (1958, InSb), P. Fisher (1962,
Ge), S. J. Fray (1960, InSb), H.P. R. Frederikse (1955-1957, InSb; 1958,
InAs), H. Fritzsche (1958-1960, Ge), Y. Furukawa (1963, Ge), V. V.
Galvanov (1957, InSb), T. H. Geballe (1958-1959, Ge), A. F. Gibson
(1958, Ge), M. Glicksman (1956, Ge-Si; 1957, Ge; 1959, InP, GaAs), L.
Gold (1956-1957, Ge, Si; 1959, Ge), C. Goldberg (1957-1958, Ge), 0. A.
Golikova (1961, Ge), R. R. Goodman (1961, Ge), Yu. I. Gorkun (1961,
Ge), J. Goroff (1963, Si), E. F. Gross (1957-1961, CdS; 1961, GaP), H.
Gummel (1957, Si), G. E. Gurgenishvili (1964, Ge), R.R. Haering (1958,
Ge), H. D. Hagstrum (1959, Si), K. C. Hambleton (1961, GaAs), E.
Hanamura (1962, Ge), P. Handler (1960, Ge, Si), N. J. Harrick (1956-
1958, Ge), H. Hasegawa (1963, Si), J. C. Haslett (1959, InSb), J. R.
Haynes (1955, Si), J. C. Hensel (1960, Si; 1962, Ge; 1965, Si), C. Herring
(1958, Ge), C. Hilsum (1958, InSb), M. V. Hobden (1962, Ge), D. J.
Howarth (1957, InSb), H.J. Hrostowski (1955, InSb; 1957, Si + 0), L.
Huldt (1958, Si), C. S. Hung (1950, Ge), A. R. Hutson (1957-1959, Zn0),
Yu. Kagan (1960, Ge, Si), A. H. Kahn (1955, Ge, Si), H. Kamimura
(1963, Ge, Si), Y. Kanai (1957, Ge), H. Kawamura (1962, Ge), F. Keffer
(1960, CdS), P. J. Kemmey (1961, diamond), R. J. Keyes (1956, InSb,
InAs), R. W. Keyes (1958, Ge, Si), R. H. Kingston (1956, Ge), C. Kittel
(1954, Ge, Si), W. Kleiner (1955, Si; 1959, Ge), L. Kleinman (1962-1963,
Si), C. C. Klick (1951, diamond), lVL I. Klinger (1957, Ge, Si), S. H.
Koenig (1957-1962, Ge), W. Kohn (1957, Si, Ge), C. S. Koonce (1964,
Si), L: L. Korenblit (1964, InSb), V. A. Kovarskii (1957, Ge), W. E.
Krag (1964, Ge), N. I. Kurdiani (1963, InSb), S. Larach (1957, ZnS-Se-
Te), B. Lax (1955, Ge, Si; 1960, Ge; 1961, InSb, 3-5 compounds), M.
Lax (1955, Si; 1958, diamond type), B. W. Levinger (1960-1961, Ge),
L. Liu (1961, Si), D. Long (1957-1958, Si), T. A. Longo (1959, Si), J. M.
Luttinger (1955, Ge), K. B. McAfee (1951, Ge), G. G. Macfarlane (1955-
1959, Ge, Si), I. M. Mackintosh (1955-1956, InSb), P. Manca (1961,
diamond and zinc-blende structures), A. Marcus (1964, GaAs), V. S.
Mashkevich (1957, diamond type), M. Matyas (1962, GaSb), J. G.
Mavroides (1957, Ge, Si), C. A. Mead (1963, AlAs, AISb), W. Mercouroff
(1961-1962, Ge), H. J. G. Meyer (1958-1959, Ge), R. E. Michel (1961,
Ge), D. L. Mitchell (1963, Ge), E. W. J. Mitchell (1959, diamond), H.

Miyazawa (1963, Si), F. J. Morin (1957, Si, Ge), T. S. Moss (1957, InSb;
1959-1961, GaAs, InP, InSb, GaAs; 1964, AlSb, GaP), A. Myszkowski,
(1964, Ge, Si), M. I. Nathan (1961, Ge), D. N. Nasledov (1962, GaP),
R. Newman (1957, Ge), Yu. N. Obraztsov (1960, Ge), M. Okazaki (1962,
Ge), E. Otsuka (1964, Ge), E. D. Palik (1961, InSb, InAs, InP, GaAs;
1963, InAs), W. Paul (1958-1959, Ge, Si, Ge-Si; 1961, intermetallic semi-
conductors), G. L. Pearson (1954, Si),-W. B. Pearson (1959, zinc-blende
structure), H. R. Philipp (1962, 3-5 compounds; 1964, diamond), J. C.
Phillips (1960, Ge), G. Picus (1956, Si), G. E. Pikus (1957-1959, Ge, Si),
H. Piller (1963, GaSb), P. J. Price (1964, Ge), E. I. Rashba (1961, InSb),
R. R. Rau (1955, Ge), C. J. Rauch (1960, Si; 1961-1962, diamond), V.
Roberts (1955, InSb, GaSb), M. Rodot (1957, InSb), B. V. Rollins (1963,
Ge),D. J. Rose (1957, Si),A. C. Rose-Innes (1958, Ge, Si), L. M. Roth (1959-
1960, Ge, Si), M. N. Ryabinin (1961, Ge type), Y. Saito (1962, InBi),
T. Sasaki (1963, Ge), W. Sasaki (1956, Ge), H. Sato (1963, Ge), K.
Sawamoto (1963-1964, CdS), D. Schechter (1962, Si, Ge), M. L. Schultz
(1955, Ge, Si), S. S. Shalyt (1961-1962, InAs, InSb), L. J. Sham (1963,
Si), D. I. Sheka (1964, diamond type), W. Shockley (1958, Ge), R. J.
Sladek (1958-1960, InAs, InSb, Ge), T. E. Slykhouse (1958, Ge, Si),
L. S. Smirnov (1957, Ge), S. D. Smith (1959, InSb), W. E. Spicer (1962,
Si), W. G. Spitzer (1955, InSb; 1957, Si), F. Stern (1957, InAs), J. J.
Stickler (1962, Ge, Si), R. Stratton (1958, Ge), A. D. Stuckes (1957,
InSb), V. K. Subashiev (1964, Si), M. Suffczynski (1961, Ge), K. Sugiyama
(1963, Ge), S. Tanaka (1964, Si), G. E. Tauber (1962, Ge, Si), J. Tauc
(1960-1961, Ge, Si), J. H. Taylor (1950, Ge), A. C. Thorson (1961, InBi),
K. B. Tolpygo (1960, ZnS type; 1961, diamond type), Yu. I. Ukhanov
(1962, Si), V. S. Vavilov (1959, Ge, Si; 1960, Si), W. C. Walker (1964,
diamond), R. F. Wallis (1958, InSb; 1960, Ge), C. C. Wang (1963, 3-5
compounds), S. Wang (1957, Ge), W. F. Wei (1961, Ge), G. Weinreich
(1957, Ge; 1959, Ge + As), T. Yamaguchi (1962-1963, diamond), R.
Yamamoto (1965, Ge), J. Yamashita (1956, Si; 1959, Ge), H. Yoshinaga
(1956, InSb), R. Zallen (1964, GaP), E. A. Zavadskii (1964, Ge), J. N.
Zemel (1958, Ge), N. V. Zotova (1962, InAs), S. Zwerdling (1956, InAs,
InSb; 1957-1959, Ge; 1959, GaSb; 1960, Si; 1961-1962, InSb).
Other Semiconductors and Insulators
A. R. Adams (1964, S), N. E. Alekseevskii (1956, Te), R. S. Allgaier
(1960-1961, PbTe, PbS, PbSe), L. Apker (1950, KI; 1951, Rbl, BaO),
G. Ascarelli (1962, AgBr), W. S. Baer (1964, CdS), A. S. Baichan (1961,
I, Se), T. H. K. Barron (1959-1960, alkali halides), F. Bassani (1965,
AgCI, AgBr), J. H. Becker (1965, TiO 2), G. C. Benson (1956, MgO,
alkali halides), J. M. Bijvoet (1953, LiH), G. L. Bir (1962, PbTe, PbSe),
M. D. Blue (1964, HgTe, HgCdTe), V. N. Bogomolov (1963, rutile),

N. P. Bogoroditskii (1962, Ti02), H. C. Bolton (1962, rutile), A. A. Braner
(1963, I), J. J. Brophy (1961, organic semiconductors), F. C. Brown
(1958, 1962, silver halides), R. H. Bube (1955, Zn, Cd-S, Se, Te; 1957, Zn
Te; 1958, ZnSe), R. S. Calder (1962, LiH), H. B. Callen (1954, Te), J. L.
Callies (1964, Te), M. Cardona (1964, IV-VI and V materials), E. I.
Cheglokov (1964, Se, Te), W. J. Choyke (1957, SiC), I. S. Ciccarello
(1964, 1\/IgO, Al20a), A. L. Companion (1964, SCO), J. B. Conklin, Jr.
(1965, PbTe), A. J. Cornish (1959, inorganic semiconductors), K. F. Cuff
(1961-1962, PbTe), M. Cutler (1963, Cea-xS4; 1964, CsS), T. P. Das
(1964, LiF), W. R. Datars (1963, KCl), E. D. Devyatkova (1957, PbTe),
D. L. Dexter (1951, alkali halides), R. N. Dexter (1959, CdS), J. 0.
Dimmock (1964, PbS, PbSe, PbTe), J. R. Drabble (1958-1959, Bi 2Te 3),
L. D. Dudkin (1960, transition-metal compounds of CuAl 2 and FeS 2
types), P. R. Emtage (1965, platinum antimonide), V. Ern (1965, TiC,
TiN, TiO), L. G. Ferreira (1965, PbTe), P. G. Fielding (1959, 3-6 com-
pounds), Yu. A. Firsov (1957, Te type), G. Fischer (1960, Te; 1962, GaTe,
GaSe), E. Fisher (1948, NaCl), M. V. Fok (1963, ZnS), H.P. R. Frederikse
(1964, S:rTiOa), V. Frei (1962, CdSb), T. Fukuroi (1951, Te), N. Fuschillo
(1959, Be2Tea-ySey), G. F. J. Garlick (1958, CdTe), E. Gei-shtein (1957,
PbTe), A. Gobrecht (1961, Se), A. Gold (1961, alkali halides), H. J.
Goldsmid (1958-1961, Bi 2Te 3), I. S. Gorban (1960, Cu20), T. C. Harman
(1961, CdxHg1_,,Te), R. Hilsch (1930, alkali halides), J. J. Hopfield (1963,
KI), L. P. Howland (1958, KCl), J. N. Humphrey (1957, PbSe), E.
Hylleraas (1926, Hg 2Cl 2; 1927, rutile, anatase, quartz), T. lnui (1952,
alkali halides), T. Irie (1956, PbS), M. Itakura (1963, CdS), H. M. James
(1949, PbS), J. A. James (1950, PbS), G. H. Jonker (1959, Co ferrite;
1960, transition-metal oxides), H. J. Juretschke (1958, transition-metal
diborides), A. H. Kahn (1953, KCl; 1964, SrTi0 3), Y. Kanai (1960,
PbTe), K. K. Kanazawa (1964, CdTe), G. F. Karavaev (1962, Th 3P 4
type), A. S. Karpus (1961, Sb 2S 3), J. I. Katz (1963, naphthalene, anthra-
cene), H. Kawamura (1958, KCl), J. C. Kemp (1963, MgO), V. E.
Khartsiev (1962, CdSb, ZnSb), N. B. Kindig (1965, CdS), R. S. Knox
(1956, KCI + Tl; 1959, alkali halides; 1964, cesium halides), T. Kojima
(1957, LiF), H. Komiya (1964, ZnSb), I. Ya. Korenblit (1960, Bi2Te 3),
U. Korhonen (1956, alkali halides), L. I. Korovin (1958-1960, Te), J.
Korringa (1956, alkali halides), V. M. Korsunskii (1960, Te), T. L.
Kovalchik (1956, PbTe), T. I. Kucher (1958, NaCl), E. K. Kudinov
(1959-1961, Bi 2Te 3), C. D. Kuglin (1961, PbTe), 0. H. LeBianc, Jr.
(1961, anthracene), P. M. Lee (1963, Bi 2Te 3), E. R. Levin (1960, LiF),
M. P. Lisitsa (1960, Cu 2 0), M. R. Lorenz (1964, CdTe), F. L. Lummis
(1957, PbS), S. N. Lvov (1960, borides, carbides, and nitrides of transition
elements), W. Mannhout-van der Vorst (1957, alkali halides+ Ag), J. J.
Markham (1948, NaCl), P. V. Meiklyar (1962, silver halides), A. Meyer

(1964, LiCl, LiF), T. Miyata (1964, NaCl), P. Moch (1960, rutile), R. G.
Morris (1958, Mg 2Si), T. S. Moss (1955, PbS-Se-Te; 1959, CdTe), T.
Muto (1949, alkali halides), S. Narita (1965, ZnS), J. R. Nelson (1955,
MgO), R. Newman (1959, NiO), A. N. Nigam (1957, potassium halides),
R. Nii (1963-1964, PbTe), H. Numata (1964, PbTe), T. Okada (1959,
4-6 compounds), M. Onuki (1965, CdS), E. D. Palik (1964, PbS), R. V.
Parfenev (1962, Te), L. Patrick (1962, SiC), W. B. Pearson (1959, zinc-
blende structure; 1962, TiN), L. Pesnak (1950, Se), H. R. Philipp(1963,
alkali halides), J.C. Phillips (1964, alkali halides), G. E. Pikus (1961, Te
structure; 1962, PbS, PbTe), W. W. Piper (1959, ZnS), F. E. Pretzel
(1960, LiH), V. Prosser (1961, Se), C. J. Rauch (1957, alkali halides),
T. K. Rebane (1956, PbS), R. H. Rediker (1961, PbTe), R. D. Redin
(1958, Mg 2Ge), C. Rigaux (1962, Te), D. A. Robins (1958, transition-
metal silicides), M. Rodot (1960, HgTe, HgSe), H. Roth (1959, Te),
A. A. Samokhvalov (1961, 3d-metal oxides; 1963, TiO), W. W. Scanlon
(1957, PbS; 1959, PbS, PbSe, PbTe), A. B. Scott (1950, KCl), R. J.
Seeger (1938, alkali halides), F. Seitz (1950-1951, alkali halides), A. D.
Shneider (1963, HgTe-CdTe), K. Shogenji (1963, PbTe), A. F. Shubenko
(1962, Sb 2S 8), G. A. Slack (1957, KCl + Ca), J. C. Slater (1936, alkali
halides), T. E. Slykhouse (1958, silver halides), W. E. Spear (1963, CdS),
W. E. Spicer (1959, intermetallic semiconductors containing alkalies),
W. G. Spitzer (1964, CdTe), M. J. Stevenson (1959, CdAs2; 1960, 2-5
semiconductors), L. S. Stilbans (1956, PbTe), P. J. Stiles (1961, PbTe,
PbS; 1962, PbTe), E. Taft (1952, alkali iodides; 1958, AgBr), L. R.
Testardi (1963, Bi 2Te 8), D. G. Thomas (1964, gallium phosphate), H. H.
Tippins (1963, AgBr), K. B. Tolpygo (1963-1964, alkali halides), M. P.
Tosi (1958, alkali halides), J. Umeda (1964, Mg2Sn), B. C. Unal (1958,
chrome alum), R. Veelken (1955, alkali halides), E. J. W. Verwey (1951,
oxides), A. K. Walton (1962-1963, Pb salts), C.R. Whitsett (1965, HgSe),
F. E. Williams (1959, KCl + Tl), J. F. Woods (1957, PbS), R. W. Wright
(1958, CdO), E. Yamada (1961, PbTe), J. Yamashita (1952, oxides; 1958,
MgO, NiO; 1963, TiO, NiO).
Alkali Metals and Noble Metals
N. E. Alekseevskii (1958, Au; 1962, Ag), G. E. Alers (1963, Au), M.
Asdente (1959, Cu), B. W. Batterman (1959, Cu), C. N. Berglund (1964,
Cu, Ag), T. G. Berlincourt (1958, Cu), F. J. Blatt (1955, Cu; 1957, Cu,
Ag, Au; 1960, Cu), H. V. Bohm (1960, Ag; 1962, noble metals), E. S.
Borovik (1954, Cu), H. Bross (1959, Cu), P. N. Butcher (1951, alkalies),
D. Caroline (1963, Ag, Cu), M. H. Cohen (1958, alkalies, noble metals),
R. V. Coleman (1964, noble metals), J. R. A. Cooper (1959, Ag alloys),
D. Coster (1938, Au, Ag), E. Daniel (1962, Cu, Au), J. K. Darby (1964,
Na), A. M. de Graaff (1962, alkalies), J. de Launay (1959, Cu), T. Deutsch

(1961, alkalies), D. L. Dexter (1956, Cu), Ya. G. Dorfman (1939, Ag),
J. S. Dugdale (1957, Cu; 1963, Li, Na, K), V. J. Easterling (1962, Ag),
H. Ehrenreich (1962, Ag, Cu), H. E. Farnsworth (1929-1930, Cu; 1932,
Cu, Ag; 1933, Au), E. Fawcett (1956, Cu), V. Frank (1957-1958, Cu, Ag,
Au), A. J. Funes (1963, Cu), Yu. P. Gaidukov (1959, Au), F. Garcia-
Moliner (1958, alkalies, Cu), A. V. Gold (1960, Cu), P. Gombas (1935,
alkalies; 1938, alkalies; 1952, alkalies, noble metals; 1960, Ag), M.
Gourceaux (1959, alkalies), M. P. Greene (1965, Na), C. C. Grimes (1963,
Na, K), A. M. Guenault (1963, Rb, Cs), W. A. Harrison (1958, Cu; 1964,
Na, Mg, Al), J. N. Hodgson (1963, Na), A. J. Hughes (1964, Na), A. S.
Joseph (1964, Cu; 1965, Ag), S. K. Joshi (1962, monovalent metals), T.
Kasuya (1955-1959, monovalent metals), A. F. Kip (1961, Cu), J. R.
Klauder (1960-1961, Cu), J. F. Koch (1964, Cu), J.E. Kunzler (1961, Cu),
D. N. Langenberg (1959, Cu; 1964, Au), W. F. Love (1959, Cu), D. K. C.
MacDonald (1950, alkalies; 1958, alkalies), T. B. Massalski (1960-1962,
Au alloys), R. Maurer (1940, Na), F. G. Moliner (1958, Cu), R. W. Morse
(1958-1959, Cu; 1960, Au, Ag; 1961, noble metals), K. Okamura (1962,
Rb), J. L. Olsen (1954, Cu), R. Olson (1957, Cu), A. W. Overhauser
(1956, Cu), W. B. Pearson (1955, Cu; 1960, Ag, Au), A. B. Pippard
(1957, Cu), R. J. Potter (1957, Cu), R. L. Powell (1959, Cu), M. G.
Priestley (1960, Cu, Ag, Au), J. A. Rayne (1959, Cu), S. Roberts (1960,
Cu), A. G. Samoilovich (1960, Li), A. Seeger (1956, monovalent metals),
I. N. Shklyarevskii (1959, Cu, Ag, Au), D. Shoenberg (1959, Cu; 1960-
1962, Cu, Ag, Au), W. E. Spicer (1962, CsAu; 1964, Cu), A. T. Stewart
(1964, Li-Mg), M. Suffczynski (1959-1964, noble metals), P. L. Taylor
(1963, noble metals), W. B. Teutsch (1957, Au-Cr), A. C. Thorsen (1961,
K), M. Tsuji (1958, monovalent metals), S. Yamaguchi (1963, Ag), C.
Zener (1935, alkalies), J. M. Ziman (1959, Cu; alkalies).
Divalent and Trivalent Metals
N. E. Alekseevskii (1962, Cd, Zn, Tl), P. B. Alers (1956, Zn), S. L.
Altmann (1964, Ca), E. R. Andrew (1949, Hg), N. W. Ashcroft (1963,
Al), R. J. Balcombe (1963, Al), J. R. Beattie (1957, Al), T. G. Berlincourt
(1954, Cd, Zn), P.A. Bezuglyi (1959, In; 1963, Al), E. S. Borovik (1954,
Mg), C. C. Bradley (1963, Ga, Hg), G. B. Brandt (1963, In), J. G. Castle,
Jr. (1951, In), G. L. Clendenen (1964, Mg), J. H. Condon (1964, Ca),
M. R. Daniel (1963, Cd), S. B. Das (1964, Mg), B. C. Deaton (1964,
Cd, Zn), H. Ehrenreich (1963, Al), E. Fawcett (1959-1960, Al; 1961, Mg,
Zn, Cd), K. Forsvoll (1964, Al, In), V. Frank (1957-1958, Al), T. Fukuroi
(1957, Zn), A. A. Galkin (1963, Al), J. K. Galt (1959-1960, Zn; 1961,
Cd), J. D. Gavenda (1962, Cd), D. F. Gibbons (1961, Zn; 1963, Zn, Cd),
P. Gombas (1937, Sr, Ba), W. L. Gordon (1960, Mg), C. C. Grimes
92 INSULAlORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chap. 3
(1963, Al), A. D. C. Grissie (1964, Cd), E. M. Gunnerson (1957, Al),

F. T. Hedgcock (1964, Mg, Al), R. J. Higgins (1965, Zn), B. K Jones
(1964, Al), A. S. Joseph (1961, Zn, Cd; 1962, Zn), G. N. Kamm (1963,
Al), G. S. Lane (1964, Zn, Cd), L. G. Lang (1958, Cd), D. N. Langenberg
(1959, Al), A. R. Lenham (1964, Cd, Zn), T. L. Loucks (1964, Be), 0. S.
Lutes (1965, Al), L. Mackinnon (1962, Cd), A. R. Mackintosh (1963,
Tl), R. Maurer (1940, Ba), H. Mendlowitz {1960, Al), T. W. Moore
(1962, Al), F. R. N. Nabarro (1957, Zn), M. G. Priestley (1962, Al; 1963,
Mg), J. A. Rayne (1962, In, Tl; 1963, Tl), W. A. Reed (1962-1963, Ga,
Zn), B. W. Roberts (1960, Al; 1961, Ga), W. C. Shaw (1957, B), D.
Shoenberg (1951, Al), P. Soven (1965, Tl), F. W. Spong (1965, Al), R. W.
Stark (1962, Mg, Zn; 1964, Mg, Zn), W. C. Walker (1958, In), M. Yaqub
(1963, Ga), N. H. Zebouni (1963, Cd).
Metals of 3d- and Other Transition Groups

S. L. Altmann (1964, Zr), J. R. Anderson (1963, Fe), B. W. Batterman
(l959, Fe), N. D. Borisov (1961, iron group), E. S. Borovik (1959, Cr),
G. B. Brandt (1962-1963, Cr-group metals), C. J. Davisson (1927-1929,
Ni), I. Ya. Dekhtyar (1957, transition elements), J. de Nobel (1957, W),
H. Ehrenreich (1963, Ni), H. E. Farnsworth (1933, W), E. Fawcett (1961,
transition metals; 1962, W, Ni, Cr, Mo; 1964, Mo, W), S. Foner (1956,
Fe; 1957, Ti, V, Cr, Mn), V. Frank (1957-1958, Pd, Pt, Zr, W, Mo, Ta,
Nb), F. Gautier (1963, Ni), A. F. A. Harper (1957, Cr), A. S. Joseph
(1963, Ni; 1964, Re), C. Kittel (1963, Fe), G. S. Krinchik (1957, Ni),
W. M. Lomer (1962, Cr; 1964, Mo), S. M. Marcus (1963, Ni), V. A.
Marsocci (1965, Ni), I. Ya. Nikoforov (1961, Fe), J. A. Rayne (1962-
1964, W), W. A. Reed (1964, Fe), S. Roberts (1959, Ni, W), A. Seeger
(1954, transition metals; 1956, Ni, Co), A. C. Thorson (1961, Re, Nb,
Ta; 1963, Zr), S. Wakoh (1964, Ni), W. M. Walsh, Jr. (1962, W), G. K.
White (1957, Rh, Ir, Pt; 1956, Co, W, Re), J. Yamashita (1963, Ni).
Graphite
K. Ariyama (1954), R. G. Arkhipov (1963), T. G. Berlincourt (1955), J.C.
Bowman (1958), A. K. Dutta (1958), J. K. Galt (1956), R. R. Haering
(1957), M. Inoue (1962), C. A. Klein (1962), B. Lax (1957), J.E. Lennard-
Jones (1934), A. I. Likhter (1963), J. W. McClure (1956-1960), S.
Mrozowski (1953), P. Nozieres (1958), D. E. Soule (1958-1964), W. J.
Spry (1960), K. Sugihara (1963), E. A. Taft (1965).
Bismuth
B. Abeles (1956), A. A. Abrikosov (1963), P. B. Alers (1953), J.E. Aubrey
(1957, 1961), M. Ya. Azbel (1962), J. Babiskin (1957), G. A. Baraff
(1965), M. Blackman (1938), W. S. Boyle (1958-1960), N. B. Brandt
Sec. 3-11 J · CYCLOTRON RESONANCE AND RELATED· PHENOMENA 93
(1959-1961), R. N. Brown (1960-1963), H. B. G. Casimir (1940), M. H.

Cohen {1960), P. A. Connell (1957), R. N. Dexter (1955), Y. Eckstein
(1965), W. E. Engeler (1963), L. Esaki (1962), G. E. Everett (1962),
L.A. Falkovskii (1963), J. K. Galt (1955, 1959), A. N. Gerritsen (1940),
D. V. Gitser (1960, 1963), B. A. Green, Jr. (1963), T. Hattori (1963-
1965), L. C. Hebel (1965), V. Heine (1956), J. J. Hopfield (1962), G. A.
Ivanov (1963), A. L. Jain (1964), H. Jones (1934-1936), Y. H. Kao
(1963), R. J. Keyes (1956), R. W. Keyes (1956), M. S. Khaikin (1962),
J. Kirsch (1962-1964), A. P. Korolyuk (1963), B. Lax (1956, 1960), L. S.
Lerner (1962-1963), W. F. Leverton (1951), S. Mase (1960), J. G.
Mavroides (1962), T. Morimoto (1965), T. Okada (1957), W. C. Overton,
Jr. (1955), A. B. Pippard {1952), D. H. Reneker (1958-1959), J. M.
Reynolds (1954), Y. Saito (1963), D. Shoenberg (1936, 1939), G. E. Smith
(1959-1963), M. C. Steele (1955), K. Tanaka (1961), M. Tinkham (1956),
A. M. Toxen (1965), B. I. Verkin (1956), E. P. Volskii (1962), W. C.
Walker (1958), G. K. White (1958).
Other Metallic Elements
N. E. Alekseevskii (1960-1961, Sn; 1961, Pb), P. B. Alers (1957, Sn),
E. R. Andrew (1949, Sn), J. E. Aubrey (1960, Pb), T. G. Berlincourt
(1955, As), P. A. Bezuglyi (1957, Sn; 1958, Pb), E. S. Borovik (1954,
Pb), N. B. Brandt (1961, Sb), B. N. Brockhouse (1961, Pb), W.R. Datars
(1961-1962, Sb), S. Epstein (1963, Sb), L. Eriksson (1964, Sb), A. W.
Ewald (1959, Sn), L. M. Falicov (1965, As), E. Fawcett (1956, Sn), S. J.
Freedman (1961, Sb), A. A. Galkin (1959, Sn), A. V. Gold (1958, Pb;
1960, Sn), S. Groves (1963, Sn), E. D. Hinkley (1964, Sn), H.J. Juretschke
(1955, Sb), J. B. Ketterson (1963, Sb), M. S. Khaikin (1959-1962, Sn;
1962, Pb), A. F. Kip (1957, Sn), J. F. Koch (1962, Sn), L. Mackinnon
(1962, Pb), A. R. Mackintosh (1960, Pb, Sn; 1963, Pb), H. Montgomery
(1958, Pb), T. Olsen (1960-1963, Sn), A. Paskin (1962, Pb), W. B.
Pearson (1958, Pb), A. B. Pippard (1950, Sn), G. N. Rao (1964, Sb), Y.
Saito (1963-1964, Sb), J. E. Schirber (1963, Pb), D. Shoenberg (1951,
Sb), M. C. Steele (1955, Sb), W. C. Walker (1958, Sn), G. K. White
(1958, Sb), R. C. Young (1962, Pb).
Metallic Alloys and Compounds
M.A. Biondi (1959, brass), J. A. Birch (1958, Au-Pt), M. D. Blue (1959,
Cu alloys), N. D. Borisov (1958, Fe-Cr), F. L. Carter (1964, ZnSb),
C. W. Chen (1963, Fe-Co + l\fo), B. R. Coles (1952, Ni-Cu, Pd-Ag; 1953,
transition-metal alloys), J. R. A. Cooper (1959, Ag alloys), E. Daniel
(1962, Cu, Au, Pd alloys), A. J. Darnell (1964, InSb, InTe, 'metallic),
R. T. Delves (1963, HgTe-MnTe), A. C. Ehrlich (1964, Ni-Cu-Fe alloys),
S. Foner (1953, Co-Ni; 1955, permalloy; 1958, Ni 3Mn, Fe-Co), F. Gautier
(1962-1963, Ni and Co alloys), I. S. Gorban (1963, SiC), F. T. Hedgcock

(1962, Zn-Mn; 1963, Zn alloy), R. R. Heikes (1957, transition-metal
oxides + Li), K. Huang (1948, Ag-Au), H. Jones (1934, -y-phase and other
alloys),.Y. H. Kao (1964, Bi-Sb), W.R. G. Kemp (1956, Ag-Pd, Ag-Cd;
1957, Cu alloys), H. W. King (1961, Ag alloys), K. S. Krishnan (1944,
Cu-Zn), R. S. Leigh (1951, Al-Zn), A. G. Lesnik (1958, Fe-Cr), J. 0.
Linde (1958, noble-metal alloys), W. F. Love (1959, Cu 3Au), H. Lowery
(1937, Cu-Zn), A. R. Mackintosh (1963, tungsten bronzes), T. B.
Massalski (1960-1962, Au alloys), L. F. Mattheis (1965, V3X), M. F.
Merriam (1963, In alloys), S. Mori (1963, InSc), N. F. Mott (1936, Cu-Ni;
1937, Cu-Zn), F. R. N. Nabarro (1957, brass), V. Nemoshkalenko (1962,
Fe-Co), T. Olsen (1959, Cu alloys), A. W. Overhauser (1957, Ni-Pd),
W. B. Pearson (1957, NiAs structure), J. A. Rayne (1961, Cu-Ge), L. D.
Roberts (1965, Au alloys), E. I. Salkovitz (1957, Mg alloys), A. I.
Schindler (1953, Cu-Ni), K. Schroder (1964, Cr-Fe, Cr-V), W. E. Spicer
(1962, Cs-Au), A. T. Stewart (1964, Li-Mg), W. B. Teutsch (1957, Au-Cr),
A. A. Tsertsvadze (1962, SiC), H.J. van Daal (1963, SiC), G. N. Violina
(1963, SiC), F. W. von Batchelder (1957, Mg alloys), D. Weiner (1962,
Bi-Te), K. Yosida (1957, Cu-Mn).
4
The Drude-Lorentz and Ewald Theories
of Insulating Crystals
4-1. The Optical-dispersion Theory of Drude and Lorentz. In Sec. 1-1

we have pointed out how Drude and Lorentz about 1900 laid the founda-
tions for the electron theory of solids. In preceding chapters we have
been considering electrical conductivity of metals under constant electric
and magnetic fields, and have seen how the work of Drude and Lorentz
laid the foundation for further developments. The main part of their
work, however, dealt not with constant external fields, but with oscillating
electromagnetic fields, such as one meets in light and similar disturbances.
They wished to find an atomistic explanation of the dielectric constant,
refractive index, and absorption coefficient, both in metals and in insula-
tors or dielectrics. They described dielectric effects as arising from oscil-
lating dipoles, electrons held to positions of equilibrium in the atoms by
linear restoring forces, subject to resistive forces as well, and set into
motion by the electric field acting on them. Similarly, as we have seen
in the preceding chapters, they described electrical conductivity in terms
of free electrons, accelerated by the field, and subject also to resistive
forces, but not to the linear restoring forces met in dielectrics. In the
present chapter we shall consider the problem of dielectrics, in which we
have the linear oscillators, but not free electrons.
First we shall remind the reader of Maxwell's equations, and of the
way in which the dielectric constant and conductivity enter into them.
We shall follow the general lines of the discussion in Slater and Frank,
"Electromagnetism," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1947, and
shall make some detailed references to that work, to which the reader is
referred for further treatment. As in that book, we shall use the mks
system of units; we shall indicate at the appropriate time how to go from
the resulting equations to those of the Gaussian system, which are some-
what more familiar.
Maxwell's equations deal with four vector field quantities, E, D, B, and
. 95 .
H, where E and D refer to the electric field, B and H to the magnetic

field. Each is a vector function of position and time. They determine
these quantities in terms of the volume density of electric charge, p, and
the volume density of electric current, J, of which the first is a scalar
function of position and time, the latter a vector function of position and
time, which are assumed to be given in advance. The equations are as
follows ["Electromagnetism," chap. VII, Eq. (4-1)]:
aB
curl E = - - div B = 0
at (4-1)
aD
curl H = J + at div D = p
These equations by themselves are not enough to determine the fields

from the charge and current. Maxwell introduced the following addi-
tional equations, sometimes called the constitutive equations, expressing
properties of the medium in which the charges and currents are immersed:
D = eE B =µH J = uE (4-2)
Here e is the dielectric constant, µ the magnetic permeability, and u the
specific electrical conductivity, of the medium. In the Gaussian system
of units, e andµ are dimensionless. However, in the mks system we have
(4-3)
where Ke, Km are the dimensionless dielectric constant and permeability,
respectively, of the Gaussian system, and Eo and µo have specific values
(see "Electromagnetism," chap. I, sec. 2; chap. IV, sec. 2; chap. V, sec. 1;
chap. VI, sec. 2; and appendix II, for discussion of units).
When experimental values of the three quantities Ke, Km, and u are
inserted in Eqs. (4-1), (4-2), and (4-3), they become complete enough so
that the electric and magnetic fields produced by given charges and cur-
rents can be predicted. However, as was stated above, Drude and Lorentz
were not satisfied with this situation, but preferred to regard dielectric
and magnetic effects, and conductivity, as arising from the motion of
electrons. If we are dealing with free space, we have Ke = Km = 1, u = 0,
and they wished to express these quantities in a medium containing elec-
trons as the sum of their free-space values, plus additional terms arising
from the electronic motions. This was not merely a matter of academic
interest. Maxwell had assumed that the three constants were really con-
stant; but experiment had shown that all three really depended on fre-
quency, in such a way as to suggest that they arose from oscillators having
natural frequencies of oscillation. This effect, called anomalous dispersion
when concerned with the effect of frequency on Ke, was one of the main
problems which Drude and Lorentz wished to explain.
Sec. 4-1] THE DRUDE-LORENTZ THEORY OF INSULATORS 97
Our problem in the µresent chapter is that of dielectrics, in which we

shall assume that Km = 1, orµ = J.Lo, and u = 0. We shall assume, how-
ever, that there are electrical dipoles, set into oscillation by the field, the
dipole moment per unit volume being P, the sum of the charges times
their displacements in the unit volume, another vector function of position
and time. It is easy to show that the quantity P, called the polarization,
results in a charge density equal to p' = - div P, and a current density
J' = aP / at. These charge and current densities are to be added to the
quantities p and J of Eq. (4-1); the latter quantities are sometimes called
the real charge and current, while p' and J' are called the bound charge
and current, since they result from electrons bound to the atoms. We
no longer have a value of Ke different from 1, however, since we are assum-
ing that apart from the bound charge and current, the medium is identical
with empty space.
Maxwell's equations then become
aB
curl E = - -
at div B = 0 I
curl H = J + J' + Eo aE = J + a(EoE + P) (4-4)
at at
Eo div E = p - div P div (EoE + P) = p
In other words, if we set
D= EoE + P= Eo (1 + E~E) E (4-5)
we find that the last two of Maxwell's equations take their standard form,
with
p
Ke= 1 + -E
Eo
(4-6)
To find the dielectric constant, we must then evaluate the proportionality

constant between polarization and field. We may well state at this point
that in an equation such as (4-6), we obtain the corre:-;ponding form of the
equation in Gaussian units by setting 471"Eo = 1, or Eo = 1/471", so that Eq.
(4-6) in Gaussian units becomes
_ l
Ke -
+ 47rP
E (4-7)
Drude and Lorentz next assumed that the dielectric contained N elec-
trons J>Cr unit v<dume, each ol,eying a differential e4uation
d 2x E
m dt 2 + mg dtdx + mw x 2
0
_
- - c (4-8)
Here - e and m are the charge and mass of the electron, x is its displace-
ment, g a frictional constant, and wo the resonant angular frequency, de-
scribing the restoring force proportional to the displacement. If we
assume that E and x vary as ei"'t (where eventually we are to take the real
part of this expression), then we find
x _ _-__,_(e..:..../m---'-)E_
(4-9)
- wi - w2 + iwg
The polarization is then
p _ E Ne 2/m (4-10)
- wi - w2 + iwg
so that we have
_ 1+ Ne 2/mEo (4-11)
Ke-
w0 - w2 + •iwg
2
If there are a number of different types of oscillators, having different

resonant frequencies, with N,. of the kth type, the corresponding expression
IS
(4-12)
where now wk, g,. refer to the kth type of electron.

In Eq. (4-12) we have a formula for dielectric constant which agrees
well with experiment; it is essentially equivalent to Sellmeier's formula
for the dielectric constant, which was proposed long ago. The fact that
the dielectric constant is complex leads to terms in D, or in P, out of
phase as well as in phase with E, and this in turn leads to absorption of
the electromagnetic wave. To see this, let us use Maxwell's equations to
derive the electric and magnetic fields in a plane wave. We start with
Eq. (4-1), set J and p equal to zero (though J' and p' are not zero), and use
Eq. (4-2). We assume for this derivation that Ke is constant over all
space, so that we are deriving a plane wave in an infinite medium. We
take the curl of the first of Eqs. (4-1), and use the vector identity curl
curl E = grad div E - V2E. Since div D = 0, we also have div E = 0.
We find curl B from the equation curl H = aD/at = K,Eo aE/at, since
J = 0, and we use the relation B = µ 0H. We combine these results, and
find
(4-13)
This is the wave equation for E. A simple solution is
E = Eo exp iw(t - x/v) (4-14)

where the velocity of propagation, v, is given by

v = 1/VK.Eo/Lo = c/y';, (4-15)
where c, the velocity of light in empty space, is given by
c = 1/VEo!,Lo (4-16)
Since Ke is complex, this means that the velocity of propagation v is
also complex. The real part of 1/v will result in a sinusoidal wave, but
the imaginary part will result in a damping as x increases, or an absorp-
tion of the wave. We see from Eq. (4-12) that if the angular frequency
w is far from any resonant frequency wk, and if the damping constants gk
are small, the imaginary parts of the denominators in Eq. (4-12) will be
very small compared with the real parts, and as a result the imaginary
part of the velocity will be small, and there will be small damping of the
wave. On the other hand, if we are near resonance, so that w is almost
equal to one of the wk's, one of the denominators will be very small and
imaginary, and there will be large damping. The resulting wave propa-
gation is described more in detail in "Electromagnetism," chap. IX. If
the damping can be neglected, we can write
1 n (4-17)
V C
where n, the index of refraction, is given by the expression
n = y';. (4-18)
In Chap. IX, just quoted, the corresponding formulas are given for the
case where absorption cannot be neglected.
These results are all very familiar, and we have gone over them mainly
to have the equations available, for further use. It is also well known
that Lorentz, and almost simultaneously another worker named by coinci-
dence Lorenz, 1 made an extension of the theory, resulting in what is
called the Lorentz-Lorenz correction. We shall take it up in the next
section.
4-2. The Lorentz-Lorenz Correction. We have tacitly assumed in
writing Eqs. (4-8), (4-9), and (4-10) that the force acting on the charge
-e, which leads to one of the dipoles, was -eE. Lorentz suggested,
however, that we should take a more microscopic look at the problem.
We assume that on a microscopic or atomic scale, E varies from point
to point within the unit cell of a crystal, and that the E which we are
dealing with in Maxwell's equations is the average over space of the
microscopic electric field. Lorentz asked: Is it obvious that the field
1 H. A. Lorentz, Wied. Ann., 9:641 (1880). L. Lorenz, Wied. Ann., 11 :70 (1880).
acting on a dipole equals this average value? Might it not be that the
dipoles are at special positions, at which the field is consistently different
from the average value?
He made the situation clearer by an argument which we can easily
state in a simplified form. If we have a cavity in the interior of a dielec-
tric, the field acting on a particle at the center of the cavity depends on
the shape of the cavity. Thus, in "Electromagnetism," chapter IV,
sec. 7, it is pointed out that if we have a long needle-shaped cavity, point-
ing in the direction of the electric field, the value of E at the center of the
cavity is the same as the E within the dielectric medium. On the other
hand, at the center of a flat disk-shaped cavity whose normal points
along the direction of the field, the field is D / Eo, or E + P / Eo. The rea-
son for the difference is found in the field produced by surface charges
which appear on the surfaces of the cavity, on account of the discon-
tinuity of the dielectric at the surface. Other shapes of cavity have
intermediate fields. Thus, at the center of a spherical cavity, the field is
in mks units
(4-19)
in Gaussian units
as is proved in "Electromagnetism," chap. IX, sec. 2.

Lorentz then suggested that the position of an atom in a liquid or solid
is much more like that in the center of a sphere than like that in the
center of a needle-shaped cavity. Other atoms naturally stay away from
the atom in question, and if it were spherical they would stay outside
a spherical field of influence. Lorentz as a matter of fact used a much
more sophisticated argument than this, but he came to the same conclu-
sion, and since we shall shortly attack the same problem in a more rigorous
manner, we shall not try to refine the argument here. The net result
of this argument of Lorentz, however, was that he replaced Eq. (4-10)
by the equation
(4-20)
which implies that it is the field E + P /3Eo which polarizes the dipoles.
If we assume Eq. (4-20) instead of (4-10), and combine with Eq. (4-6),
we may then divide by e0E, and find
Ke - I = (1 + ~-=--!) 1"'\'
3
(k) Nke2/meo_
wi - w2 + iwgk (4-21)
This equation is discussed in "Electromagnetism," chap. IX, sec. 2,

where it is pointed out that it agrees better with experiment than the
original form of Eq. (4-12). It is generally considered that it provides
a good explanation of many features of dielectrics.
There are, however, a number of experimental facts which are by no
means explained by such a formula as Eq. (4-21), and the most striking
of these is the existence of double refraction. In noncubic crystals, the
dielectric constant, or index of refraction, is found to be different for
different directions of the electric field. This phenomenon, of great
importance for practical optics, was well known and well described at
the time we are writing of. It arises, in a phenomenological way, if we
write the relation between D and E, not as a scalar relation like that of
Eq. (4-2), but in a tensor form,
D,. = E:,Jtz + E:,yE11 + E,.,E,

Dy = Ey:,Ex+ EyyE11 + Ey,Ez (4-22)
D, = E,,.E,, + E,yEy + E.,E.
where of course there will be certain relations between the Eds, determined
by the symmetry of the crystal. It is this sort of relation which was
worked out in Voigt's book, quoted in Sec. 1-1. It is obvious that Eq.
(4-21) as it stands, which leads to a single dielectric constant, cannot
explain a relation like that of Eq. (4-22).
Naturally there was a question as to how this tensor relation between
D and E, leading to the experimental phenomenon of double refraction,
came about. One can think of two alternative explanations: either the
individual dipoles are not isotropic, and have different polarizabilities
in different directions, or there is something about their arrangement
in a noncubic crystal which leads to this effect. It was partly to answer
this question that P. P. Ewald,1 in his doctoral thesis of 1912, undertook
a treatment of the optical properties of solids in a manner much more
fundamental than that used by Drude and Lorentz. The latter writers
had not used a specifically atomic point of view. They had treated the
scattering of electromagnetic radiation by matter as arising from a set of
dipoles constituting the scattering centers, but they had not looked at
the dipoles in a microscopic way. Ewald, on the contrary, assumed
that these dipoles were arranged on a space lattice, and by making this
specific assumption, he was able to carry through his theory in a far more
elegant manner than that of Drude and Lorentz. He assumed an aniso-
tropic arrangement of the dipoles, and wished to see if the anisotropy
could not account for double refraction, without having to assume non-
isotropic polarizabilities for the individual dipoles. It is obvious that
1 See also P. P, Ewald, Ann. Physik, 49: 1, 117 (1916); 54: 519, 557 (1918).
if the relation that the force acting on a dipole equals E + P/3Eo should
not hold in this form, but should be different for different directions of
the field, we should have the machinery for setting up a theory of double ,'
~ - '
refraction. Such a possibility seems very natural. If the surroundings ,,,
of an atom were of ellipsoidal symmetry, for instance, it is obvious from
the examples we have given that there would be a different force acting
on the dipole, depending on which axis of the ellipsoid the field was
oriented along. It would be rather easy to set up such a theory, with
the atoms located at centers of ellipsoids, but Ewald was more ambitious:
he wished to consider an actual lattice of dipoles, and to calculate the
field which would in fact act on one of the dipoles, to produce its polariza-
tion. We shall go on in the next section to a discussion of Ewald's
method.
4-3. Ewald's Treatment of Polarization in a Dielectric Crystal.
Ewald's procedure was straightforward. He assumed that the dipoles
were arranged at points of a Bravais lattice, which he took to be ortho-
rhombic, but which we can equally well take to be a general Bravais
lattice. He assumed only one dipole per unit cell, but it is easy to extend
the problem to the case of several dipoles per unit cell, one on each type
of atom. He assumed that all dipoles were oscillating sinusoidally, with
phases which varied from one unit cell to another as in a damped plane
wave. He computed the field produced by all these dipoles, setting up a
solution of Maxwell's equations such as would be produced by the dipoles.
Then he applied a condition of self-consistency, essentially equivalent to
Eq. (4-20): the polarization set up in a dipole equaled that produced by
the field actually located at this dipole. The difference between his
analysis, and that of the preceding section, in other words, is that he
rigorously solved Maxwell's equations for th_e field found in the lattice
of dipoles, and rigorously evaluated this field at the position of one of
. the dipoles.
The first thing which one needs to carry out this program is a conven-
ient way of handling the field of oscillating dipoles. This is provided
by the well-known Hertz solution of Maxwell's equations, from which
Hertz was led to the idea of radio propagation from dipole antennas.
The Hertz solution,, in mks units; is the following: We set up a vector
function of position and time, the Hertz vector Z, in terms of which we
define E and B by the equations
E = curl curl Z + v z - -c1 a-otz
2
2
2
2
(4-23)
1 az
B = c2 curl at
Then we find that the vectors E and B so defined automatically satisfy
the first two Maxwell equations, curl E = -aB/at and div B = 0, and
they satisfy the second two of Eq. (4-1), along with Eq. (4-2), provided
P = t div ( v2z - C-12 a

-at2z)
2
(4-24)
J= -f j_ (v2z - .! a2z)
at c2 at 2
We shall use these solutions for free space, so that t = to, and as in the
preceding sections shall derive the dielectric effect by superposing the
fields of dipoles. In this case the charge and current of Eq. (4-24) will
be the quantities which we earlier denoted as p' and J'.
From Eq. (4-24) we see that at points where p and J are zero, Z satisfies
the wave equation, v 2 z - (1/c 2)(a 2z/at 2) = 0. Since we are interested
in finding the field of point dipoles, this has the advantage that Z will
satisfy the wave equation everywhere except at the points where the
dipoles are located. It is then found that the Hertz solution for a dipole
moment located at the origin in empty space, oscillating so that its dipole
moment is the real part of M exp iwt, is given by
z = M exp iw(t - r/c) (4-25)
41rto r
where r is the distance from the origin, where the dipole is located, to
the point where the field is being computed. The Hertz vector Z points
in the direction of the dipole. If all dipoles in the problem point in the
same direction, as they are assumed to in Ewald's case, we can then
operate throughout with the magnitude of the Hertz vector, which satis-
fies the scalar wave equation. The magnitudes of Hertz vectors from
all the dipoles can be added, and we have to work with different orienta-
tions in space only at the last step, where we determine the electric and
magnetic fields from Z by Eq. (4-23). In other words, we have the
convenience of being able to work with a scalar problem rather than a
vector one, and this greatly minimizes the mathematical steps.
To verify Eq. (4-25), one can carry out two steps. First, one can verify
very easily that the function satisfies the wave equation; it is well known
that the function exp [iw(t - r/c)]/r is a solution of the scalar wave equa-
tion, and this guarantees that the vector Z is a solution of the vector
wave equation. Next one can prove that this is the solution for a dipole,
by investigating the limiting behavior as r goes to zero. Either one can
derive the charge and current by limiting relations from the Hertz vector,
and use F,q. (4-24), or one cau compute the various eomponents of the
electric and magnetic fields, using Eq. (4-23), and show that they have
the proper form for a dipole. If one carries through the latter steps, one
finds in fact that the field components are precisely as given in "Electro-
magnetism," chap. XII, eq. (3-5), which gives the components of electric
and magnetic field surrounding an oscillating dipole. These components,

in spherical coordinates, are as follows, where k = w/c:
Mk 3 2i 2 ]
Er = 47rEo exp [i(wt - kr)] cos 0 (kr) 2 + (kr) 3
• [
Mk 3 k )] . [ 1 i 1 ]
E e = 41rEo exp
[ .(
i wt - r sm 0 - kr + (kr)2 + (kr)a (4-26)
H <b =iwMk
~exp
2
[ .(
i wt - k r)] sm
. 0 [ kr
i + 1 ]
(kr) 2
They are discussed in detail in the chapter just cited. It is obvious by

comparison of Eq. (4-26) with Eq. (4-25), which contains just as much
information, how much simplification arises by using the Hertz vector
for such problems.
Next we wish to assume that dipoles are located at the lattice points
Rn = n1t1 + n2t2 + nata of a Bravais lattice, and that their phases are
determined according to the phase of a plane electromagnetic wave at the
corresponding lattice point. Since we wish to have the possibility of
absorption, the wave vector of this wave must be complex. Hence
instead of merely writing it in the form w/v, as would be suggested by
Eq. (4-14), we shall write this damped plane wave in the form
exp i[wt - (kr + ik;) · r] (4-27)
where kr and k; are the real and imaginary parts of the wave vector, and
r is the radius vector. It is pointed out in "Electromagnetism," chap. X,
sec. 7, that it is not necessary that kr and k; be vectors in the same direc-
tion, though for the present purpose we do not need to go into such
complications.
We then wish to assume that at the lattice point Rn we have a dipole,
whose resulting Hertz vector is given by Eq. (4-25), but with the exponen-
tial function and its denominator given by
exp i[wt - (kr + ik;) · Rn - (w/c)\r - Rn\]
(4-28)
\r - Rn\
The straightforward summation of these expressions, for an infinite lattice
of dipoles, would be an impractical task, but this was circumvented by
Ewald in the following manner: He noticed that the Hertz vector Z,
regarded as a function of position throughout space, satisfied a wave
equation, as given by Eq. (4-24), with singularities only at the lattice
points where dipoles we,re located. He knew, by Floquet's theorem,
which we discussed at length in Volume 2, that in such a case we can get
a solution in the form of a plane wave, times a periodic function of posi-
tion, repeating in each unit cell. We know that such a periodic function
can be expanded in a three-dimensional Fourier expansion, the wave

vectors being the wave vectors of the reciprocal lattice,
K,. = 211"(k1b1 + ~2b2 + k ba)
3 (4-29)
where b1, b2, bs are the three reciprocal vectors. In other words, we
may expect that Z can be written in the form
Z = 2:(K)A(K) exp i [wt - (k, + i'ki) • r - K,. • r] (4-30)
where the A(K)'s are suitably chosen coefficients, which in the present
case, where Z points in the direction of all the dipoles, will also be vectors
pointing in this common direction. The problem of solving for the Hertz
vector of all the dipoles is then that of choosing the A's to satisfy Eq.
(4-24), with the assumed lattice of dipoles.
We see that all phases have been chosen so that if the behavior of the
Hertz vector is correct around the dipole at the origin, it will be correct
also around each lattice point. For the factor exp -iK,. • r of course
repeats around each lattice point, and the factor exp -i(k, + i'k;) • r
varies from lattice point to lattice point in the same way as the phase
of the dipole moments, given in Eq. (4-28). Hence we shall have our
correct solution if Z from Eq. (4-30) behaves correctly surrounding the
dipole at the origin. In order to discuss this behavior, we note from
Eq. (4-24) that, since the current density J' equals aP/at, or the charge
density p' equals - div P, we may rewrite Eq. (4-24) in the form
(4-31)
Since the polarization near the origin is zero except at the origin itself,
where it has an infinite value such that the integral over the singularity
is M exp iwt, we wish to have Z show the proper behavior at the origin.
First let us expand the polarization itself in an expansion of terms like
that of Eq. (4-30). Let us assume that ·
P = 2:(K)B(K) exp i[wt - (k, + i'ki) · r - K,. · r] (4-32)
so that the expansion
2:(K)B(K) exp -iK,. • r (4-33)
represents a function which is zero except immediately surrounding each
of the lattice points Rn, but integrates to M over the neighborhood of one
of the lattice points. To find the B(K)'s, we multiply Eq. (4-33) by the
conjugate of one of the plane waves, namely, by exp iK~ • r, where K~ is
one of the vectors of the reciprocal lattice, and integrate over the unit
cell in real space. This cell includes one lattice point, that at the origin.
Since the function exp iK~ • r equals unity here, the integral must be M.
106 INSUl:ATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS; ANO METAL-$ [Chap. 4
On the other hand, by standard properties of orthogonality, the integral

of exp i(K~ - K,.) •rover the unit cell is zero, unless K~ = K,., in which
case it is n, the volume of the unit cell. Hence we have
B(K)O = M B(K) = M/0 (4-34)
for any value of K.
Let us now take the expansion of Eq. (4-30) for Z, and substitute into i
Eq. (4-31). We have
V2Z - ~ ~:~ = 2:(K)A(K) [ :: - (k, + i'ki + K,.)2]

exp i[wt - (k, + iKi) • r - K,. • r] (4-35)
This must equal -1/Eo times the expansion of Eq. (4-32), where B(K)
is given by Eq. (4-34). Putting these together, equating the two expres-
sions term by term, we have
M
w2
A(K) [ c2 - (k, + i'k; + K,.)2 ] = - EoO (4-36)
From this expression we can at once find A(K), substitute into Eq. (4-30),
and get the complete expression for the Hertz vector, which is
z= 2:(K) (- M) exp i[wt - (k, + i'k; + K,.) . r] (4-37)

toO w2
2 - (k, + i'ki + K,.) 2
C
This is a complete solution of the problem, but it is not convenient to use,

since it is in the form of a slowly convergent series. In Sec. 9-4 and
Appendix 4 we take up methods of getting faster convergence, leading
to practical methods of calculation.
We can get a great deal of information, however, by considering the
expression of Eq. (4-37) directly. We are interested at the moment in
optical wavelengths. For this case, the quantity w/c and the quantities
k, and k; are of the order of magnitude of 2'11' divided by an optical wave-
length. On the other hand, the quantities K,. are of the order of magni-
tude of 2'11' divided by an interatomic distance. Hence the K,.'s have
magnitudes many hundreds or thousands of times as great as w/c or k,
or k;. In other words, the denominator of the expression of Eq. (4-37)
is very much smaller for the case K,. = 0 than it is for any other value
of K,.. This means that the leading term in Z is that for which K,. = 0.
Let us first consider this term alone. This iR a single plane wave, with
wave vector k, + i'k;, which then will lead to a field which shows. no
variation as we go from point to point within the unit cell, aside from
the very small change of phase arising from the long optical wavelength.
We expect, then, that it represents the ordinary field which would arise
if we had a continuous distribution of polarization, rather than a discrete
collection of dipoles.
To verify this, let us assume that the complete Hertz vector consisted
only of its leading term,
z= _ M exp i[wt - (k, + iKi) • r] (4-38)
ton w2
2 -
C
(k, + iKi)2
To interpret the situation, let us find the electric field arising from this
Hertz vector. Rather than using Eq. (4-23) for E, it is more convenient
to use the vector identity
curl curl Z = grad div Z - V2Z
. 1 a2z
so that E = grad div Z - c2 at 2
If we had only the leading term in Z, there would be nothing in the theory
which could lead to double refraction, so that we should find that E, P,
and D were all parallel to each other. In such a case, we can prove in
the familiar way from Maxwell's equations that the electric field vectors
must be normal to the wave vector. Thus, if E, P, D, and M are along x,
the vector k, + ik; can have no x component. Then in computing div Z,
we must take aZ,j ax, which will be the only term, since Z also will have
only an x component. But since (k, + ik;),, = 0, the function of Eq.
(4-38) will not depend on x, div Z will be zero, and we shall have
1 a2z
E=-c2aif
That is, when we take account of the time dependence, we find

E = w2 M exp i[wt - (k, + i'k;) • r] (4-39)
- C 2 eon w2
2 - (k, + i'k;)2
C
Let us now show that this is what we expect to find.

We can show this most easily as follows: We have one dipole, of dipole
moment
M exp i[wt - (k, + 'lKi) • Rn] (4-40)
in the unit cell at position Rn, Rince the volume of the unit cell is n,
the polarization is the dipole moment per unit volume, or
P = ! exp i[wt - (k, + i'k;) • r] (4-41)

if we set up a continuous function of position reducing to the proper value

in each unit cell. Consequently Eq. (4-39) can be rewritten in the form
E = P/to (4-42)
c2
2
w
(k, + ik;) 2 - 1
But from Eqs. (4-15) and (4-27), we know that

c2
2 (k,
w
+ i"k:;) 2 = K6 (4-43)
Consequently Eq. (4-42) simply says

p
E = P/to E(K, - 1)
Ke - 1 to
(4-44)
Ke=
in agreement with Eq. (4-6).

We must now ask what the remaining terms in Eq. (4-37), for Kh ~ 0,
represent. We shall show that they lead to the Lorentz correction, for
the case to which that applies. In general, these additional terms lead
to the detailed representation of the Hertz vector throughout space. We
must use Eq. (4-23) to find the electric field throughout space, then must
find the field at the position of one of the dipoles, subtracting off the
infinite field which the dipole would exert on itself. Since the true field
goes infinite at each dipole, we see that the series of Eq. (4-37) must
diverge at these points, which is the reason why the special procedures
discussed in Sec. 9-4 and Appendix 4, which are a characteristic feature
of Ewald's method, are required. Though we shall not use the details
of this method here, we may state briefly what it consists of. Ewald
replaces the point dipoles with distributions of polarization continuously
distributed through space surrounding the point dipole, in the form of a
Gaussian distribution. The expansion of the Hertz vector for such a
Gaussian distribution does not diverge, and the Hertz vector does not
go infinite at any point. In fact, the width of the Gaussian distribution
can be chosen such that the series corresponding to Eq. (4-37) converges
rather rapidly. Then, to correct for the fact that the true potential does
go infinite at the dipoles, he adds another distribution of polarization,
equal to the point dipoles minus the continuous distributions. The
Hertz vectors of these distributiorni fall off very rapidly with distance,
and one needs to sum only a very few near-neighbor distributions of this
sort to correct the sum of the form of Eq. (4-37), and get a correct sum.
The case which we carry through in Appendix 4 is that which is needed
in a limiting electrostatic problem, but it gives essentially what we need

here too. It is the limiting case in which w/ c, and kr and k;, can be com-
pletely neglected compared with Kh. In this case, we can show that the
sum of all terms of Eq. (4-37), aside from the leading term, leads to an
electric field
E' = 3 :Q, exp i[wt - (kr + ik;) • r] (4-45)
in the special case where we are at a point of cubic symmetry in a cubic

crystal. This applies to an atomic position in a simple cubic, face-
centered or body-centered cubic crystal, or in a diamond, zinc-blende,
or sodium chloride structure, among others. If we combine this expres-
sion with that of Eq. (4-42), we find that the electric field at the position
of an atom, in the special case enumerated, is
Electric field = -P[

to 1-
2
C2
-1 +
(kr ik;)2
1]
+ -3 (4-46)
w
We may now proceed as in Eq. (4-20), use the fact which we have proved
in Eq. (4-44) that the first term of Eq. (4-46) is the ordinary average
electric field E, and state that
(4-47)
which shows that we are led to the same result as with the Lorentz-
Lorenz method.
This verification of the result of Lorentz, from a precise calculation
of the field at an atomic position of cubic symmetry, is a special case.
It is all that Lorentz's method is capable of giving, but we can apply
Ewald'R method as well to points which do not have cubic symmetry.
Thus it is possible by this scheme to lead to dielectric constants of the
crystal which are different in different directions, and hence to double
refraction. Unfortunately, as we shall mention in the next section, com-
paratively little use has been made of this elegant method, which in
principle is capable of giving detailed information about problems of
double refraction.
4-4. Calculations of Dispersion in Insulating Crystals. Before we can
consider the progress which has been made in applying the theory we
have dRsc,ribed in the preceding sections to actual cryctab, we must make
connections with the quantum theory of atomic polarization. It is well
known [see for instance J. C. Slater, "Quantum Theory of Atomic Struc-
ture," vol. 1, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1960, eq. (6-57)]
that the Kramers-Heisenberg. dispersion formula leads to a quantum-

theoretical formula for the induced dipole moment arising from N atoms
per unit volume, of the following form:
'\' ( ) Nfmne 2 /m
Moment = ~ n ¢ m w!m _ w2 (4-48)
Here we are assuming that the atoms are in the mth stationary state,
and we are summing over other stationary states, denoted by n, to which
transitions might be made. The angular frequency Wnm is that deter-
mined by Bohr's frequency condition for the transition from one state
to the other, liwnm = En - Em. The quantity f mn is a so-called oscillator
strength, given by
(4-49)
where Mx is the x component of dipole moment of the atom, and (Mnm)x

is the matrix element of this quantity between the nth and mth stationary
states of the atom. The formula of Eq. (4-48) is of the form given in
Eq. (4-47), Nk being replaced by Nfmn, except that in Eq. (4-48) we have
omitted the damping term, which is discussed in sec. 6-11 of the reference
given above.
According to this wave-mechanical derivation, an individual atom can
give resonant oscillations corresponding to oscillators of many different
resonant frequencies. Each one in general corresponds to only a fraction
of the dipole moment which a classical dipole would have; in other words,
the oscillator strengthsfmn are ordinarily less than unity, sometimes·much
less. There is a sum rule, discussed in vol. 2, sec. 25-2, of the reference
given above, according to which the sum of the fmn's from a given sta-
tionary state to all states to which transitions are possible equals unity
for a one-electron atom. In carrying out this summation, we must give
attention to the fact, arising from Eq. (4-49), that the fmn's are defined
as being positive if we have a transition from one state to another higher
state, but negative if we have a transition to a lower state. If we are
dealing with an N-electron atom, the sum of the fmn's equals the total
number N of electrons in the atom. The transitions possible in the
N-electron atom include not only optical transitions, but also x-ray transi-
tions in which electrons are raised from x-ray levels to the continuum.
The oscillator strengths fmn can be computed in simple cases; we discuss
this caleulation in Appendix 5, in which we take up the calculation of
atomic polarizabilities. They can be measured experimentally, by obser-
vation of the anomalous dispersion and absorption.
It should be possible, by a combination of these oscillator strengths
fmn, and Ewald's method, to compute the index of refraction of a crystal,

even in noncubic cases. A classical calculation for a doubly refracting
crystal was that made by W. L. Bragg 1 for the calcite and aragonite
crystals. These are very nonsymmetric types of crystals. As we know
from Volume 2, Secs. 3-5 and 3-6, the CO 3 groups form equilateral tri-
angles, all lying in parallel planes in the crystal. The oxygen ions have
the largest polarizabilities, and the main part of the refractive index
comes from them. It is only natural that there should be quite different
behavior for electric fields parallel to the planes, or at right angles.
Bragg calculated the effect of neighboring polarized ions on one of the
ions, not by the sophisticated method of Ewald, but by simple approxi-
mations, and got a result which was in good agreement with experiment.
It would be possible to go much further than these simple results of
Bragg in discussing double refraction, but this seems to be a subject
which has been out of style for many years, and almost no effort has been
put into explaining the large amount of experimental information avail-
able. It is a typical example of an inherently interesting field, with a
lot to be done, which almost everyone forgets about. 2
There has been a good deal of study of the simple cases in which the
Lorentz correction holds. This has been mostly a reverse process, start-
ing by taking the measured index of refraction, assuming the correctness
of the Lorentz formula, and working backward to find the polarizability,
or more generally to find the oscillator strengths. For instance, there
is an extensive study by Tessman, Kahn, and Shockley, 3 in which they
took a variety of cubic crystals where the Lorentz method should apply,
worked back from experiment to get the polarizabilities, but also tried
different values of the Lorentz correction, assuming local fields equal to a
constant times P/Eo, where the constant was not necessarily .H. They
tried to find whether agreement with experiment would be improved by
varying this factor, and found that in fact the exact Lorentz correction
gave a better result than any other factor. This gives strong evidence
in support of the Lorentz hypothesis.
Some study of noncubic cases has been applied to cases of ferroelectrics.
In these interesting materials, which we shall come back to again in
Chap. 8, the dielectric constant at zero frequency is extremely large, and
in fact below a given temperature the material spontaneously polarizes
itself. We can get some insight into the nature of the mechanism by
handling the problem of the Lorentz correction in a different way from
what we have used. This is done in a simplified way in "Electromag-
1W. L. Bragg. Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A105:370 (1924); A106:346 (1924).
2See, however, W. N. Lawless and R. C. Devries, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 25 :1119
(1964), where Bragg's case is further explored.
3 J. R. Tessman, A. H. Kahn, and W. Shockley, Phys. Rev., 92 :890 (1953).
T
·:i
l
112 INSULATORS, .. SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chap. 4
netism," chap. IX, sec. 2. 1 Let us go back to Eq. (4-8), and insert the
Lorentz correction directly into that equation. That is, we note that
we could rewrite this equation in the form
m
d2x
dt2 + mg dx
dt + mwoX -
2 _
-e
(
E
P)
+ 3Eo (4-50)
But the polarization P equals -N ex, where N is the number of dipoles

per unit volume, Thus we have
d 2x dx _ Ne 2
m dt 2 + mg dt + mw x 2
0 - -eE +-x
3Eo
(4-51)
d2x dx ( Ne 2 )
m dt 2 + mg dt + m "'~ - 3E0m x = -eE
In other words, the effect of the Lorentz correction has been thrown into
the form of a change of the resonant frequency, so that instead of w~ as
its square, we have w~ - Ne 2/3E 0m. If now the term Ne 2/3Eom were
large enough, it could cancel w~, and result in an effective natural fre-
quency which could go to zero, leading to an infinite index of refraction,
or dielectric constant, at zero frequency.
This extreme case does not occur, and if one studies the possible densi-
ties of dipoles, their resonant frequencies, and other features of real
crystals, one sees that it would be practically impossible to have N e2/3Eom
as large as w~. We see, however, that if the Lorentz factor were modified,
so that if instead of½ we had a larger factor, this would help the process
along. A study by the present author 2 has shown that at least in some
ferroelectrics, the arrangement of ions is such that the factor, computed
by Ewald's method, is considerably greater than½. In addition to this
fact, there is another source of dielectric behavior, which we have not
yet taken up: the motion of positive and negative ions in opposite direc-
tion, under the action of the external field. We shall come to this type
of dielectric action later in Chap. 7, where we discuss lattice vibrations.
It seems likely that ferroelectric action is primarily an effect of lattice
polarization of this type, helped along by a Lorentz factor larger than½.
But we are far from having a complete explanation of this phenomenon.
1 ·This method and an extension to the case of more than one resonant frequency
are given in the textbook "Lehrbuch der Optik," by K. Fi:irsterling, S. Hirzel Verlag
KG, Stuttgart, 1928, secs. 3b and 3c. This text in a sense is a successor to that of
Drude (loc. cit.).
2 J. C. Slater, Phys. Rev., 78 :748 (1950). See also H. C. Schweinler, Phys. Rev.,
87:5 (1952); J. R. Tessman, Phys. Rev., 83:677 (1951).
5
The Drude-Lorentz Theory of the Optical
Properties of Meta Is
6-1. Optical Properties of a Free-electron Metal. In Secs. 1-1 and

1-2 we have discussed the main points of the Drude-Lorentz theory of
metals, as applied to a constant electric field. Now we wish to assume
an oscillating field, as we have considered in the preceding chapter in
discussing the properties of dielectrics. The free electrons can be treated
as contributing either to a conductivity or to a dielectric constant, either
one being complex. For handling optical properties, it is more natural
to treat them as if they contributed to a dielectric constant. We notice
that Eq. (1-1), the equation of motion for the free electrons, is just like
Eq. (4-8) for the bound electrons in a dielectric, except that the restoring
force - mwix is zero. Thus we can get the dielectric constant of a metal
containing N free electrons per unit volume from Eq. (4-11) by setting
wo equal to zero. We then have
Ne 2/mEo
Ke= 1 + -w 2 + iwg
• (5-1)
We do not have to make a Lorentz correction, as discussed in Sec. 4-2,

for free electrons. 1 We recall that the purpose of this correction was to
correct for the field at the point where a point dipole was located, which
was different from the average field. But a free electron has a wave
function distributed fairly uniformly over the unit cell, so that the field
acting on it is close to the average field. Hence Eq. (5-1) would represent
the dielectric constant properly, except for the fact that we have not
considered the possibility that the metal may also contain bound elec-
trons or dipoles, in addition to the free electrons, a possibility which we
shall take up later in Sec. 5-4.
1 See for instance C. G. Darwin, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A146 :17 (1934), for
discussion of this point.

113
114 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [ChClp. 5
We recall that the real part of the index of refraction, y;z, determines
the velocity of propagation of the wave, and the imaginary part deter-
mines the damping. It is customary to write
Ke = (n - ik) 2 (5-2)
where n is the index of refraction, k a constant determining the damping

[not to be confused with k used as a wave vector, as for instance in Eq.
(4-27); for the present discussion, we shall use k only in the sense of
Eq. (5-2)]. Then, as we see from Eq. (4-14), the wave will be of the form
. (t
E = E 0 exp iw c
- nx) exp -
-wkx
c- (5-3)
We can then find the constants n and k by equating Ke of Eq. (5-1) to

the quantity (n - ik) 2 = n 2 - k 2 - 2ink. We find
n2 - k2 = 1 - Ne2/meo
w2 + g2 (5-4)
2nk = fl. Ne /me 0 2
w w2 + g2
Let us now discuss the nature of these equations. We note in the
first place that, by dimensional arguments, two quantities of the dimen-
sions of an angular frequency appear, in addition to w itself: g and
vNe 2/meo- We shall call the latter quantity Wp, and shall come back
to a discussion of its significance in the next section, where we shall show
that it is what is called the plasma frequency:
Ne 2
w2 = - (5-5)
P meo
From Eq. (1-3), we can then set up still a third quantity of the dimensions
of a frequency: u / e0, which can be written in the form
-u = -
Ne 2
- = w2
2 (5-6)
Eo mgeo g
from which we see that wp is the geometric mean of the frequency u/e 0
and of g, which as we see from Eq. (1-2) is merely the reciprocal of the
time t 0, which we have seen is closely related to the time between colli-
sions of the electron.
It is interesting to take actual numbers for real conductors, and see
what these frequencies are. If we take the conductivity of copper at
room temperature, and assume that we have one free electron per atom,
Sec. 5-1] THE DRUDE-LORENTZ THEORY OF METALS 115
we can find u/Eo and wp, and hence from Eq. (5-6) we can find g. We
find the following values:
g = 4.1 X 10 13 radians/sec to = 2.4 X 10- 14 sec

Wp = 1.65 X 10 16 (5-7)
u/eo = 6.6 X 10 18
We verify in the first place that the time to, comparable with the time
required for the current to reach a steady state, is a very small quantity,
-as we stated earlier. The wavelengths corresponding to these angular
frequencies are as follows: g corresponds to a wavelength in the infrared,
approximately 46 µ; wp to a wavelength in the ultraviolet, about 1,140 A;
and u/ eo to a wavelength in the x-ray region. There is no feature of the
spectrum related to the last frequency, but both g and wp show their
interpretation as frequencies in the optical properties of the metal.
Let us examine Eq. (5-4), and consider the behavior of n and k as we
go from very high frequencies to lower values. If w is very high compared
with wp (that is, if we are in the x-ray part of the spectrum), we can in
the first place disregard g 2 compared with w 2 • We see that 2nk will be
almost zero, so that the absorption, determined by k, will be negligible.
The first equation of Eq. (5-4) then reduces to
n2 = 1 - Ne2/mEo = 1 -
w2 _
(wp)2
w
(5-8)
Thus when w is very large compared with wp, the index ofrefraction will be
very slightly smaller than unity. We shall note later that the same thing
is true in the x-ray region even when we include the effect of polarizable
dipoles, and this phenomenon, of an index slightly below unity in the
x-ray region, is a well-known effect verified experimentally.
As we go to lower frequencies, we see from Eq. (5-8) that n 2 will go to
zero as w is reduced to equality with wp. As we have seen, for copper
this happens in the far ultraviolet. The significance of n going to zero
can be seen from Eq. (5-3). We may rewrite this equation in the form
E = E 0 exp i(wt - 21rx/X) exp -wkx/c (5-9)
where Xis the wavelength, equal to 21rc/nw. As n goes to zero, the wave-
length becomes infinite, so that the whole electronic structure of the
crystal oscillates in phase. This, as we shall show in the next section,
is one characteristic of the plasma oscillation which gives its name to wp.
We recall that at th1s frequency the damping constaIJt k is still negligible,
on account of the small value of g.
We should remark that there is nothing contrary to the principle of
relativity involved in this situation, though the reader might well feel
1·
'·{
116 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS · [Chap~5 :1

that there was if he recalled that the velocity of propagation of the wave
is c/n, which goes to infinity as n approaches zero. The point is that this
is the phase velocity, not the group velocity, with which energy is trans-
ported in a radiation field, and it is only the group velocity which accord-
ing to the principle of relativity cannot be greater than c. According
to well-known principles of wave propagation, the phase velocity is
Xw/21r, while the group velocity is
aw (5-10)
Vu = -a("""2_1r..,./X--,-)
In the case we have here, where n = (21r/X)(c/w), we can use Eq. (5-8)
for n, and find that
w = V (21rc/X) 2 + w~ (5-11)
Then we have
Vu = c yl - (wp/w) 2 = nc (5-12)
so that the group velocity, far from going infinite as n goes to zero, instead
goes to zero itself, and it is less than c all through the frequency region
we are considering.
Once the frequency goes below the plasma frequency, which as we
have seen for copper is in the far ultraviolet, the quantity 1 - (wp/w) 2
becomes negative, and from Eq. (5-4) we must now use a different solu- ·
tion. The quantity g is still negligible compared with w, so that 2nk is
still essentially zero, but this must now happen by having n = 0, and
k ':;6 0. In this case we have
k2 = (wp/w) 2 - 1 (5-13)
This indicates that there will no longer be any form of propagation of

the electromagnetic wave, but instead an attenuation will set in, which
will be greater and greater as the frequency becomes smaller. Our first
direct result then is that at frequencies below the plasma frequency there
will be a strong damping of electromagnetic waves, whereas for higher
frequencies the metal will be transparent. As we shall see later, the
experimental facts bear out this prediction, though the true situation is
more complicated on account of dipole polarization terms which we are
neglecting here.
We now consider what happens as we go to still lower frequencies, in
the infrared and below that into the microwave and radio-frequency
regions. Here w will be small compared with g. From the first of Eqs.
(5-4), we see that we shall have n 2 - k 2 = 1 - (u.•p/g)2, a constant value,
large and negative, since wp is so much larger than g (for copper). Thus
k will be larger than n. From the second of Eqs. (5-4), we see that we
shall have 2nk = w~/wg, so that nk will increase without limit as the
frequency w goes to zero. We have just seen that the difference n 2 - k 2

approaches a constant value. Since this can be written as · (n - k)
(n + k), we see that with n and k increasing at low frequencies, n - k
must decrease in magnitude, or n and k must approach each other.
Hence we must have in this limit
n = k = ~ = ✓2:w (5-14)
in which we have used Eq. (5-6). At low enough frequency, in other

words, the optical behavior is determined entirely by the ordinary low-
frequency electrical conductivity.
This low-frequency behavior was observed experimentally by Hagen
and Rubens, 1 at about the same time as the theoretical discussion of
Drude. They had been measuring the reflectivity of a metal mirror in
the infrared, and found that as they went to lower and lower frequencies,
tlrey approached the values which would be predicted by the use of
Eq. (5-14) in the equations leading to the reflection coefficient (see for
instance "Electromagnetism," chap. X, sec. 6). This verification of
the prediction of electromagnetic theory served as a valuable early indi-
cation of the correctness of the Drude analysis, though present views
indicate that the data of Hagen and Rubens formed a less convincing
case for the theory than was believed at the time.
For studying the behavior of metals at low frequencies, it is more
natural to consider the free electrons as producing a conductivity, rather
than a dielectric effect; these are two alternative methods of treating
the same thing, as we shall see. Let us start as before with Eq. (1-1),
assume that E = E 0 exp iwt at x = 0, and substitute this sinusoidal
oscillation into Eq. (1-1). Then for the velocity dx/dt we have
dx -eEo .
dt = m(g + iw) exp iwt (5-15)
from which the current density, -Nev = -Ne dx/dt, is related to the
field, by the relation
Current density = mg(l ~ 2iw/g) X electric field
(5-16)
. . Ne 2 1 - iw/g
Conduct1v1ty = mg 1 + (w/g) 2
In other words, the conductivity reduces to the value N e2/mg given by

Eq. (1-3) at low frequencies, but has a frequency dependence as given
by Eq. (5-16), and has both real and imaginary parts as we go to higher
frequencies. When we are working in the radio-frequency region, or
1 E. Hagen and H. Rubens, Ann. Physik, 11 :873 (1903).
118 INSUtATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chop. 5
the microwaves, we shall be able to neglect w/g, so that we can use the
d-c conductivity to predict the behavior of the material.
In the radio-frequency range, it is of interest to look at the rate of
damping of the electromagnetic wave. From Eq. (5-9) we see that the
disturbance will fall to 1/e of its value in a distance c/wk. This distance
is ordinarily called the skin depth, denoted by o. If we use Eq. (5-14),
we find
(5-17)
in which we have used Eq. (4-16) to eliminate c, the velocity of light in

free space. In Eq. (5-17) we have a standard result of electromagnetic
theory, for the frequency range ordinarily met in practice; we have
already met it in Eq. (3-62).
As one goes to very low temperatures, the electrical conductivity of a
metal increases greatly, for reasons which have been discussed in ear-
lier chapters. The plasma frequency, depending only on N, remains
unchanged, but the increase of conductivity arises from an increase in
the time to between collisions, or a decrease in g. This can bring g down
into the neighborhood of microwave frequencies, instead of being in the
infrared as at room temperature. When this happens, we can no longer
use the d-c conductivity at microwave frequencies, but must begin to
consider the deviations indicated by the frequency dependence in Eq.
(5-16). At the same time, however, other complications enter which
greatly affect the situation. As t 0 becomes large, so also does the mean
distance between collisions, or the mean free path of the electrons, become
large, and one gets into a range where this mean free path is large com-
pared with the skin depth. In this case one can no longer treat the con-
ductivity within the skin depth as we have done in Sec. 1-2, but rather
must take account of the fact that electrons originating below the skin
depth, where the field has fallen to a very small value, may then penetrate
the skin depth before having their collisions. The resulting phenomenon,
known as the anomalous skin effect, has been investigated extensively in
recent years. 1
1 See for instance A. B. Pippard, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A191 :370, 385, 399
(1947). For other papers in the Bibliography at the end of this volume dealing with
this topic, see papers by the following authors: E. R. Andrew (1949), M. Ya. Azbel
(1955, 1958, 1962), J. R. Beattie (1957), R. G. Chambers (1950-1956), J. G. Collins
(1958), R. B. Dingle (1950-1956), V. F. Gantmakher (1963), A. N. Gordon (1953),
M. I. Raga.no,· (1956-l\J57J, D. C. l\1attiR (l!l58), A. B. Pippard (1947-1954), G. E.
H. Reuter (1948), I. N. Shklyarevskii (1959), V. P. Silin (1957), G. E. Smith (1960),
E. H. Sondheimer (1954), K. F. Wojciechowski (1962-1963). Pippard (Zoe. cit.) has
shown that this phenomenon can give valuable information about the Fermi surface
of metals.
Sec. 5-2) THE DRUDE-LORENTZ THEORY OF METALS 119
6-2. Plasma Oscillations. In Eq. (5-5) we have introduced a fre-

quency wp, the plasma frequency, which appears in the theory of the
optical properties of metals, and which in particular gives the point in
the spectrum which marks the boundary between the transparency of the
metal, at higher frequency, and its opacity at lower frequency. Let us
now inquire regarding the significance of this frequency. It was not
appreciated in the time of Drude, but later work which has shown its
meaning does not make use of any ideas beyond those available at the
time of Drude for its interpretation.
The idea of a plasma was introduced into physics by Langmuir, who
applied the term to a gas discharge in which there were free positive ions,
and free electrons, in just sufficient number to neutralize the ions on the
average. Langmuir found definite experimental evidence of the occur-
rence of violent electromagnetic oscillations in such a discharge. These
oscillations had the effect of accelerating or decelerating any electrons
which might find themselves in the plasma, so that very rapidly the
electrons came to thermal equilibrium with a Maxwell distribution of
velocities characteristic of a very high temperature. The explanation
for the existence of these oscillations was simple, and was presented in a
paper by L. Tonks and I. Langmuir in 1929. 1
Tonks and Langmuir gave two derivations of the plasma oscillation,
both interesting. The first one was for a one-dimensional case, in which
the electronic oscillation was along the x direction, and the electric field
was likewise in this direction. Let the displacement of an electron along
x be given by Hx,t), where we assume that the displacements will be
different for electrons located at different values of x. The polarization
produced by the electronic displacement will be P = -Net where as
usual N is the number of electrons per unit volume. Since the charge
density is - div P, we have
p
al
= Ne- (5-18)
ax
But by one of Maxwell's equations we have div D = p, and in this case,
where we are disregarding any dielectric effect, this is Eo div E = p. Since
we are assuming E to be along x, we then have
aEx al (5-19)
t o - = Ne-
ax ax
which can be integrated to give
Ne
Ex= - l (5-20)
Eo
1 L. Tonks and I. Langmuir, Phys. Rev., 33 :195 (1929).

120 ·INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, 'AND METALS [Chap. 5
Since the force on an electron will be -eE, we have

Ne 2
Force= - - ~ (5-21)
Eo
or a restoring force proportional to the displacement. If we set this force

equal to m iJ2~/at 2 , by Newton's second law, we see that we shall have
simple harmonic motion, with an angular frequency equal to the plasma
frequency.
The second derivation of Tonks and Langmuir was more general, not
making any assumption about the direction of the displacement. They
used Maxwell's equation curl H = J + aD/at, and combined it with the
equation J = - Nev, where v is the velocity of the electron. If one sets
D = e0E, and takes the time derivative of the equation above, one finds
aH dv aE
2
curl at = - Ne dt + Eo aif (5-22)
Now by the :Maxwell equation curl E = -aB/at = -µ.o aH/at, one finds
curl aH = - _!_ curl curl E (5-23)
ot /J.O
If we are dealing with a case in which the electric field arises from a
potential rather than from electromagnetic induction, we shall have curl
E = 0, which Tonks and Langmuir assumed. In this case the left
side of Eq. (5-22) is zero, and if we insert Newton's law in the form
m dv/dt = -eE, we find
a2 E Ne 2
E o - +-E = 0 (5-24)
ot 2 m
from which again we may assume that E must be oscillating sinusoidally,

with the plasma frequency.
Either of these derivations shows that the oscillation is of an unusual
variety. From the first treatment we see that the displacement of the
electrons can be along the direction of the electric field. If this displace-
ment depends on x, as was assumed in the derivation, we can have the
equivalent of a longitudinal electromagnetic wave. For instance, we
could have ~ depending sinusoidally on x, as well as on the time. This
would give us formally a wave of the form exp i(wt - 27T'x/X), where X is
a constant, representing a wave traveling along the x direction, and yet
with the electric field, and the particle displacement, along this direction.
This is one of the few cases in which we encounter a longitudinal electro-
magnetie wave, which of course cannot exist in empty space. The wave
has the peculiarity, however, that the angular frequency w is independent
of the assumed value of X. Alternatively, if we regard w as a function of
211'/X, we find that in fact it is independent of 27T'/X, so that according to
Eq. (5-10) the group velocity is zero. This checks our earlier statement
that the group velocity goes to zero at the plasma frequency. It shows,
however, that we can have disturbances of more general dependence on
coordinates at this frequency than we should have suspected from the
discussion of the preceding section. In fact, the general derivation by
means of Eq. (5-24) shows that the disturbance can have any desired
dependence on coordinates, and yet it will still have the same angular
frequency wp.
We shall meet other examples of longitudinal electromagnetic waves
before we are through: in the oscillations of a crystal, we have oscillations
of what are called the longitudinal optical mode, which also have this
property, as we shall point out in Sec. 8-3. In all such cases, there is a
simple requirement which must be fulfilled to allow the oscillations: the
dielectric constant must go to zero. We can see this very easily. We take
Maxwell's equation div D = p, and assume that we are dealing with a
case where the only charge density concerned arises from the polarization,
RO that p = 0. If E has a component along the direction of propagation,
which then varies with distance in that direction, it is clear that we shall
not have div E = 0. Hence the only way to have div D = 0 is to have
the dielectric constant equal to zero. This is the condition which we are
assuming for the plasma frequency, in Eq. (5-8).
5-3. Later Developments in Plasma Oscillations. The general idea
of plasma oscillations, and their relation to the properties of metals, has
had a most interesting development since the time we have been writing
about, and we shall trace this history in the present section. It was not
realized at once that there was a relation between the plasma oscillations
of Tonks and Langmuir and the optical properties of metals. The plasma
oscillations themselves attracted the interest of the workers in the theory
of radio propagation in the ionosphere, which is a form of plasma with
very small numbers of electrons per unit volume, so that the plasma fre-
quency comes down into the range important for radio work. There was
considerable discussion as to whether the Lorentz correction should be
applied in plasma oscillations. Hartree,1 Tonks,2 Norton, 3 and Darwin 4
all took part in an exchange of views on the subject, the last word being
Darwin's paper, which we have already referred to in Sec. 5-1, concluding
that the correction should not be applied.
Just at the time that this discussion was under way, an entirely different
direction of development was started by the experimental observation of
1 n. H.. l-Jart.rec, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 26:97 (-1929), 27:143 (1932); Nature,
132 :929 (1933).

2 L. Tonks, Nature, 132 :101, 710 (1933).
3 K. A. Norton, Nature, 132:676 (1933).
4 C. G. Darwin, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A146:17 (1934); Nature, 133:62 (1934).
R. W. Wood 1 that the alkali metals became transparent beyond a certain

wavelength in the ultraviolet, this wavelength being shorter and shorter
as we went from cesium to lithium. The first attempt to explain this
was made by Kronig, 2 who tried to connect the phenomenon, not with
the free electrons, but with the bound electrons in the metal, which we
shall discuss in the next section. This was not a very satisfactory explana-
tion, however, and very shortly afterward Zener 3 suggested that what
Wood was observing was the onset of transparency as one went to wave-
lengths shorter than the plasma frequency. Zener computed the plasma
frequencies for the alkalies, and showed that Wood's observed absorption
frequencies agreed very well with the calculated values.
The next step did not come until after the Second World War, and very
definitely involved the quantum theory, which the earlier developments
had not. This involved the quantizing of the plasma oscillations, and
their excitation by electrons traveling through the metal. The main
inspiration to this step was a set of very remarkable experiments on the
energy loss of electrons traveling through metal films, by Ruthemann 4 and
Lang. 6 These experiments, started at the beginning of the war, completed
after the war, showed that electrons of a carefully defined energy, traveling
through a very thin metal foil, emerged having lost discrete amounts of
energy, of the order of magnitude of tens of electron volts. Such experi-
ments were not new. Rudberg, about 1930, had made similar observa-
tions, and he and the present author 6 had suggested that the energy losses
might represent excitation energies of electrons in the metal from one
energy band to another. Such transitions presumably do occur in some
cases, and may have been present in the cases observed by Rudberg.
However, Ruthemann and Lang found certain cases, of which aluminum
was one, where there was a very striking effect not observed before: losses ·
of one, two, three, and four times a fundamental amount.
There had been a considerable amount of study of the theory of the
losses of electrons traveling through metals. The standard theory of
energy losses by particles traveling through insulators, due to Bohr, could
not well be adapted to metals; attempts to do so showed that the theory
gave the result that an electron in a metal should be damped infinitely
rapidly, which certainly was not correct. Kronig and Korringa, 7 and
1 R. W. Wood, Phys. Rev., 44 :353 (1933). R. W. Wood and C. Lukens, Phys. Rev.,
64 :332 (1938).
2 R. de L. Kronig, Nature, 132:601 (1933).
3 C. Zener, Nature, 132 :968 (1933).
4 G. Ruthemann, Naturwiss., 29 :648 (1941); Ann. Physik, 2 :113 (1948).
6 W. Lang, Optik, 3 :233 (1948).
6 E. Rudberg and J. C. Slater, Phys. Rev., 60 :150 (1936).
7 R. de L. Kronig and J. Korringa, Physica, 10 :406, 800 (1943).

somewhat later Kramers, 1 had discussed the problem, on the assumption

that the electrons excited the plasma oscillations. They handled this
in an entirely classical manner, however, without suggesting the possi-
bility that the plasma oscillations were quantized.
At about the same time, general interest in the theory of plasma oscilla-
tions was reviving. Bohm and Gross, 2 in 1949, gave a much more sophis-
ticated treatment of these oscillations than the prewar discussions, and
Bohm and Pines 3 went into the theory of the oscillations in great detail.
This theory treated the oscillations as vibrations which should be quantized
according to the quantum theory, so that it was natural to assume that
an electron traversing a plasma should be able to lose a quantum of energy
to the plasma oscillation. Pines called this discrete quantum of plasma
energy a plasmon. It was then very natural to try to identify the energy
losses found by Ruthemann and Lang, and later by many others, with
the excitation energies of plasmons, and in a great many cases this proved
possible. 4 In other cases, where one cannot make this type of identifica-
tion, it may well be that the type of excitation discussed by Rudberg and
Slater may be occurring.
Frohlich 6 in several papers has given a phenomenological theory of the
excitation of plasma oscillations by electrons traversing a solid, in partic-
ular a metal. He has analyzed the electric field of the moving electron
into a Fourier representation, or into plane waves, and has considered
the energy loss of the electron in a classical treatment, on account of the
energy transferred to the plasma waves, thus extending the earlier results
of Kramers (Zoe. cit.). He then computed the probability of excitation
of a plasmon by setting the rate of energy loss of the electron equal, on
the average, to the energy appearing as plasmons. He showed that this
probability was proportional to the imaginary part of the reciprocal of
1 H. A. Kramers, Physica, 13 :401 (1947).

2 D. Bohm and E. P. Gross, Phys. Rev., 75 :1851, 1864 (1949).
3 See many papers by D. Bohm, D. Pines, and collaborators, in the Bibliography at
the end of this volume, and in the list given in Sec. 11-7, during the years from 1950
to the present.
4 There are several review articles going into this problem. For the older experi-
mental work, one may see L. Marton, Rev. Mod. Phys., 28:172 (1956), and for the
theoretical side D. Pines, Rev. Mode Phys., 28 :184 (1956). As examples of recent
experimental work, see papers by J. D. Robins and P. E. Best (1962) in the Bibliog-
raphy, and the review article by 0. Klemperer and J.P. G. Shepherd (1963).
6 H. Frohlich and R. L. Platzman, Phys. Rev., 92 :1152 (1953). H. Frohlich and
H. Pelzer, Proc. Phys. 8nc. (London), A68 :525 (1955); "J\fax Planck Festschrift,"
published by Deutscher Verlag der Vv'issenschaften, Berlin, 1!J58, p. '277. See also
C. B. Wilson, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 76 :481 (1960), and for experimental results
more recent than some of those quoted earlier, C. J. Powell, Proc. Phy8. 8oc. (London),
76 :593 (1960).
the dielectric constant. Thus, if we have

(5-25)
we shall have
1
(5-26)
Ke
so that the rate of energy loss is proportional to
(5-27)
We shall come back to this formula later in Sec. 5-4. In case the dielectric
constant is real, except for a very small imaginary part, there will be an
extremely high peak at the point where the real part K 1 goes to zero,
verifying the simple result which we have pointed out earlier, t,hat the
plasma oscillations occur at the point where the dielectric constant goes
to zero.
The type of excitation occurring in the plasma oscillation is very defi-
nitely a collective effect: all the electrons in the crystal are in a sense
oscillating together. Thus these effects cannot be explained at all by a
one-electron theory. This fact led into a general discussion of the relation
between plasma oscillations, and the proper way to handle electronic
interactions in a crystal. We shall come in Sec. 11-6 to this part of the
subject, and shall show how Bohm, Pines, and their collaborators have
been able by extensions of the theory of plasma oscillations to explain
many features of electron correlation, in ways which would be very difficult
to describe in terms of conventional methods of configuration interaction.
Thus this line of development, starting with the very simple electron
theory of metals of Drude and Lorentz, has led directly into some of the
most sophisticated parts of the modern theory of solids. Before we can
handle these problems, however, we must gain familiarity with many
parts of the theory of metals which we have not touched on so far in our
discussion.
Still another development of the ideaR of plasma oscillations is found in
extensions of the original problem in which they were observed, namely,
that of gas discharges. Modern interest has spread from ordinary dis-
charges, and from the problem of the ionosphere, to gases under such
extreme conditions of pressure and temperature as are found in stellar
atmospheres, in magnetohydrodynamics, and in nuclear-fusion problems.
· Here one still meets plasma problems, and in most cases meets them in
the pre.~ence of an external magnetic field. Thus one runs into a combina-
tion of the type of phenomenon met in the present chapter, and that
discussed in Chap. 3. This has led to an extensive development, which
we cannot touch on further in the present volume. The reader will find,
:iowever, that some papers in this field are found in the list in Sec. 11-7,
:i,nd in the Bibliography at the end of the volume. The close connection
oetween solid-state theory, many-body quantum mechanics, and magneto-
hydrodynamics, which we find in the study of these phenomena, is one
which is likely to have important developments in the future.
6-4. Bound Electrons in Metals. In our treatment of metals so far,
we have proceeded from Eq. (5-1), assuming only free electrons. How-
ever, there is no reason for assuming that metals do not also have bound
electrons, like those in an insulator. They will give additional terms in
the dielectric constant, similar to those in Eq. (4-12), so that we may
expect that the whole dielectric constant will be of the form
K, = 1 + Ne 2/m~o + \' (k) Nke 2/me~ . (5-28)

-w 2 + iwg L w% - w2 + iwgk
Such formulas were used by Drude and Lorentz, and there is very good
experimental evidence for the extra terms. This evidence is found by
considering the detailed variation of the quantities n and k, of Eq. (5-2),
with frequency, as determined experimentally by experiments on metallic
reflection. Experiments of this type had been made in the early 1900s,
and there was considerable activity in these early days in fitting the data
with Eq. (5-28). The variations of reflectivity with wavelength in the
visible part of the spectrum, which lead to the color of such metals as
copper and gold, arise from these terms in the dielectric constant. There
has been a recent revival of interest in these problems, and renewed experi-
mental evidence of the value of Eq. (5-28). A good account of the experi-
mental situation is given in a paper by L. G. Schulz. 1
There are a number of points connected with this equation which deserve
comment. In the first place, the Lorentz correction is not incorporated
into this equation. We have seen that the Lorentz correction should
not be used for the free electrons, but this does not imply at all that it is
not correct for the bound electrons in a metal. The oscillators associated
with these bound electrons are presumably localized on the atoms, not
spread uniformly over the crystal as are the free electrons, so that we may
expect to use the Lorentz correction. In terms of energy-band theory,
which we shall be discussing in a moment, the wave functions associated
with these electrons are like Bloch sums of rather tightly bound electrons,
with the wave functions concentrated rather closely about the nuclei.
To reconcile the use of Eq. (5-28) with the correctness of the Lorentz
factor, we use the type of argument sketched in our discussion of Eq.
(4-51). There we showed that the Lorentz correction could be described
in terms of a change in the natural frequency of oscillation of the bound
1 L. G. Schulz, Advan. Phys., 6 :102 (1957). See also more recent experimental
papers by H. Ehrenreich, H. R. Philipp, and others, in the Bibliography.
electron. We quoted a result of Forsterling, to the effect that this can

be done with many natural frequencies, as well as for the case of one
natural frequency only. Forsterling's proof is based on setting up a num-
ber of simultaneous equations, each of the nature of Eq. (4-51), one for
each natural frequency of oscillation, and solving these simultaneously,
leading to a secular equation whose roots give the modified resonant fre-
quencies. Forsterling carries through the calculation only for the case
where resistive terms are neglected, and this case is the simplest to discuss.
For this case, we can give a simpler discussion than that of Forsterling,
based only on simple properties of analytic function~.
If we solve Eq. (4-21) for the dielectric constant, we find
1 + %3 \' (k) Nke 2/mEo

Lt wf - w2
(5-29)
in which we have disregarded the resistive terms. Let us now consider

the function of Eq. (5-29) as a function of w2 • This function will have an
infinity only for those frequencies for which the denominator of Eq. (5-29)
is zero. It will not have an infinity where the summation becomes infi-
nite, for in that case the function goes to -2. At each frequency for
which the denominator goes to zero, or for which we have
\' (k) Nke 2/mEo = 3 (5-30)

Lt wf - w2
the function Ke will have a simple pole. Therefore by general principles

of function theory we can expand Ke as a sum of terms of the nature of
constant/(w~2 - w2), where w~ is one of the frequencies for which Eq.
(5-30) is satisfied. But this expansion is a function of the nature of the
Sellmeier formula, Eq. (4-12), for the case where we disregard the damping
terms. We can get back to approximately the form of Eq. (4-12), even
if damping is present, by carrying through an expansion· of the general
equation similar to Eq. (5-29), but including damping, and realizing that
the poles in this case will come for complex frequencies, resulting in damp-
ing terms in the Sellmeier formula. In other words, we see that the
Sellmeier function has a very general significance in terms of function
theory, so that it is not necessary to write the contributions of the bound
electrons in the Lorentz form of Eq. (4-21). We must remember, how-
ever, that if we use the form of Eq. (4-12), the resonant frequencies wk
will be different. from the ones which we should find for Eq. (4-21).
We thus see that it is legitimate to write the dielectric constant in the
form of Eq. (5-28), even in the case where we are assuming the Lorentz
correction for the bound electrons, provided we choose the w/s and g/s
properly. This general discussion which we have given is not as informing

as is that of Forsterling, however, as far as the mechanism behind the
modification of the resonant frequencies is concerned. We really have a
coupled system, as is shown in the analysis of Forsterling, each resonant
frequency interacting with the others, and resulting in a system with
modified frequencies.
The second main point which deserves comment, relating to Eq. (5-28)
for the dielectric constant of a metal, concerns its relation to more modern
theories of the metallic state. It is obvious that electronic transitions
will be possible for electrons going from one energy band to another.
These will be no different in principle from transitions of a single electron
in an atom, and as in the atomic case, they can be handled by the Iframers-
Heisenberg dispersion formula. This would then lead directly to the
existence of the bound-electron type of terms found in Eq. (5-28). We
shall have oscillator strengths in place of the N/s, as in our discussion of
Eqs. (4-48) and (4-49). To study these oscillator strengths, and the cor-
responding quantities like the matrix elements of dipole moments in Eq.
(4-49), we must consider transition probabilities between Bloch waves,
which we shall not take up in the present volume. But it is clear from
even this short discussion that the observation of the bound-electron terms
of Eq. (5-28) will lead to information about the energy bands. For this
reason, study of the optical properties of metals has recently become very
popular, after a long period of comparative neglect. Papers like those
of H. Ehrenreich, H. R. Philipp, and their collaborators, given in the
Bibliography, and listed in the next section, show the type of very valuable
information which is now becoming available from a study of the optical
properties of crystals. In Sec. 3-10 we have commented on this informa-
tion in the case of copper. These studies, which focus their attention on
the energy-band or bound-electron aspect of the problem rather than on
the free electrons, are being carried on for insulators -and semiconductors
as well as for metals; but for the insulators the free-electron terms in
Eq. (5-28) are absent, and for semiconductors, with only a few conduction
electrons, they are far less important than for metals, and on account of
the small value of N, the plasma frequency lies in the infrared rather than
in the ultraviolet.
A third point relating to Eq. (5-28) is concerned with the plasma fre-
quency. We have seen that this comes when the dielectric constant goes
to zero. If we set the expression on the right side of Eq. (5-28) equal to
zero, and solve for w, we find the plasma frequency. This is an equation
generally referred to in the papers on plasmas as the plasma dispersion
relation. It is obvious that the bound-electron terms will modify the
plasma frequency. If the plasma frequency is in the ultraviolet, we have
seen that g can be disregarded in this frequency range, and if we are far
from any of the natural resonance frequencies of the bound electrons, we

can also disregard the g/s. The relation then becomes
1 = Ne 2/mEo + ~ (k) Nke 2/mE 0 (5-31)

w~ '-" wj, - wf
If we consider that the plasma frequency is given to a first approximation
by its free electron value, wi = Ne 2/mEo, we may consider the last term
of Eq. (5-31) as a perturbation. We may then divide the summation
over k into two parts: the terms for which wk is less than the plasma fre-
quency (that is, resonances in the visible or infrared), and those for which
wk is greater than the plasma frequency (that is, the x-ray resonances).
The terms of the first type will be positive, and will tend to increase the
plasma frequency. Thus, if a term has Wk small compared with wp, we
shall merely add the corresponding Nke 2/mEo to the term Ne 2/mEo arising
from the free electrons, so that it will act like an addition to the number
of free electrons, and will increase wp. On the other hand, if wk is large
compared with wp, the corresponding term in Eq. (5-31) will be negative,
and will tend to decrease the plasma frequency. Pines (loc. cit.) has
made an analysis of the actual effect of these terms on the plasma fre-
quencies of the metals. For the alkali metals, all resonances are those of
the electrons in the inner shells, with resonance frequencies wk much
higher than the plasma frequencies. Thus, though the last terms in Eq ..
(5-31) are negative for these elements, they are small, and the simple
formula for the free-electron case is almost right. By including these
latter terms, however, the agreement between the computed and observed
plasma frequencies is improved, for the alkalies.
For the transition elements, however, and such elements as copper,
silver, and gold, there are important resonances in the visible and ultra-
violet parts of the spectrum; we have already commented on the role of
these resonances in producing the colors of the elements, and have illus-
trated the case of copper in Fig. 3-6. These presumably result from
transitions from the d shells of electrons (3d, 4d, 5d, respectively) to the
unfilled levels above the Fermi level, involving relatively small enez:gy
differences. From the argument we have just been considering, the
plasma frequency is then increased for such elements, as compared with
what we should find for free electrons. This effect is found experimentally.
Thus, in Eq. (5-7), we have used copper as an example, and have computed
a plasma frequency corresponding to a wavelength of about 1,140 A, or an
energy of about 10.9 ev. The actually observed energy losses of electrons
traveling through copper have a peak at about twice this value, indicating
an approximate doubling of the plasma frequency on account of the bound-
electron terms in this case. The corresponding wavelength in the spec-
trum is so far beyond the ordinary ultraviolet, being in the neighborhood
of 500 to 600 A, that the transparency of copper beyond this frequency has
not been observed. This situation for copper has been discussed by C. B.
Wilson (Zoe. cit.) and H. Ehrenreich and H. R. Philipp (1962), who show
that the function of Eq. (5-27) has peaks coinciding with the observed
peaks in the energy loss.
We may make just one additional comment about Eq. (5-28). This
is that if we are considering x-ray wavelengths, where w is large compared
with all the natural resonances of the crystal (if we are dealing with hard
x-rays, and light elements), we can neglect all w!'s compared with w2 in
Eq. (5-28). Then we shall have
K =1_ (N + ~Nk)e /mfo
2
(5-32)
e w2
In other words, in this limit, all electrons, free and bound, are on a par
as far as their effect on the dispersion is concerned. This is the limit of
the Thomson scattering formula. As soon as the frequency gets to the
K absorption limit of the heaviest element in the crystal, however, we
shall come to the first resonance, and shall meet phenomena of absorption,
and anomalous dispersion, which are very characteristic features of x-ray
spectroscopy. A similar situation will be met at each of the absorption
limits corresponding to each of the types of bound electrons in the atoms
of the crystal. The behavior is not as simple as one would think at first
sight, for the electron can go into one of the excited energy bands of the
crystal, so that we have a continuum of absorption frequencies, and find
absorption at all frequencies above an absorption limit, decreasing in
intensity rapidly as we go to higher frequencies. These absorption phe-
nomena, and their related anomalous dispersion, have been the subject
of a great deal of research by the x-ray spectroscopists. We shall postpone
discussion of them to the next volume.
6-6. Bibliography on Optical Properties of Crystals. We have men-
tioned in this chapter and the preceding one that one can have optical
transitions of electrons in crystals from one energy band to another. In
simple cases, such as semiconductors, the absorption edges can give direct
information about widths of band gaps. In metals, we can have absorp-
tion from inner bands to levels above the Fermi level, helping to fix the
relative positions of these bands, as we have mentioned in Sec. 3-10 in
our discussion of copper. We shall not go further into the details of these
problems in the present volume. They are complicated by the formation
of excitons, which we touch on briefly in Appendix 2, but whose main
discussion will be postponed until the next volume. However, on account
of the close connection between the optical measurements and other types
of experimentations on energy bands, we list papers dealing with this
general subject in the Bibliography of the present volume. Papers dealing
with the optical properties of particular substances are listed in the bibli-
ography in Section 3-11. Those dealing with the properties in a more
general way, not tied to specific crystals, are found in the Bibliography
under the following au tho rs:
V. M. Agranovich (1956), K. Aizu (1964), B. G. Anex (1960), E. Antoncik

(1955), V. M. Aslanyan (1959), R. B. Barnes (1935), C. Benoit (1964), C.
W. Benthem (1958), H. C. Bolton (1962), V. L. Bonch-Bruevich (1962),
F. Borgnis (1960), D. Brust (1962), A. D. Buckingham (1955-1957), V. M.
Buimistrov (1959-1960), E. R. Buley (1964), J. Callaway (1964), M.
Cardona (1961-1965), S. Chandrasekhar (1961), V. I. Cherepanov (1957-
1959), E. U. Condon (1932-1937), J. M. Conway (1963), B. R. Cooper
(1965), C. G. Darwin (1922-1923), M. F. Deigen (1957), D. L. Dexter
(1956-1962), R. B. Dingle (1952-1956), P.A. M. Dirac (1927), B. Donovan
(1957), G. Dresselhaus (1957), P. Drude (1901), I. P. Dzyub (1961), D. M.
Eagles (1960), H. Ehrenreich (1962-1963), R. J. Elliott (1959-1960), H. Y.
Fan (1956), U. Fano (1956), F. I. Federov (1958), I. Fischer-Hjalmars
(1954), P. Fisher (1962), P. D. Fochs (1956), N. V. Fomin (1960), D. Fox
(1955), J. Friedel (1952), H. Frohlich (1932), Y. Fujioka (1932), R. Gaspar
(1957), A. Gold (1961), M. Gourceaux (1959), E. Groschwitz (1956), L. E.
Gurevich (1962), C. Haas (1956), D. Hadzi (1961), S. Haga (1964), K.
Huang (1950), T. Inui (1950-1952), L. I. Katzin (1955), F. Keffer (1960),
L. V. Keldysh (1958), L. I. Korovin (1959), V. M. Korsunskii (1960), W.
Kroll (1930), R. de L. Kronig (1926-1958), M. Lax (1955), A. R. Lenham
(1964), R. E. Lindquist (1964), H. A. Lyden (1964), W. Martienssen
(1959), S. Mayburg (1950), C. A. Mead (1958), H. Mendlowitz (1960), A.
Moskowitz (1960), N. F. Mott (1934-1938), T. Nagamiya (1952), K. Nagy
(1955), S. Nakajima (1960), L. J. Neuringer (1959), R. A. Parker (1961),
D. Parkinson (1960), R. Peierls (1932), H. R. Philipp (1963-1964), J. C.
Phillips (1964), W. C. Price (1950), J. A. Prins (1927-1934), E. I. Rashba
(1957), J. A. Rayne (1960), S. Roberts (1949-1955), L. Rosenfeld (1928),
H. B. Rosenstock (1955-1957), A. R. Ruffa (1963), R. A. Satten (1957),
I. Saxl (1960), L. G. Schulz (1957), Y. Shapira (1965), V. P. Silin (1958-
1959), J. C. Slater (1938), T. E. Slykhouse (1958), A. V. Sokolov (1955-
1959), L. Sosnowski (1957), W. G. Spitzer (1957), F. Stern (1963-1964),
D. L. Stiervalt (1962), V. L. Strizhevskii (1960-1962), H. L. Suchan
(1959), M. Suffczynski (1960), B. Szigeti (1960), E. Taft (1952, 1965),
J. Tauc (1962), W. R. Thorson (1958), D. A. Tidman (1956), Yu. A.
Tsvirko (1961), J. van Kranendonk (1957-19,58), V. L. Vinetskii (1957),
A. von Rippel (Hl36), A. A. VoroLev (1957), E. J. \Villiams (1934), F. E.
Williams (1951-1960), A. H. Wilson (1935), R. W. Wood (1933-1938),
C. Zener (1933).
6
The Theory of X-ray Diffraction
6-1. The Elementary Scattering Theory. In 1912 a great impetus

was given to solid-state physics, through the discovery of x-ray diffraction
by Friedrich, Knipping, and Laue, 1 and its rapid development by W. H.
Bragg and his son W. L. Bragg. 2 Very rapidly the atomic positions in
crystals were investigated, furnishing the basis for the work reported in
the first chapters of Volume 2 of this work. The theory of x-ray scattering
grew up in several directions, immediately following 1912. Laue and his
associates had used a rather complicated mathematical·analysis to describe
what they had found. Very shortly after, however, the two Braggs
showed that one could look at the problem in a very much simpler manner,
namely, as the reflection of the x-rays by planes of crystals. The diffrac-
tion law which they derived in this way, Bragg's law, is discussed in
Volume 2, Sec. 7-6. We have seen in that reference that the glancing
angle of incidence for x-ray reflection, 0, is given by nA = 2d sin 0, where
A is the wavelength, n the order of the beam, d the spacing between
lattice planes. We have also pointed out there that if the scattering
material is distributed sinusoidally, we have only n = 1, so that the rela-
tion simplifies to A = 2d sin 0. This fact was pointed out by W. H.
Bragg 3 in 1915, and it forms the basis of a great deal of the theory of
x-ray scattering.
A quite different development of scattering theory was made by Ewald. 4
He was in a strategic position to step into the study of x-ray diffraction.
The mathematical method which he had used for discussing optical dif-
fraction, and which we have taken up in Sec. 4-3, was equally adapted to a
1 W. Friedrich, P. Knipping, and M. Laue, Sitzber. Math.-Physik, Kl. Bayer. Akad.
Wiss., 1912, p. 303. M. Laue, ibid., Hl12, p. 363. W. F:riedrich, P. Knipping, and M.
Laue, Ann. Physik, 41 :971 (1913).
2 W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, Proc. Roy. Soc. (l,ondon), ABB :428 (1913); AB!l :246
(1913). W. L. Bragg, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 17 :43 (1913). Other references in
Bibliography.
3 W. H. Bragg, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London), A216 :253 (1915).
• P. P. Ewald, Ann. Physik, 49:1, 117 (1916); 64:519, 557 (1918).

131
discussion of x-rays, which the less detailed model of Drude and Lorentz
was not. All he had to do was to reduce the assumed wavelength of the
electromagnetic radiation to the x-ray range to produce a theory of x-ray
diffraction. Thus his methods led to a very sophisticated theory of x-rays,
the so-called dynamical theory of x-ray scattering. This method, and
other equivalent methods, had a feature that the simpler treatments such
as that of Bragg lacked: they took into account multiple reflection, or the
interaction of the various plane waves within the crystal representing the
various scattered waves. We shall take up this method in Sec. 6-3, where
we shall see that there is a very close relationship between the x-ray
scattering problem and the calculation of energy bands in crystals, which
we have taken up in Volume 2. The simpler methods are similar to the
treatment of energy-band theory by using a single plane wave, or a com-
bination of very few plane waves. Ewald's method, on the other hand,
is equivalent to a rigorous treatment of the problem of expanding the
solution in plane waves. In other words, the mathematical difficulties
of solving such a periodic-potential problem had already been overcome
for the x-ray problem by 1916, and we have discussed this method in
Volume 2, Sec. 9-3. It is significant that Ewald, in the first paper quoted
above, gives a reference to a solution by Lord Rayleigh 1 for a similar
problem, in 1892.
These various treatments of x-ray scattering form really a branch of
optics, and they have close connection with many of the other topics
taken up in this volume. Consequently we shall treat them in this
chapter. We start with the simplest and most elementary type of dis-
cussion, following more closely the ideas of the Braggs than of the other
workers. Then in later sections we shall come to the more sophisticated
developments.
Let us make connection with our treatment of scattering by a free
electron, which was mentioned in Chap. 1. If we have an electron not
acted on by either restoring or resistive forces, its equation of motion is
m d 2x/dt 2 = -eE, so that if the field is sinusoidal with angular frequency
w, we have -mw 2x = -eE, or x = eE/mw 2 • The dipole moment arising
from this electron is then -ex, or
e2
M = - - -2 E (6-1)
mw
which leads to a polarization, or dipole moment per unit volume, of
Ne 2
P = - - --2 E (6-2)
rnw
where N is the number of electrons per unit volume. By Eq. (4-6) this
1 Lord Rayleigh, Phil. Mag., 34 :481 (1892).
Sec. 6-1] THE THEORY OF X-RAY DIFFRACTION 133
leads to the dielectric constant Ke = 1 - N e2/ mw 2t 0 • In the x-ray limit,

if the frequency is large compared with any of the natural frequencies,
this is the correct limiting form of the equation. For simplicity in this
discussion we shall take this limiting case.
We have given in Eq. (4-25) the Hertz vector arising from an elementary
dipole, and in Eq. (4-26) the corresponding components of electric and
magnetic field. If we substitute for M from Eq. (6-1) into these equations,
we get the expressions for the scattered wave. This constitutes the
Thomson scattering formula, which had been worked out by J. J. Thomson
long before the discovery of x-ray diffraction. Thus these results were
entirely familiar to Laue, the Braggs, and other workers in the field.
It was then a very natural assumption to suppose that N, the number
of electrons per unit volume, varied
with position from point to point
within the atoms of the crystal,
leading to a dielectric constant,
and to a scattering, varying with
position. We must remember, of
course, that at the time of these 0
developments, Bohr was just be- FIG. 6-1. Diagram to illustrate Bragg
ginning his study of the hydrogen scattering. The incident wave, of wave
atom, so that the ideas of electronic vector k, is scattered by the horizontal
distribution in atoms were in a very plane of atoms into the direction with
preliminary state, but still the idea wave vector k + K. The phase differ-
ence between the radiation scattered
was prevalent that the electrons from a small volume element dv and that
somehow moved about the nucleus, scattered by atoms at the origin, 0, is
as had been established by Ruther- given by K • r, where r is the radius
ford in 1911. To get the scattered vector from the origin to dv.
beam of x-rays, the natural proce-
dure then was to sum the beams scattered by the dipoles set up in the
various elements of volume throughout the crystal. Let us see how
this is to be done.
In Fig. 6-1, we have a small sample of crystal, an incident beam of x-rays
with the wave vector k, a scattered beam with wave vector k + K, where
we know by the discussion of Volume 2, Sec. 7-6, that K is a vector per-
pendicular to the planes of atoms doing the scattering, whose magnitude
is 21r/d, if dis the lattice spacing. We assume that the incident beam is
parallel, and that the scattered beam is observed at a very large distance
from the sample; that is, we have the case of Fraunhofer diffraction. We
now consider the contribution of the dipole moment in the small volume
element dv to the scattered wave. In the expression of Eq. (4-26) for the
field, it is assumed that we are so far from the sample that the dependence
of the scattered wave on the distance r and angle (J in that formula is
unimportant, except for the phase arising from the expression exp
i(wt - kr). Thus essentially we can disregard everything in the formula
except this exponential.
The phase of the oscillating dipole in dv is of course determined by the
phase of the incident wave at its position. The phase of its contribution
at the distant point where the scattered wave is observed is determined
by the path difference from a wave front of the incident wave, to a wave
front of the scattered wave, as compared with the contribution of an atom
at the origin O in the figure. From the figure we can see that this resulting
phase difference is greater than that arising from the atom at the origin
!
by the amount k • r, but smaller by the amount (k + K) • r, so that the
space-dependent part of the exponential is different by a factor exp iK , r t
from that scattered from the origin, where now we are using r as the vector
J
distance from the origin to the volume element dv. [Note that this is
different from the r in Eq. (4-25), which is the distance from the dipole to
the point where the field is being observed]. We shall then be able to
I
find the amplitude of the scattered wave by integrating over the volume
elements, or by computing
.f exp (iK • r)N dv (6-3)
But this is just the way to find a Fourier component of the charge density,
corresponding to the wave vector K. Hence we see the important fact,
pointed out by W. H. Bragg in the reference cited above, that the scatter-
ing in a given direction is determined by one of the Fourier components
of charge density.
In order to carry out the Fourier transformation of the charge density
properly, we should be making an integration over a crystal containing a
great many atoms. On the other hand, our geometrical assumptions are
based on a crystal very small compared with the distance from it to the
point of observation. These two conditions are not incompatible, on
account of the extremely small interatomic distances, provided the sample
is of ordinary size. If we are dealing with an excessively small sample, as
for instance a fragment of very fine powder, the small size of the sample
becomes significant, and shows itself in a broadening of the sharp peaks
predicted by Bragg's law. This is a very simple and elementary thing
to work out, and is of experimental importance, but we shall not interrupt
the continuity of our argument at this point to go into the matter; we
take it up in Sec. 6-6.
Since the charge density in a perfect crystal is a periodic function,
repeating in each unit cell, we know from the study of periodicity in
Volume 2 that the integral in Eq. (6-3) will be zero unless K is one of the
vectors of the reciprocal lattice. Hence we verify our derivation of Volume
2, Sec. 7-6, in which we have postulated that we have Bragg reflection
Sec. 6-2} THE THEORY OF X-RAY DIFFRACTION 135
only in case K is one of these reciprocal lattice vectors. But now we see
that the amplitude of the scattered wave, whose square will give the
intensity, will contain as a factor the Fourier component given by Eq.
(6-3). This fact is the basis of a large development in x-ray crystal
structure, in which the intensities of the various scattered beams are
measured experimentally, and the Fourier components so determined are
used to make a Fourier synthesis of the charge density, allowing one to
determine this directly from experiment. An account of the first steps
taken to use this method in practice is given by W. L. Bragg, 1 in a paper
in which he expounds the methods used in ma:king a practical Fourier
synthesis. The great difficulty with the method is that, though one can
find the Fourier amplitude!? experimentally, the experiment gives no infor-
mation about the phases, namely, whether we are dealing with sine or
cosine terms, and this vital information must be found by use of other
experimental facts. Also there are experimental complications arising
from many points of the theory which we have passed over without com-
ment in this very superficial discussion, but which in fact are of great
importance when one wishes to proceed in a quantitative way.
Though the connection of a Fourier component of scattering density
with the scattering in a given direction was first discussed for the x-ray
problem by W. H. Bragg in 1915, such connections are nothing new in
optics, as was pointed out by W. L. Bragg in the paper just cited. He
notes that such a situation is found in Abbe's theory of the microscope,
dating back to the last century. Abbe was interested in the microscope's
ability to resolve a repeating pattern, and he considered this problem in
two steps. First, he found the diffraction pattern produced by the
incident light when scattered by the periodic scatterer, and then he asked
how this diffraction pattern would be synthesized by the lens system into
an image. Naturally in discussing the diffraction pattern of the periodic
scatterer he ran into the same mathematics which one finds in x-ray
scattering. In x-rays we do not have the equivalent of the lens system,
and the Fourier synthesis produced mathematically, resulting in a picture
which is substantially a magnified image of the atoms, produces results
essentially equivalent to those of the optical microscope, as has been
emphasized by numerous writers in the more recent development of
x-ray methods.
6-2. The Atomic Scattering Factor and the Structure Factor. 2 We
have pointed out that at the time that the pioneer work on x-ray diffrac-
tion was being done, knowledge of atomic structure was in a very early
1W. L. Bragg, Proc. R,oy. Soc. (London), A12S:537 (1929).
2For a further reference on this topic, and all developments of this chapter, see
R. W. James, "The Optical Principles of the Diffraction of X-rays," G. Bell & Sons,
Ltd., London, 1948.
stage. However, it was a very natural thing to assume that each atom
consisted of a spherically symmetrical distribution of charge density, and
that the crystal as a whole had a charge density which was the superposi-
tion of the spherical atomic charges. This assumption leads to a treat-
ment of the Fourier components of Eq. (6-3) which is fundamental to
later work in the field. It is clear that the expression of Eq. (6-3) can
be built up as a sum of contributions from the various atoms. Let us
then compute these contributions, and see how they add to give the
whole Fourier component.
First we start with a single atom, which may as well be at the origin.
Let the charge density be p(r), where r is the distance from the origin.
If we are dealing with wave mechanics, of course, this will be the sum
of the quantities if; *if; for the various electrons, on a one-electron model,
or a corresponding quantity in the many-electron case. We now wish
to multiply this by the plane wave exp iK · r, and integrate over the
volume.
To do this, we can most conveniently use the standard expansion of
the plane wave in terms of spherical harmonics of the angle, and spherical
Bessel functions of r, namely,
exp iK · r = T,(l)(2l + l)ilP1(cos 0)j1(IK!r) (6-4)
where the axis of the spherical coordinates is taken in the direction of

the wave vector K. When we multiply this by the spherical charge
distribution, and integrate, all the spherical harmonics integrate to zero
except for l = 0, so that we have
f exp (iK • r)p(r) dv = fjo(IK!r)p(r) dv (6-5)
But jo(x) (sin x)/x, so that we have
Jexp (iK. • r)p(r) dv =

Jsin/Kjr
(IK/r)
p(r) dv
- 4 r 00 sin (IK/r)p(r) 2 d
(6-6)
- 1r Jo /K/r r r
which we define as the atomic scattering factor f. If we wish to express

this quantity in terms of the radial charge density U(r), rather than the
actual density p(r), where U(r) = 41rr 2 p(r), so that U(r) dr represents the
tot.al charge between r and r + dr, the quantity of Eq. (6-6) becomes
f __ ('° sin (IK!r) [r'.) d (6-7)

- 1o /K/r1
(i .r
In x-ray work, it is usual to use Bragg's law, A = 2d sin 0, where 0 is the
glancing angle of incidence, together with the relation !Kl = 21r/d, so as
to write !Kl in the form

IKI = 4'11" sin(} (6-8)
X
When we combine Eqs. (6-7) and (6-8), we see that the atomic scatter-
ing factor f, for a fixed wavelength X of x-rays, is a function of the scatter-
ing angle 0. For 8 = 0, the plane wave exp iK • r reduces to unity, so
that/ reduces to the integral of p(r) over the atom. If we use units such
that p represents the number of electrons per unit volume, we then see
that as 8 approaches zero, f approaches the total number of electrons in
the atom. The quantity f decreases with increasing 8, decreasing more
rapidly the more widely distributed the atom is in space. If the elec-
tronic charge were a point charge, concentrated at the nucleus, f would
be independent of 8, for then we should find in Eq. (6-7) that the con-
tributions to the integrand came only from r very close to zero, where
sin (IKlr)/(IKlr) equals unity independent of IKI, or independent of 8.
In Eq. (6-7) we have f given as a continuous function of 8; but of course
in actual problems of diffraction we use the function only for those discrete
!Ki's representing the various vectors of the reciprocal lattice.
Next let us assume that the unit cell of the crystal contains a number
of atoms, one with atomic scattering factor f; being located at the vector
position r; within the unit cell. Then to get the quantity given in Eq.
(6-3), we must next sum over the atoms in the unit cell. The contribu-
tion of an atom at the position r; to the integral of Eq. (6-3) will be
exp iK • r; times what it would have been if located at the origin, since
its phase contains this factor. Hence the contribution to the integral
of Eq. (6-3) from the atoms in unit cell is
F = ~(i)f; exp iK · r; (6-9)
This quantity Fis called the structure factor, and like the atomic scatter-
ing factor, it is a function of 8 and of the wavelength X.
We next wish to sum over all the unit cells in the crystal. If the vector
from the origin to another unit cell is R;, where as usual in treating
crystals we have R; = n; 1t 1 + n; 2t 2 + n; 3t 3 , the n's being integers and
the t's the fundamental lattice translations, we then find that the contri-
bution to the scattering from the contents of the ith unit cell is exp iK · R;
times that of the unit cell at the origin. Since K • R; = 2'11" times an
integer, this means that each unit cell will contribute the same amount,
when we are considering the scattering precisely at a Bragg peak. If
we were taking a slightly different direction, this would not. be the case,
and we should be led by considering such a case to the effect of the finite
crystal on the scattering, which we shall take up in Sec. 6-6.
We have now seen how to set up the integral of Eq. (6-3) in terms of
the structure factor and the atomic scattering factor. As we have men-
tioned earlier, by working backward from the observed intensities in the
various Bragg peaks, we can find these Fourier components, synthesize
them, and experimentally find the charge density at any point of the
crystal. One of the first experiments of this type was that of Havighurst1
on the alkali halides in 1925. From his data he was able to get spherical
charge distributions for alkali and halogen ions. We note that this date,
1925, was before wave mechanics, so that there were no theoretical calcu-
lations with which to compare these experimental results. After 1928,
however, when we had Hartre.e's self-consistent field calculations, it was
possible to compare such measurements with the theory, and James and
Brindley 2 in 1931 made calculations of atomic scattering factors from
Hartree's wave functions, completing a study which included also papers
by James and· Firth, and James, Waller, and Hartree, 3 on various aspects
of x-ray scattering, including the effect of thermal motion. Hartree 4 even
before wave mechanics had been interested in such problems, and the net
result of these studies was that the wave-mechanical charge distribution
agreed well with experiment. In the modern x-ray literature one meets
many comparisons between observed atomic scattering factors and those
computed from recent calculated atomic wave functions. In the Bibli-
ography at the end of this volume, one will find papers dealing with this
topic by the following authors:
J. Berghuis (1955), D. Coster (1932-1933), J. T. DeMarco (1965), A. J.
Freeman (1959-1961), R. Gaspar (1953), R. Glocker (1932), R. P. Hurst
(1959), :... D. Jennings (1964), M. Kuriyama (1963), A. T. Nelms (1955),
H. Vierwoll (1949).
6-,3. The Dynamical Theory of X-ray Diffraction. The very elemen-
tary theory as we have sketched it has many serious shortcomings, one
of which was pointed out by Darwin 6 in one of the earliest ambitious
attempts to discuss x-ray diffraction rigorously. We have pointed out
that if we set things up as we have done, each unit cell of the crystal will
contribute equally to the scattered beam. This is clearly impossible: if
we made the crystal large enough, the scattered intensity would increase
without limit, becoming greater than the incident intensity. Obviously
something is omitted in the treatment.
Darwin showed what this was, by treating the scattering by separate
1 R. J. Havighurst, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S., 11 :502, 507 (1925).
2 R. W. James and G. W. Brindley, Phil. Mag., 12 :81 (1931); Z. Krist., 79 :470
(1931).
3 R. W. James and E. M. Firth, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A117:62 (1927). R. W.
James, I. Waller, and D.R. Hartree, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A118:334 (1928).
•D.R. Hartree, Phil. Mag., 46:1091 (1923); 50:289 {1925).
5 C. G. Darwin, Phil. Mag., 27 :315, 675 (1914).
layers as we go down through the crystal. 1 If the top layer of atoms,

or of unit cells, scatters a certain amount of radiation, it is obvious that
the radiation penetrating down to the second layer must be weakened
by a corresponding amount. The same thing will occur with each layer,
with the result that the beam penetrating through the sample must
become weakened or attenuated, by just an amount necessary to balance
the scattered wave. Hence it is not correct to assume that the incident
wave is scattered without modification by each element of volume in the
crystal; rather, we must assume an attenuated wave, and must calculate
the scattering of this attenuated wave by the atoms. But properly we
should go further than this. A wave scattered upward from an inner
layer of atoms can be scattered downward again by another layer which
it passes through. Thus we meet the idea of multiple reflection, and we
realize that we must really treat the interaction of all possible forms of
scattered waves, to handle the problem properly.
This, of course, is just what Ewald had done, as we described his analy-
sis in Sec. 4-3. He built up the field as a superposition of all possible
waves with wave vectors k + K, found the field produced by all of them
at a position of a dipole, and assumed that the dipole moment was set
up by this sum of all possible waves. We may look at Ewald's result,
given in Eq. (4-37), to see what it suggests about the proper way to pro-
ceed. In this expression we build up the expansion of the Hertz vector
in the crystal as a sum of plane waves, with wave vector kr + ik; + Kh,
where kr + ik; represents the wave vector of the principal component
of the electromagnetic wave, and Kh is one of the vectors of the reciprocal
lattice. The amplitude of one of these waves has a factor w 2/c 2 -
(kr + ik; + Kh) 2 in the denominator. Thus those waves will have large
amplitudes for which the denominator is small. In our discussion in
Chap. 4 of the application of this method to the visible part of the spec-
trum, where w/c and kr + ik; had magnitudes very small compared with
any of the Kh's, this meant that the leading term was that for Kh = O;
we showed in Sec. 4-3 that the remaining terms added to give the Lorentz
correction.
The situation is quite different in the x-ray part of the spectrum. Here
w/c will be comparable with the Kh's. If we are not at the correct angle
to have Bragg reflection, only one wave will be intense, and for it we
shall have w 2/c 2 equal, or approximately equal, to (kr + ik;) 2 • But if
we are just at the Bragg angle for a certain reflection, we know that there
will be one of the lattice vectors K, such that the two wave vectors
kr + ik; + Kand kr + 1k; will have the same length. Thus the squares
of both vectors will equal w 2/c 2, they will both have large amplitude, and
we are led to the conception that a single wave cannot exist by itself
1 This argument of Darwin's is partly presented in Sec. 6-6.
under these circumstances, but we must also have another wave, corre-
sponding to the Bragg-scattered wave, also of large amplitude. Thus
we have the ingredients for a theory of x-ray scattering. Ewald in his
1916 papers, referred to in Sec. 6-1, worked out a theory of x-ray scatter-
ing based on this method, and referred to it as a dynamical theory of
x-ray scattering.
This theory as it stands has a serious shortcoming. There is nothing
in Eq. (4-37) suggesting the atomic scattering factor, or the structure
factor, which we expect from the preceding section to be of fundamental
importance in the theory of x-ray scattering. The reason is the assump-
tion which Ewald made, that the scattering material consists of a set
of point dipoles, located at the lattice points of a Bravais lattice. In
such a case, as we pointed out earlier, the atomic scattering factor would
be independent of 0, or of whichever reflection we were dealing with,
which explains why it does not appear in Ewald's formulation. It would
not be very hard to modify Ewald's treatment to bring in a continuous
distribution of scattering material, but if we do this, we come very close
to certain other treatments of the dynamical theory which were suggested
later, and which we shall discuss shortly.
We should not criticize Ewald for this point in his theory. We recall
that it was originally set up to discuss optical refraction, and in this case
it is a matter of no concern whether the dipoles are located at the nucleus,
or are distributed through a finite volume. The application of the
method to x-rays was something of an afterthought, carried out in the
very early <lays of x-ray work, before the relations between the Fourier
components of the charge density and the amplitudes of the various
scattered waves were well understood.
There have been many treatments of the dynamical theory of x-rays,
but the one which we shall discuss is due to von Laue,1 in 1931. It was
inspired by Ewald's treatment, and like his it expands the field in a set
of plane waves, as in Eq. (4-30). As in Ewald's treatment., too, it applies
Maxwell's equations to the field so set up, and demands that the field
arise properly from the charge or current density. He assumed the
polarization to be given by a relation like Eq. (6-2), or the more general
formula which holds at a frequency for which we cannot disregard the
natural frequencies of oscillation of the atoms; fundame:µtally the only
assumption he had to make about the polarization was that it was pro-
portional to the field. But in contrast to Ewald he assumed that the
quantity N, the number of electrons per unit volume, was a continuous,
periodi<.: furn:tiou of po,;ition, as we have been discussing in the preceding
sections. We see, then, that this treatment of von Laue is a natural
extension of that of Ewald, and involves no new principles. There is
1 M. von Laue, Ergeb. Exakt. Naturw., 10 :133 (1931).
one minor matter of technique in which it differs: von Laue sets up the
equation for the electric displacement D, rather than for the Hertz vector
Z. The Hertz vector is a great convenience when we are treating the
field of isolated dipoles all of which are oscillating in the same direction,
but we do not have this in all cases in the x-ray problem, and it loses
most of its value. The advantage of using D is that it leads at once to
the electric field E, which in turn gives the polarization by Eq. (6-2).
Before we go into Laue's treatment, we shall stop and consider the
problem in a more general light. The dielectric constant, and refractive
index, are derived from Eq. (6-2): since N, the number of electrons per
unit volume, is assumed to be a periodic function of position in the
crystal, we have an index of refraction which is a periodic function of
position. But this is essentially what is going on when we have Schrod-
inger's equation for the motion of an electron in a periodic potential. We
recaH that the elementary derivation of Schrodinger's equation considers
the way in which the wavelength of the de Broglie wave varies from point
to point, for a wave of constant frequency (that is, energy). In a periodic
potential, the wavelength varies periodically with position. This is what
von Laue assumed for his x-ray diffraction problem.
We are thus approaching the x-ray problem with a knowledge of the
corresponding problem in the solution of Schrodinger's equation, which
we have gained in our study of energy bands in Volume 2. Few of the
physicists treating the dynamical theory of x-ray scattering, until very
recently, have had this background. 1 Consequently the two theories
have developed rather independently of each other. There are, however,
a good many ways in which we can simplify the dynamical theory by
taking advantage of what we know about the energy-band problem.
First let us discuss some of the differences between the two cases, for
guidance in looking for practical methods of solution.
The striking difference is that the variations of wavelength with posi-
tion for the x-ray case are enormously smaller than for the electrons.
The index of refraction for x-rays differs from unity by only the order
of magnitude of 1 part in 10•. It is only this very small quantity which
is varying periodically with position. Thus the x-ray case is like the
extreme free-electron limit for the electronic problem. Therefore, unlike
the electron case, we may expect a plane-wave expansion to give rapidly
convergent values, and to be entirely suitable for practical purposes.
Thus von Laue's scheme, which we shall shortly present, and which is a
plane-wave expansion, gives very satisfactory results. We shall see that
1 The present author has emphasized the similarity, in a recent review article, Rev.
Mod. Phys., 30:197 (1958). Other recent treatments are by R. W. James, Solid
State Phys., 16 :53 (1963), and B. W. Batterman and H. Cole, Rev. Mod. Phys., 36 :681
(1964). The latter authors discuss the similarity to the Schrodinger problem.
the resulting equations are very similar to those of the plane-wave expan-
sion method for solving Schrodinger's equation in a periodic potential.
Along with this fact, the whole mechanism of Brillouin zones, energy
bands, energy gaps, and so on, can be used in the x-ray case just as for
energy-band theory.
We should have an exact parallelism between the two problems if it
were not that the electric field is a vector quantity, and we have Maxwell's
equations to solve, rather than having the scalar wave equation of wave
mechanics. This results in slight complications in the electrical problem,
related to the direction of the plane of polarization of the. transverse
electromagnetic waves. This does not make any great difference, how-
ever, and there are special cases iii which the relation of the two problems
is extremely close.
6-4. Laue's Treatment of the Dynamical Theory. Laue's treatment
starts by expanding the electric displacement D in series like that of
Eq. (4-30). We shall not specifically write the wave vector k as having
real and imaginary parts, though we are at liberty to do so. We have
D = 2:(K)D(K) exp i[wt - (k + K) • r] (6-10)
The equation div D = 0 leads to
2:(K)[(k + K) · D(K)] exp i[wt - (k + K) · r] = 0 (6-11)
Since this equation must hold for all points of space and all times, the
coefficient of each term must be zero. That is, we have
(k + K) • D (K) = 0 (6-12)
which shows that the vector D(K) corresponding to any one of the Fourier
components exp i[wt - (k + K) • r] must be transverse to the wave
vector k + K of this wave. The reason von Laue chose to work with
the expansion of D rather than of E is that E does not have this property
of being transverse.
We must next have the expansion of E, and since this is equal to
D / EoKe, where Ke is the dielectric constant, a periodic function of position,
we need to expand 1/K. in a series of terms like exp -iK • r. We shall
assume that
.!. =
Ke
\' (K)w(K) exp -iX • r
f_;
(6-13)
We can find the coefficients w(K) in terms of the Fourier components of

charge density, and hence in terms of the structure fact.ors.
In the limiting case we are considering, the dielectric constant is given
by
(6-14)
as we see from Eq. (5-32). We can write this in the form
Ke = 1 - -e-2
mtow
2 l F(K)
(K) - . •r
- exp -iK
Q
(6-15)
where F is the structure factor, given in Eq. (6-9), and Q is the volume
of the unit cell. To verify this equation we need only multiply by
exp iK • r and integrate over the unit cell. The dielectric constant is
so very close to unity that we have to a very good approximation
e l
-1 = 1 + -- F(K) . •r
2
(K) - - exp -iK (6-16)
Ke mtoW 2 Q
so that w(K) = ~ F(K) for K ;e 0

meow 2 Q
w(O) = l + (N)avC2 2
= _1_ (6-17)
meow (K,)av
where (N)av and (K,).,.v are the average values over the unit cell, so that
(K,)av is the usual dielectric constant. We may now multiply the expres-
sion of Eq. (6-10) for D by that of Eq. (6-13) for l/K to get e0E. We 0 ,
have
eoE = _!__
Ke
D = ~
L
(K,K')D(K - K')w(K') exp i[wt - (k + K) · r] (6-18)
Let us now set up a wave equation for D. We have the Maxwell

equations curl E = -aB/at = -µo aH/at for a nonmagnetic medium,
and curl H = aD/at. If we take the time derivative of the second, the
curl of the first, and use the vector identity
curl curl E = grad div E - v' 2E
we have
curl curl E = grad div E -v' 2E = -µoat curl H = -µo at 2
a a2D (6-19)
We now substitute for D from Eq. (6-10), and for E from Eq. (6-18).
When we perform the required operations, we find
- _!__
co
2:(K,K') ( (k + K)[(k + K) · D(K - K')]
- (k + K)2D(K - K') }w(K') exp i[wt - (k + K) · r]
= exp i[wt - (k
µ 0w 2 2:(K)D(K) K) • r] + (6-20)
As before, these two expressions cannot be equal for all points of space
and all values of time unless the coefficients of each Fourier component
are equal. Hence we have
toµow 2D(K) = 2:(K') {(k + K)2D(K - K')
- (k + K)[(k + K) · D(K - K')]}w(K') (6-21)
We treat the term for K' = 0 separately, and can transform the result
into the form "'
+ K) 2
[ (k (Ke)av - w2
C
2
] D(K) + \'
L
(K' ~ O)w(K')(k + K) 2 {n(K - K')
_ (k + K)[(k + K) · D(K - K')]} = O (6_22 )

(k + K) 2
This is essentially the result of von Laue, though we have made small
differences in our derivation compared with his tre.atment. In the last
step we have used the result Eoµo = 1/c 2, where c is the velocity of light
in free space.
In Eq. (6-22) we recognize the standard form of a characteristic value
problem, such as we meet when we solve Schrodinger's equation by
expanding the wave function in a set of basis functions. The quantities
D(K) are coefficients of the plane waves acting as basis functions, as we
see from Eq. (6-10). The quantity (k + K) 2/(Ke)av plays the part of the
diagonal matrix component of the energy, w 2/c 2 plays the part of the
energy E, and w(K')(k +
K) 2 plays the part of the nondiagonal matrix
component of the energy between states K and K - K'. The only com-
plication arises from the presence of the quantity
D(K _ K') _ (k + K)[(k + K) · D(K - K')] (6-23) ·

(k-+ K) 2
instead of merely D(K - K'). As von Laue points out, the second term
of Eq. (6-23) is the component of D(K - K') along the direction of the
wave vector k +
K, so that the whole expression of Eq. (6-23) is the
component of D (K - K') perpendicular to k K. For K' = 0, the +
second term is zero, on account of Eq. (6-12), but in other cases it is not.
In other words, it is these components of the D's perpendicular to the
vectors k + K which play the part of the coefficients to be determined
by Eq. (6-22).
We may then solve these equations as in a quantum-mechanical per-
turbation problem. For a given value of k, we shall find a secular
equation, formed by setting the determinant of the coefficients equal to
zero, which will determine w 2• At the time when Ewald, Laue, and the
others were writing their papers, means for solving such secular equations
were not available, and they proceeded entirely in terms of simple special
cases. Now, however, with the availability of digital computers, it
would not be hard to get a solution of entirely adequate accuracy by using
a finite number of terms. The reason why the accuracy would be adeqnate
lies in the rapid convergence of the series of Eq. (6-10), resulting from the
very small values of the quantities w(K') for K' ~ 0.
All the techniques, then, which have been described at length in
Sec. 6-5] THE THEORY OF X-RAY. DIFFRACTION 145
Volume 2, Chaps. 6 and 7, can be used for the solution of Eq. (6-22), only
here, in contrast to the electronic case, these methods will give usable
results. We start with the diagonal energy, disregarding the nondiagonal
components in Eq. (6-22). We then find
w2 (k + K) 2 (6-24)
C2 = (Ke)~v
which simply states that the frequency and wavelength are related as in a
plane wave in a medium with the constant dielectric constant (K,)av• If
we consider w 2 as a function of k, we shall have such an expression as that
of Eq. (6-24) for each value of K. At points of the reciprocal lattice
where two or more such functions have identical values, the nondiagonal
matrix elements in Eq. (6-22) will have the effect of splitting the two or
more w values apart from each other. Thus we shall have gaps in the
spectrum of was a function of k, just as we have energy gaps between the
energy bands in the Schrodinger problem for a periodic potential. These
energy gaps represent ranges of w within which propagation is impossible
in the crystal; we can have only a damped wave. It is these waves which
are connected with the Bragg reflection. We shall now show in the
next section that these ideas can be used to discuss the reflection very
completely.
6-5. X-ray Diffraction by a Sinusoidally Varying Index of Refraction.
In Eq. (6-22) we shall start with the equation for K = 0, and shall
assume that k is the wave vector in the extended zone scheme, so that
k 2/(Ke)av is very nearly equal to w 2 /c 2 • Then the equation will be satisfied
if D(O) is large, and in general the other D's will be small. However, if
there is some value K' such that (k + K') 2 is very nearly equal to k 2, or
such that Bragg's relation is satisfied, we can have a large coefficient
D(K') for this component as well. The nondiagonal matrix component
of the perturbation between these states will be w(K')(k + K')2. As far
as this reflection is concerned, this one component [and the related value
involving w(-K')] are the only components of any importance. We can
treat this particular reflection with very good accuracy if we disregard all
other w's, assuming that only w( ± K') is different from zero. In this
case we have a sinusoidal variation of the index of refraction, rather than
the superposition which is found in the real crystal. It is easy to get an
exact solution for this case of the sinusoidal index of refraction, following
methods described in Volume 2, Sec. 6-6, and since only this component is
of any importance for the particular Bragg reflection under consideration,
this gives us essentially all we need to know from the dynamical theory.
Let us then modify Eq. (6-22) by omitting all terms in the summation
over K', except terms for a particular K' and its negative. Then the only
coefficients D which will be involved are D(nK'), where n is an integer;
]
j,,
,I
it is only between these plane waves that we shall have nonvanishing

nondiagonal matrix elements. If we assume that w(K') = w(-K') = w,
Eq. (6-22) is transformed into
[ (k + nK')
(Ke)av
2
- w:] D(nK') + w(k + nK
C
1) 2 (D[(n - l)K'J
(k + nK') { (k + nK') · D[(n - l)K'Jl + D[( + l)K'J

(k + nK') 2 n
_ (k + nK') { (k + nK') · D[(n + l)K']l) = O (6_25 )
(k + nK 1) 2
This equation has the same character as that described in Volume 2, Sec.
6-6, for the corresponding Schrodinger problem. There in Eq. (6-37) we
had the following situation:
[(p + h) 2 - E(p)]v(p + h)
- W[v(p +h - I) + v(p + h + I)] =0 (6-26)
In this case p was the momentum, equivalent to our k, and h was eq_uiva-
lent to our nK'; E was equivalent to our w 2/ c2, and - W to our w(k + nK') 2 •
The v's were equivalent to our D's. The essential point of similarity is
that the equation connects three D's (or in the earlier case, three v's)
whose indices were n, n - I, and n + I. We pointed out there that this
forms a recursion formula for the D's, or v's: if we know two successive
entries in a table of D's as a function of n, we can find the next entry, and
so on. By extending to infinite n, we ordinarily find that the D's increase
without limit; but by choosing the first two entries properly the D's will
decrease to zero instead for large n. We can do this in both the limit of
large positive and large negative n only for properly chosen values of
w 2/c 2 • This is the way, then, in which we find the frequency was a func-
tion of k.
The thing we found in Volume 2 was that for a small departure from
the plane-wave case (that is, in the present case, for small w, which we
have) there will be not more than two of the D's which are appreciably
different from zero, namely, the amplitudes of the incident, and a single
reflected wave. Since we are choosing k to be the extended wave vector,
one of these large D's is then D(O), and the other will be either D(K') or
D(-K'), depending on what value for k we are assuming. If we are
assuming that (k + K') 2 is approximately equal to k 2 , the second large D
will be D(K'). We then have the case shown in Fig. 6-1, where now the
vector denoted as Kin that figure is called K'.
\Ve now have one complication not present in the Schrodinger case,
namely, that arising from the polarization of the wave. We have two
cases: either the vector Dis perpendicular to the plane of the paper, or it is
in the plane of the paper. In the former case the quantities (k +
Sec. 6-5] THE THEORY Of.X:"'.RAY DIFFRACTION 147
K') • D(nK'), etc., will be zero; in the latter case they will not. Let us
first take the case where D is perpendicular to the plane of the paper,
since it is simpler; later we shall indicate how the situation changes for
the other case. In this case, Eq. (6-25) reduces to the following two
equations:
[ - k2
(Ko)av
"'2] D(O) + wk D(K') = 0
- 2
C
2
(6-27)
w(k + K') D(O) + [ (k (,ce)av
2 + K') 2
-
2
"'2 ]
C
D(K') = O
These are two simultaneous homogeneous linear equations for the two
unknowns D(O) and D(K'), and as usual they will have no solutions unless
the determinant of coefficients vanishes.
Our secular equation is then
[~
(Ko)av
- "':] [(k
C («.)av
+
K') 2 - "':] -
C
w 2k 2 (k + K') 2 = O (6-28)
which is a quadratic for w 2/ c2 as a Junction of k. We shall not write its

complete solution, which is obvious. To discuss the solution, it is con-
venient to write the vector k as the sum of two components, kn normal to
FIG. 6-2. Angular frequency was function of kn, component of wave vector normal to
scattering plane of atoms, to illustrate dynamical theory of x-ray scattering, as in
Eqs. (6-28) and (6-29). The gaps are greatly exaggerated in the figure; actually
they are too narrow to be observable.
the reflecting planes, or parallel to K', and k 1 tangential to the reflecting

planes. It is then convenient to consider w as a function of kn, for
constant k 1• We shall find Bragg reflection when kn = - K' /2. At this
point the two expressions giving the plane waves, namely,
k; + k: w2
and
(kn + K') 2 + k: w2
(6-29)
(Ke)av = C2 (Ke)av = c2
will indicate the same value of w. The two curves for w as a function of
k,., given by Eq. (6-29), are hyperbolas, and they, together with the other
hyperbolas given by different values of the integer n in Eq. (6-25), are
shown in Fig. 6-2. At every intersection of the lowest part of one
hyperbola with the adjacent one, the two curves will be pushed apart, as
is shown in the figure.
As we see in Fig. 6-2, we have a situation like that of energy bands.
The interaction between the various functions has produced narrow gaps
at kn = ± K' /2, ± 3K' /2, . . . corresponding to frequencies for which
no undamped wave can exist in the crystal. We shall see the significance
of this situation in a moment. If we try to solve Eq. (6-28) under these
circumstances, we find that it has solutions, but only for a complex value
of k,., corresponding to a wave which is damped as we go into the crystal.
It is interesting to find the width of the gap. This can be found from
Eq. (6-28) by setting kn = -K' /2. We have
[ (K' /2)
()
2
Ke
+ k:
av
_ w2 ]
C
2
2
= w2 [(K')
2
2
+k,
2] 2
w2 (K'/2) 2 + kl (l + ) (6-30)
c2 = (Ke)av - W
~ = (K'/2) 2 + kl (l ± ½w)
C (Ke)av
If we leave out the small quantity w, Eq. (6-30) gives the frequency at
which we find Bragg reflection, according to the elementary theory.
Since w is very small, of the order of magnitude of 10-5 , we see that it
is only very close to this frequency that we have the damped wave of
which we have just spoken. The reader should note that in Eq. (6-30)
we have disregarded the difference between w, and w/(Ko)av, since this
difference is a small quantity of the order of 10-10•
Let us solve Eq. (6-28) in general, in such a way as to exhibit the
damped waves of which we have just spoken. We shall let
K'
k n = --+.!ik
2 n
(6-31)
w (K'/2) + kr
---.c.....,-c--,---~+.!i
2
_ (w- - (wt)
2
- +.!i (w- 2
) _
2
)
c2 (Ke) av c2 c2 C2
where .!ik,., .!i(w 2/c 2) represent the deviations of the wave vector and of
w 2 /c 2 from the Bragg values. We now substitute these values in Eq.
(6-28); we find that all large quantities cancel out, and the small quanti-
ties work out as follows:
[-2(K'/2) · Ak,. - .!i(w /c )][2(K'/2) · .6.k,. -

2 2 .l(w 2/c 2)j
= w 2 (ws/c) 4 (6-32)
in which we have disregarded higher-order terms. We multiply out,

Sec. 6-5] THE THEORY OF X-,RAY_ [)_IFFRt,CTION 149
and use the relation, arising from the Bragg law,
IK'I
- - = -WB sin
•
(}B (6-33)
2 C
where (}B is the Bragg angle for the assumed frequency, and where we
have neglected the small effect of the index of refraction (K .)av on Bragg's
law. Then we find
(6-34)
In deriving this we have used the relation A(w 2) = 2w Aw.

From Eq. (6-34) we verify the result of Eq. (6-30), namely, that if we
setkn = -K'/2,orAkn = 0,thesquarerootiszero,orAw = ±wB(w/2).
We can go further, however, and notice that if w/wB departs from unity
by more than ± w/2, the quantity Akn is real, so that we have the equa-
tion of a point on the curves of Fig. 6-2. In Eq. (6-34) we have an
approximation holding only in the immediate neighborhood of the gap
in the neighborhood of kn = - K' /2 in Fig. 6-2. But we can see further-
more that within the gap, Akn is pure imaginary, so that a damping is
introduced, as we have indicated. The maximum rate of damping
comes when w = WB, or Aw = 0. Here
Akn = +i WB I_'.!!!
___ (6-35)
- c sm (}B 2
In this expression we see the effect pointed out by Darwin, which we

mentioned at the beginning of Sec. 6-3. The damping which we observe
arises on account of the reflection of a minute amount of x-rays by each
plane of atoms which the radiation passes through, so that it becomes
weakened as it goes into the crystal. This effect is called primary
extinction, a term originated by Darwin. Ordinarily it is not observed,
because as we see from Eq. (6-35), it is a small effect, being proportional
to w. Real crystals, as Darwin pointed out in the paper cited above,
are not very perfect, and act as if they had what he called mosaic struc-
ture. That is, they act as if they consisted of a large number of very
small crystals, whose orientations are not precisely the same, and which
scatter independently. Only the wavelets scattered by the atoms in one
of these very small crystals can interfere with each other in such a way
as to produce the weakening of the beam we are describing, and in prac-
tice the small crystals are too small to show the effect of primary extinc-
tion to a measurable extent.
If we wish to find the equation of the curve of w as a function of kn,
as in Fig. 6-2, it is more convenient to solve Eq. (6-34) for !lw/wB. We

find
Aw
-= ± (6-36)
This holds for the immediate neighborhood of kn = -K'/2, and gives

the parabolic or hyperbolic expansion of w about the maximum or mini-
mum value which we find at the gap.
The analysis regarding the existence of a damped wave within the gap,
which we have given here, can be applied in the same way to a problem
in energy bands, though we did not carry through this analysis in Vol-
ume 2. In Appendix 2 we have examples where it is important in the
theory of energy bands. These cases come when we are considering the
wave functions around an impurity atom, or surface waves at the surface
of a semiconductor. We find wave functions whose energies lie within
the energy gaps. The wave functions show the same sort of damping
which we have found here, as we go away from the impurity atom or the
surface. The main difference is that the quantities corresponding to w
are much greater with the Schrodinger problem of a periodic potential
such as is found in a real crystal, than the very small values whiph we
find in the x-ray problem, so that we find quite rapid damping, often so
large that the wave function is reduced to a small fraction of its value
in a few atomic distances.
In the preceding derivations we have been taking the case where the
electric displacement D was at right angles to the plane containing the
wave vectors of the incident and reflected beams. It is now very simple
to indicate the changes which arise for the other type of polarization,
where D is in the plane of the wave vectors. In this case, as we see from
Eq. (6-2.5), we are to replace the quantities D[(n - l)K'], etc., which
appear multiplied by the small quantity w, by more complicated quanti- ··t
ties which represent the component of the vector D[(n -::- l)K'], etc., [
along the direction perpendicular to the wave vector k + nK'. For the
special case treated in Eq. (6-27), where we have only two waves which ··.ll
,..·
are of significance, we see from Fig. 6-1 that the angle between one of
the quantities D(O) or D(K') and the wave vector of the other wave is 20.
Hence in Eq. (6-27) we need only multiply the terms wk 2D(K') and .,f
w(k + K')2D(O) by the factor cos 20 to get the case of the other polariza- I
I
tion. We can carry this correction through the rest of our discussion I
by merely replacing w by w cos 2/J wherever it appears. This makes a l'
quantitative difference for the two polarizations, but the qualitative
situation is the same in either case.
6-6. X-ray Scattering by Actual Crystals. We have presented the
dynamical theory largely to indicate its similarity to the theory of the
solution of Schrodinger's equation in a periodic potential such as is found

in a crystal. However, it is rather far from the treatment needed in the
discussion of actual crystals. We have already indicated that real
crystals are not perfect enough for the radiation to penetrate far enough
to show the phenomenon of primary extinction, as we have been describ-
ing it. Rather, a real crystal acts as if it were made of a large number
of very small regions, each scattering independently of the other. There
is a very large literature, described in the textbook of James referred to
earlier, dealing with different models of actual crystals, and leading to
formulas for the scattering to be expected in a given direction in an actual
case. Since our object in going into x-ray diffraction in this volume is
mainly to show how the theory ties in with other parts of solid-state
theory, we shall not reproduce most of this discussion here. However, to
give the reader an idea of the sort of treatment which proves to be useful,
we shall sketch one of the standard discussions, that given by Bragg,
James, and Bosanquet1 in 1921.
These writers started by using results which had been obtained by
Darwin (loc. cit.) in 1914. Darwin investigated the scattering by a single
plane of dipoles, and then built up the scattering by a whole crystal by
superposing the results of the separate planes. Let us first reproduce
this result of Darwin. We start with Fig. 6-1, and shall find the scattered
electric field at a point P, distant from the origin by amount R along the
direction of the scattered wave, scattered by the contents of a unit cell
near the origin. We shall take the case where the electric field E is along
the x direction in the figure, at right angles to the plane of the incident
and scattered wave vectors. In an element of volume dv of the scattering
material, the dipole moment produced by the external field, according to
Eq. (6-2), is dP = -(Ne 2/mw 2 )E dv. From Eq. (4-26), the electric field
in the x direction at point P, scattered by this volume element, will be
dE = - (Ne2/mw2)E dv k2 exp i(wt - kR) (6-37)

41rEo R
This is found from the term in Ee in Eq. (4-26), using the leading term
at long distances, that in 1/kr, setting sin O = I, which is the appropriate
value for this case, and noticing that Ee is in the direction opposite to
the dipole's polarization.
Next let us sum terms like that of Eq. (6-37) over first a single atom,
and next over the atoms in a unit cell. If the element of volume is not
precisely at· the origin, but instead is at a position r, as in Fig. fi-1, we
see as in the derivation of Eq. (6-3) that the effect of the different path
length of the incident and scattered waves is to be taken into account
1 W. L. Bragg, R. W. James, and C. H. Bosanquet, Phil. Mag., 41 :309 (1921).
by multiplying the expression of Eq. (6-37) by the factor exp 1:K • r.

When we include this factor, and integrate over the volume of the atom,
we find as the contribution of the atom in question the quantity
fe2/mw2 k2 .
- ~ - - - exp i(wt - kR) E (6-38)
4'1l"Eo R
where the atomic scattering factor f is given in Eqs. (6-5) to (6-8). Simi-
larly if we sum over the atoms in a unit cell, we replace f by F, defined
in Eq. (6-9). If we use the relation k = w/c, this becomes
_ Fe 2/mc 2 exp i(wt - kR) E
(6-39)
41rEo R
Now we wish to sum over unit cells distributed over the reflection
plane in Fig. 6-1, that is, over the plane z = 0. We shall follow Darwin
in using the method of Fresnel's zones to find this sum. We consider a
unit cell located at a point with coordinates x, y, 0. We assume that the
point P has coordinates 0, R cos 8, R sin 8. Then the path difference
between the radiation scattered from an incident plane wave to the
point P from the unit cell at x, y, 0 and that scattered from the unit cell
at the origin is
yx + (R cos 8 -
2 y) 2 + (R sin 8) 2 + y cos 8 - R (6-40)
If we assume that x and y are small compared with R, and expand in

power series, this becomes
R[1 - I cos 8 +2 1 2 (x 2 +y 2 sin 2 8) + • • •]

+ y cos 8 - R = __!_
2R
(x 2 +y 2 sin 2 8) + (6-41)
Hence to get the complete scattered electric field at the point P, we must
sum the quantity
-
Fe 2 /mc 2 exp i(wt - kR)
41rEo R exp
[
-i
.( k ) (
2R x
2 +y 2 • 2 ] E
sm 8 (6-42) l'
'
if we disregard the higher terms in Eq. (6-41).
lI
Let us assume that there are N unit cells per unit volume in the crystal, l
and that the lattice spacing along the direction of K is d. Then the
number of unit cells per unit area in the plane is Nd. If these unit cells
are so closely distributed that the exponential factor hardly varies from
one to the next, a condition which can be shown to hold, we can replace
the summation over unit cells by an integration over dx dy. We have for
Sec. 6-6] THE THEORY Of .X~RAY DIFFRACTION 153
the scattered amplitude at point P the quantity
-Nd Fe 21rEo
/mc 2 exp i(wtR - kR) E
4
Jexp [-. (~) ( + y sm o)] dx dy
2R xi
2 2 • 2
(6-43)
In this expression we have treated the R in the denominator as a constant,

rather than considering its dependence on x and y; this can be shown to be
entirely justified.
The integration in Eq. (6-43) is the sort encountered in the study of
Fresnel's integrals and Cornu's spiral (see for instance Slater and Frank,
"Electromagnetism," chaps. XIII and XIV, for a discussion). To handle
it let us set up ellipses in the xy plane of Fig. 6-1, determined by the con-
dition x 2 + y 2 sin 2 0 = constant. These ellipses are the loci of points
which have a fixed value of the phase, (k/2R)(x 2 + y 2 sin 2 O). If we
choose ellipses for which this quantity is 1r, 211", 31r, . . . , the areas
between successive ellipses are the Fresnel's zones; they have the charac-
teristic that the contribution from each zone is 180° different in phase
from that from the preceding zone. We can write the integral as a sum
of the contributions of the zones. For the present purpose, however, we
do not need to do this specifically. Let us write
v = ~
2R
(x 2 + y 2 sin 2 0) (6-44)
We must then find the element of area, dx dy, or rather the integral of
this over the area between ellipses corresponding to v and v + dv. The
equation
x2 y2
(6-45)
2Rv/k + (2Rv/k)/sin 2 O = 1
which is equivalent to Eq. (6-44) is the equation of an ellipse whose semi-
axes are V2Rv/k and y (2Rv/k)/sin 2 O. Thus the area of this ellipse,
which is 1r times the product of semiaxes, is
21rRv
Area= k----;--O (6-46)
sin
and the area between ellipses corresponding to v and v + dv is

21rR
d(area) = - .k0 dv (6-47)
sin
Hence the integral of Eq. (6-43) is transformed into
loo.. e-•v-.-dv
. 21rR
k sm 0
(6-48)
The integration of Eq. (6-48) does not lead to a definite answer, since
the integral of e-iv, namely e-i•/(-i), oscillates at its upper limit of
infinity. The standard method of handling this is to introduce a slight
damping term into the integration, corresponding to a slowly decreasing
contribution of successive Fresnel zones. We shall shortly see that there
is a sound physical reason for this procedure. In other words, we replace
the integral
lo., e-iv dv
by the value
lim ("' e-Ci+a)v dv = lim e-~i+a)v I'° = -i (6-49)
a->O Jo ,,_, 0 - (i + a) o
where the contribution from infinite v's is zero for any nonvanishing value
of a, no matter how small. The justification for this procedure is the
following: Let us assume that we are really dealing, not with an infinite
sheet of unit cells, but with a finite sheet, of an irregular shape. Then
larger and larger Fresnel zones will partly cut outside the sheet of atoms,
so that there will be a factor in the integrand representing the fraction of
the zone which is inside the sheet. This factor behaves qualitatively like
the exponential e-av which we have introduced, and produces convergence
in the same way. It is easily shown that the final result will be the same,
no matter what precisely is the law of falling off of this factor, provided
only it varies slowly enough with v. These matters are discussed more in
detail in the reference made earlier to "Electromagnetism," or in any
text on optics.
We now insert this result into Eq. (6-43), and find for the scattered
amplitude at the point P the quantity
Nd Fe 2 /mc 2 exp i(wt - kR) E 27r_iR = i NdAFe~/mc 2 E exp i(wt _ kR)
41rto R k sm fJ 41rto sm fJ
(6-50)
where A is the wavelength, 21r/k. This is the result found by Darwin in
the paper cited earlier.
The next step is to sum over a finite number of parallel planes of unit
cells. This number is assumed to be large, but not large enough so that
the attenuation arising from primary extinction must be considered. If
the angle of incidence is precisely fJ, each plane will scatter exactly in
phase, and the resulting amplitude will be just the value given in Eq.
(6-50), multiplied by the number of planes. This is the time, however,
to consider the fact, which we have omitted from our discussion so far,
that if we have 011ly a finite thickness of crystal, there will be a broadening
of the scattered beam, so that instead of having the scattering only at
precisely the Bragg angle, there will be scattered radiation when fJ differs
slightly from this value. We shall, in fact, following Bragg, James, and
Bosanquet, let the angle (J equal the Bragg angle (JB plus a small correction
angle e. By the familiar argument used in proving Bragg's law, the
phase difference between the radiation scattered from successive planes
will now be
41rd . (
sin (J)
21r ( 2d ->..- = Tsm eB+e) = 41rd
T (smfJscose+cos(Jssme)
. . (6-51)
If we assume that e is so small that cos e can be replaced by unity, and

sine by e, and if we furthermore remember that Bragg's law states that
2d sin (JB = >.., we see that the phase difference is
41rd
21r + T cos fJ BE = 21r + S (6-52)
where S is defined to be (hd/>..) cos fJBE- The phase difference of 21r is

identical with no phase difference at all. Hence the disturbances reaching
P from successive planes will equal the value of Eq. (6-50), multiplied by
factors 1, exp -is, exp -2iS, . . . , exp -(p - l)iS, ifthere are p sheets
of atoms. Hence the total amplitude found at P will be the value of
Eq. (6-50), multiplied by the quantity
1 - e-pi6
1 + e-i6 + e-2i6 + . . . + e-<v-i>w = _ (6-53)
1 - e-•6
The reflected intensity at angle 0B + e will then be proportional to the

product of the quantity of Eq. (6-50), multiplied by that of Eq. (6-53),
times the conjugate of this same quantity. In other words, we shall have
Reflected intensity = (Nd>--1Fle 2/mc 2) 2 sin 2 [p(21rd/>..) cos 0Be] ( 6_54 )
Incident intensity 41re 0 sin (J sin 2 [(21rd/>-.) cos 0BE]
The factor
sin 2 [p(21rd/>-.) cos fJBe) (6-55)
sin 2 [ (21rd/>-.) cos 0Be]
is the same one found in the theory of the diffraction grating with p lines,
or any similar problem in diffraction. It is a function which equals p 2
when e = 0, and has a narrow peak, falling to zero when
(6-56)
which shows that the larger p is, the narrower is the peak. This type of
broadening of the Bragg reflection is found in fact when one is dealing
with very small crystals. It is a much greater broadening that would be
produced by the primary extinction effect resulting from the dynamical
theory, and in practice it completely obscures that effect.
Since crystals of different thicknesses would have different values of p,

and hence would result in peaks of different heights, and different breadths,
it is not practical to use either the height or the breadth of the peak in
making an experimental measurement of the reflection coefficient.
Instead, what is done is to measure the area under the peak formed when
the intensity is plotted as a function of E. This area is called the integrated
intensity. It is given by
Integrated reflected intensity
Incident intensity
= (Ndt-jFje 2/mc 2) 2 f"' sin 2 [p(27rd/t-) cos 0Bt] d (6-57)
471"Eo sin 0B - 00 sin 2 ((27rd/t-) cos 0BE] E
To evaluate the integral, we notice that all through the range where the
integrand is appreciable, the denominator can be replaced by [(27rd/
t-) cos 0BE]2. Thus we have
f
-
00
00
sin 2 [p(27rd/t-) cos 0sE] d
[(27rd/t-) cos 0sE]2
p
E = (27rd/t-) cos 0B -
f 00
00
sin 2 x d
~ x
7rp
(6-58)
Hence we find
Integrated reflected intensity
( Ndt-jFje2/mc2)2 7rp
Incident intensity 47rEo sin 0s (27rd/t-) cos 0B (6-59 )
In Eq. (6-59) we find that the integrated reflected intensity is propor-

tional to p, the number of reflecting planes. There is one feature which
has been omitted in this discussion, however. If we have a small crystal,
it is obvious that only the radiation falling on it can be reflected. If the
cross-sectional area in the xy plane is A, the area of the reflected beam,
measured on a plane normal to this beam, will be A sin 0s. Hence the
total amount of radiation scattered will be proportional to the quantity
of Eq. (6-59) times A sin 0s. It is generally assumed in the experimental
arrangement that all this radiation will be measured by the detecting
equipment. Since Apd is the volume of the small crystal, we then shall
have
Total reflected radiation = (Nd,-jFje 2 /mc 2 ) 2 7r(volume)/d
Incident intensity 471"Eo (27rd/t-) sin OB cos Os
N2,-alFl2(e2/mc2)2 1
= (4 ) 2 -.- 2-0- (volume) (6-60)
'll"Eo Sln B
In Eq. (6-60) we have the result of Bragg, James, and Bosanquet for the
total integrated reflected radiation, provided the electric vector is per-
pendicular to the plane of the incident and reflected rays. If the electric
Sec. 6-6) THE THEORY OF X-RAY DIFFRACTION 157
vector is in the plane of the incident and reflected rays, it is easy to show
as in Sec. 6-5 that there is an additional factor cos 28B in the amplitude,
and cos 2 28B in the intensity. If the incident radiation is unpolarized, the
corresponding factor is
1 + cos 2 28B
(6-61)
2
by which we must multiply Eq. (6-60) to get the final result.

The more detailed discussion, as given for example in the book of
James cited above, shows that it is reasonable in most actual cases to
use Eq. (6-60) for the reflected intensity not only for a very small crystal,
but also for a mosaic built up of many small regions which do not scatter
coherently. Hence we may take this equation to represent the experi-
mentally determined intensity. The main point which we wish to make
is that this is proportional to IFl2, the square of the structure factor set
up in Eq. (6-9). We thus see how this structure factor, or rather its
square, can be determined experimentally. It is the values of F so deter-
mined which are used to synthesize the charge density, as described in
Sec. 6-2. It is only proper to point out, however, that there are many
features of the actual situation which complicate the problem greatly,
as compared with the discussion which we have given so far. We shall
merely mention some of these features here. We shall come back to
some of them later, but they are all described in the book of James, and
in other treatises on x-ray diffraction.
The first of these features is the effect of the thermal agitation of the
atoms on the x-ray scattering. We shall take this up in detail in the ·
next chapter, after we have discussed the nature of the thermal agitation.
There are two effects: a decrease in the intensity of Bragg reflections, by
a factor known as the Debye-Waller factor, and a diffuse scattering, not
confined to the Bragg angles, which proves to have important implica-
tions regarding the thermal agitation. The second feature is the effect
of absorption, and anomalous dispersion, in the crystal. We have been
disregarding real absorption by the crystal, but it is by no means negligi-
ble, and it introduces important corrections. It is obvious that if the
diffracted beam has to penetrate the crystal farther for some Bragg reflec-
tions than for others, on account of the shape of the crystal, it will be
more absorbed in the directions which have a longer path through the
crystal, and corrections must be made for this reason. In addition, if
we are near one of the absorption bands in the x-ray part of the spectrum,
there are anomalous dispersion effects, the index of refraction deviating
from the simple value we have been assuming, and this has a considerable
effect on the reflection. This effect has been discussed principally by
Honl (references in Bibliography, 1933). Third, there is the Compton
scattering, which results from the scattering of the radiation with a recoil
of an electron, which absorbs some of the energy of the incident photon,
leading to scattering with a somewhat longer wavelength. This scatter-
ing must be corrected for, in interpreting the experiments. Furthermore,
as we have mentioned in Sec. 1-5, it can give us interesting information
about the atomic properties, though we shall not take this up in the
present volume.
All these points are mentioned here, so that the reader will not feel
that the very abbreviated discussion of the present chapter has given
him a complete understanding of x-ray diffraction. It is not the purpose
of the present volume to give such an understanding. We are presenting
the ideas here because they tie in very closely, not only with the
Drude-Lorentz theory which we have discussed in the two preceding
chapters, but also with many points which we shall come to in later
chapters. And the reader will realize that practically all the theory
which we have presented i.p. the present chapter was worked out before
the development of wave mechanics, so that it represents, along with
the Drude-Lorentz theory, part of the stock in trade of the theoretical
physicist at the time when wave mechanics came along.
The next topic which we shall take up is the elastic vibrations of a
crystal lattice, vibrations which are observed as thermal oscillations, but
which ahm have very important connections with many other properties
of solids: optical properties, scattering of electrons, scattering of x-rays
and neutrons, and so on. This theory again was developed in the early
part of the present century, and was already worked out quite thoroughly
before wave mechanics was developed.
7
Effect of Thermal Vibrations of Crystals
on X-ray Scattering
7-1. The Debye and Born-von Karman Theories of Crystal Vibrations.

The study of x-ray scattering, which we have been discussing in the pre-
ceding chapter, was not the only development in solid-state theory of
the period around 1912. There was a good deal of interest in the vibra-
tions of the atoms in a crystal, arising from the experimental discovery
of Kamerlingh Onnes that the specific heat of a crystal fell to zero at the
absolute zero of temperature. Einstein,1 in 1907, had provided the first
explanation of this fact, which is not predicted by classical statistical
mechanics. He showed that according to the quantum theory, in which
the energy of an oscillator can take on only the quantized values nhv,
where n is an integer, the average energy of an oscillator at tempera-
ture Tis
hv
Energy = eh,/kT - l (7-1)
where h is Planck's constant, v the frequency of the oscillator. The

derivative of this function with respect to temperature, or the heat
capacity of a substance composed of such oscillators, goes to zero at
absolute zero, as was found experimentally. Though the resulting heat-
capacity curve showed a close resemblance to the experimentally deter-
mined curves, the agreement was not good enough to be quantitative.
The shortcomings of Einstein's specific-heat theory were. pointed out
almost simultaneously by Deb ye, 2 and by Born and von Karman, 3 in
1912. They both ascribed the inaccuracy to the same source: Einstein's
assumption that all oscillators in the crystal had the same frequency.
They analyzed the oscillations of a rrystal in more detail, showing that
1 A. Einstein, Ann. Physik, 22 :180 (1907).
2 P. Debye, Ann. Physik, 39:789 (1912).
3 M. Born and T. von Karman, Physik. Z., 13 :297 (1912); 14: 15,65 (1913).
159
in fact one has a distribution of oscillations, with frequencies 11 e:<etending

from very low frequency up to a maximum value. Hence, instead of
merely multiplying the energy expression of Eq. (7-1) by the number
of independent oscillators, one must ascribe different frequencies to the
oscillators, and sum expressions like Eq. (7-1) over the various oscillators.
The treatments of Debye, and of Born and von Karman, differed only
in their assumptions regarding the spectrum of frequencies of the oscilla-
tors, and the difference was not enough to make a fundamental difference
in the results. Both treatments gave expressions in good agreement
with experiment, and hence removed the discrepancies in Einstein's
treatment.
Debye's theory was simpler, gave a good and useful result, and had
an enormous influence on the theory of solids. Its simplicity almost
completely stole the attention of physicists and chemists from the theory
of Born and von Karman, which was much more complete and accurate,
and yet led to similar final results. It is only in rather recent years that
we have been able to study the vibrational spectrum of solids experi-
mentally. Now these spectra are known, and it is clear that the theory
of Born and von Karman is the correct one, though Debye's theory forms
a useful first approximation. Consequently wc shall devote most of our
attention to the Born-von Karman theory. 1
Both theories start from the concept that the thermal oscillations of a
solid consist in a superposition of elastic vibrations, similar to sound
waves. If one considers the ordinary mechanical oscillations of a solid,
one finds that. standing waves of sound are possible, such that the linear
dimensions of the solid are integral numbers of half wavelengths. The
detailed study of these oscillations is very complicated, on account of
the interaction between the longitudinal and transverse waves which can
both be propagated in solids, with different. velocities, the longitudinal
waves having a higher velocity than the transverse waves. The general
situation is simple, however. Since the linear dimensions are fixed, the
higher and higher modes of oscillation, in which the linear dimensions
equal larger and larger numbers of half wavelengths, correspond to
shorter and shorter wavelengths, and higher and higher frequencies.
We start. with audible frequencies, for the lowest. modes, but rapidly get.
into the ultrasonic modes with frequencies above the range of audibility.
If we were dealing with an ideal continuous medium, we should conclude
that we should have higher and higher modes, with short.er and shorter
wavelengths, or higher and higher frequencies, without limit..
This is not the case, however, as one ca11 sec from either of two points
1 A bibliography of papers dealing with lattice vibrations is given in Sec. 8-6. The
two leading figures in the field are probably Born, and M. Blackman, who took up the
problem in the 1980s, and has made many contributions since.
Sec. 7-1] EFFECT OF THERMAL VIBRATIONS ON X-RAY SCATTERING 161
of view. In the first place, if we let the wavelength decrease far enough,
we should reach the point where a half wavelength equaled the distance
between adjacent atoms. At this point, in the oscillatory mode, suc-
cessive atoms would be oscillating in opposite phase. This is as far as
we can go: there is no meaning to a shorter wave than this, when we
recall the atomic nature of the medium, and the fact that it is only the
displacements of the individual atoms that have any meaning in describ-
ing the oscillations. The total number of modes must be limited, none
existing with a shorter wavelength, or higher frequency, than the limiting
value corresponding in a general way to a half wavelength equal to the
interatomic distance.
The other point of view treats the solid as a dynamical system, with
forces acting on the various atoms proportional to their displacements
from positions of equilibrium, so that they can execute simple harmonic
motion. The theory of mechanics tells us that in such a case we can
introduce normal coordinates, linear combinations of the displacements
of the various atoms, such that the equation of motion for each normal
coordinate has the same form as the equation of motion of a linear oscilla-
tor. It is for this reason that the problem is like a collection of linear
oscillators. The theory further tells us that the number of normal coordi-
nates which can be introduced is precisely equal to the number of degrees
of freedom in the system. By this we mean the number of coordinates
necessary to describe the location of all atoms. Since it takes three
coordinates to determine the position of a particle, there must be 3N
degrees of freedom per unit volume, if N is the number of atoms per unit
volume. Hence there must also be 3N normal coordinates per unit
volume, so that the number is limited, making it very natural that there
should be a maximum frequency, or minimum wavelength, for the normal
coordinates. Thus we are led to the same conclusion as in the preceding
paragraph. Closer examination, such as Born and von Karman gave
to the problem, showed that the two points of view are entirely in agree-
ment with each other.
The theory of Born and von Karman carried through a detailed study
of these 3N normal coordinates. Debye, on the other hand, made an
approximation for the distribution in frequency of the frequencies of the
oscillators, based on ordinary acoustic theory, and taking account of the
atomic nature of the sample only in that he limited the number of normal
modes to 3N per unit volume.
We have noted that these theories of crystal oscillations appeared in
1912, simultaueoudy with Hw discovery of x-ray diffraction. There was
a very rapid development of theory indicating the way in which these
lattice vibrations would affect x-ray scattering, so that in turn experi-
mental evidence of the vibrations could be found from x-ray measurement.
Debye, 1 in particular, showed that a very marked effect of thermal vibra-

tions on the intensity of x-ray reflection was to be expected, leading to the
so-called Debye-Waller factor, Waller 2 being a later worker in the same
field. This effect was observed experimentally, verifying the theory. We
shall take it up in Sec. 7-3. At the same time, a quite different type of
effect was predicted. a diffuse scattering of the x-rays by the lattice
vibrations, predicted by Debye 3 and by Brillouin, 4 which we have
mentioned earlier in Sec. 1-5. This prediction attracted less attention
at the time, but more recently, during the last few years, applications of
this type of scattering, not only by x-rays, but also by neutrons, have led
to experimental methods of determining the elastic vibrational spectrum
of the crystal. We shall discuss these problems in Secs. 7-4 to 7-6, and
in Chap. 8.
The study of the elastic vibrations of the crystal led of course to an
investigation of specific heat; but it led also to investigations of the theory
of thermal expansion, and of the related problems concerning the equation
of state, or pressure-temperature-volume relations of a crystal, at the
hands of Grti.neisen. 6 Grti.neisen investigated the change of frequency of
the lattice vibrations when the crystal was compressed, and in this way
studied the change in thermal energy with volume, which by various
thermodynamic relations leads to a great deal of information about the
crystal's behavior. ·
There are a good many ways in which the theory of lattice vibrations
has a bearing on recent solid-state research. In many cases, optical
absorption or emission involves not only an electronic transition, but also
a change in the lattice vibrational state; changes in the lattice quantum
numbers are commonly referred to at present as emission or absorption of
phonons, quanta of vibrational energy. The scattering of electron waves
by lattice vibrations is responsible for the main part of electrical resistance,
as we saw in Sec. 1-5. We have just mentioned the effect of lattice vibra-
tions on x-ray and neutron scattering. And, as we have discussed in the
present section, the specific heat and equation of state of solids are deter-
mined in an important way by lattice vibrations. These are only a few
of the many important applications of the theory. We shall not go in
any detail into the theories of specific heat and thermal expansion in the
present volume; they are treated in an elementary fashion in the text by
the present author, "Introduction to Chemical Physics," McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1939. A more complete treatment is given
1 P. Debye, Verhandl. Deut. Physik Ges., 15:678 (1913).
2 T. Waller, Z. Physik, 17 :898 (1923); dissertation, Uppsala, 1925.
3 P. Debye, Verhandl. Deut. Physik Ges., 15 :857 (1913); Ann. Physik, 43 :49
(1914).
4 L. Brillouin, Compt. Rend., 158 :1331 (1914); Ann. Phys. (Paris), 17 :88 (1922).
• E. Gruneisen, Verhandl. Deut. Physik Ges., 13 :426 (1911).

in Ziman's book, "Electrons and Phonons." Most of the other applica-

tions which we have mentioned, however, will be taken up in the present
or following chapters.
7-2. The Thermal Vibrations of a Crystal. The main features of the
Born-von Karman theory of crystal vibration can be presented in very
simple form. We proceed by classical mechanics to set up Newton's
equations of motion for the elastic vibrations of the atoms in a crystal,
acting on each other by linear restoring forces. Let us assume that each
unit cell of the crystal contains g atoms, and that the undisplaced position
of the sth atom in the ith unit cell is r, + Ri, where r. is the vector position
of the atom with respect to the origin of its unit cell, Ri is the vector from
the origin of coordinates to the corresponding point in the ith unit cell.
When the atoms are at these undisplaced positions, it is assumed that
they are all in equilibrium. However, we consider the case where the sth
atom in the ith cell is displaced from its equilibrium position by a small
amount u(s,i). Then we assume that there will be a force acting on each
atom, which is a linear combination of the displacements of all atoms.
The ordinary linear theory of vibrations disregards the terms in the force
involving higher powers than the first of the displacements.
We must, then, express the fact that each of the three vector com-
ponents of force acting on the atoms, i is a linear combination of the three
vector components of the u(t,j)'s of all atoms in the crystal. That is, we
have
Fa(s,i) = '1:(b,t,j)Ca1,(s, t, Ri - R;)ub(t,j) (7-2)
Here the subscripts a, b take on three values, corresponding to x, y, z

components. F (s,i) is the a component of force acting on the sth atom
0
in the unit cell at R;, and ub(t,j) is the b component of displacement of

the tth atom in the unit cell at Ri. The coefficient Cab(s, t, Ri - Ri) in
the linear relation depends on the components a and b, on the question of
which atoms in the two unit cells are being considered (the indices s, t),
and on the vector displacement R; - Ri between the two unit cells, but
not on the absolute position in the crystal of each of the unit cells, on
account of the periodicity of the crystal. There is no implication in Eq.
(7-2) that the forces are derived from central forces between atoms, or any
such restriction. There are relations between the C's arising from the
symmetry implied in the point group of the crystal, but we shall not go
into these; in most simple cases ordinarily met these are simple enough so
that they can be handled by inspection.
\Ve can now i'-et up Newton's second law for the motion of the atoms.
If m, represents the mass of the sth atom in the unit cell, we have
We shall try to satisfy these equations by assuming that the solution con-
sists of an elastic wave, in which the displacements are given by
Ua(s,i) = Wa(s) exp i(wt - q · R;) (7-4)
where wa(s), w are to be found as functions of a wave vector q. We shall
generally follow custom in using q for the wave vector of elastic waves, to
distinguish it from k, which we use for Schrodinger waves or for waves of
electromagnetic fields. Both are vectors in the same k space, and in some
cases of interaction between elastic and electromagnetic waves it will be
impossible to distinguish between the two types of wave vectors.
If we insert the assumption (7-4) into Eq. (7-3), that equation reduces to
-m,w 2w,.(s) = '1:-(b,t,v)Cab(s,t,R.) exp (-iq · R.)wb(t) (7-5)
where we have replaced Ri - R; by R.. In Eq. (7-5) we have 3g simul-
taneous equations for the 3g displacements of the g atoms in a unit cell.
These are linear homogeneous equations for the constant quantities w (s), 0
where a goes through the three indices x, y, z, and s goes from 1 to g,

tunning over the atoms in the unit cell. We know that such simultaneous
equations will not have nonvanishing solutions unless the determinant of
the coefficients vanishes. This is an equation of the 3gth degree deter-
mining w2, in terms of q. It is a secular equation similar to those of
quantum mechanics, but on account of the finite number of atoms in the
unit cell, it is of finite order, and with digital computers it can be solved
exactly, if we know the C's. Once we have found the frequency, we can
find the w's. We shall then find the frequencies, and atomic displace-
ments, for 3g normal modes of vibration of the crystal, for each value of q.
We note that the displacements defined by Eq. (7-4) are unchanged if
the wave vector q is increased by one of the translational vectors K; of the
reciprocal lattice, since Ki • R; equals 211" times an integer. Hence all
distinct solutions will be found if q is allowed to run through the central
Brillouin zone, or is considered to be a reduced wave vector. If we
choose, we may interpret w 2 as being a periodic function of position in k
space, repeating in each unit cell, just as the energy is in the problem of
energy bands. We can plot w as a function of q, by using the same sort
of device that we use in plotting energy bands, giving w along certain lines
in k space, such as the 100 or 111 directions, passing from the center to
the edge of the Brillouin zone. We shall have 3g separate curves, which
in some cases can show degeneracy at certain points in k space, in a way
entirely analogous to the energy bands.
In particular, we find that for thrf'e of the curve.", railed the acom,tical
branch, w goes to zero as q goes to zero, which is the reason why this is
called the acoustical branch, since it leads to vibrations of acoustical
frequency in the limit of long wavelengths (small q). These three modes
Sec. 7-2] EFFECT OF THERMAL .VIBRATIONS ON X-RAY SCATTERING 165
are degenerate at q = 0, each having zero frequency. The reason for the
vanishing frequency is that the displacements, in this case, correspond to
the situation where all atoms of the crystal have identical displacements,
along x, y, or z, and obviously this makes no difference in the energy of the
crystal, so that the restoring force, and hence the resonant frequency, is
zero. In a cubic crystal, for propagation along the 100 direction, the
degeneracy will split for q ,e. 0, in such a way that we have one longitudinal
wave, and a doubly degenerate transverse wave, for which the oscillation
could be either along y or along z. In general directions of propagation,
the degeneracy is entirely removed, and the oscillations cannot be
described as either longitudinal or transverse. In addition to the acous-
tical modes, the other 3g-3 modes have frequencies which never go to zero,
but lie in the infrared region of the spectrum, and consequently are called
optical modes.
If we have a finite crystal, then just as in the energy-band case the
waves of Eq. (7-4) must satisfy certain boundary conditions, which we
shall take to be periodic boundary conditions, as a result of which only
discrete values of q lead to allowed vibrations, the normal modes of
vibration. As for energy bands, these q's are uniformly distributed
through the Brillouin zone, and are Nin number, if there are N unit cells
in the repeating range of the crystal. Thus the total number of modes is
3Ng, in agreement with Sec. 7-1 (when we recall that the number of atoms
in the repeating region is now Ng). In the theory of specific heat, each of
these normal modes is treated as an ideal linear oscillator, so that at high
temperatures it has an average energy of kT, where k is Boltzmann's con-
stant, T is the absolute temperature, leading to a heat capacity of 3N gk,
which is the familiar law of Dulong and Petit. At lower temperatures,
we must treat the vibrational energy of each oscillator by the quantum
theory, assuming an energy given by Eq. (7-1) for each oscillator, where
v is its appropriate frequency. We are then led to the sort of treatment
of specific heat given by Born and von Karman.
There has been a good deal of treatment of the vibrations of crystals
in the literature; but most of it is based on very arbitrary assumptions
regarding the coefficients Cab(s,t,R,,), which are really independent micro-
scopic elastic constants, subject only to certain interrelations on account
of crystal symmetry, as we have mentioned earlier. There are an
infinite number of such constants, though there is good reason to think
that they decrease rapidly to zero as the two atoms concerned get farther
and farther apart, so that in practice one need use only a small number
of such ronstant8. The principal way of determining these constants
experimentally is by the use 'of thermal diffuse scattering of x-rays, or
by the inelastic scattering of neutrons, as we shall describe later. The
macroscopic elastic constants can be determined as linear combinations
of the C's, since in the limit of low frequencies the vibrations approach
ordinary acoustic oscillations, which can be described in terms of classical
elasticity theory. Many workers have tried to work backward, from
the macroscopic elastic constants, to deduce the C's, and hence set up
Eq. (7~5) and determine the vibrational frequencies. This in principle
is impossible, however, for the number of macroscopic elastic constants
is very small, and we have theoretically an infinite number of C's. The
only proper procedure, in the absence of a completely a priori calculation,
seems to be to find the C's, as we have mentioned, by thermal diffuse
scattering of x-rays or by neutron scattering, and then to test these C's
by computing the macroscopic elastic constants from them. In cases
where such tests have been carried out, they have given a satisfactory
check with experiment.
The theory of elastic vibrations as we have presented it assumes only
linear restoring forces between the atoms. Of course, this forms merely
the first term in a power-series expansion of the forces in terms of the
displacements. Once the higher-order terms are included, different elas-
tic modes can no longer propagate independently of each other; there is,
rather, an interaction between different waves. In other words, one
elastic wave can scatter another. When it does so, we come to the p:r:ob-
lem of the Bragg reflection of one elastic wave when it is scattered by
another. In this case, either wave can be considered to be undergoing
Bragg reflection by the other. Such scattering of one thermal wave by
another is operating in the problem of thermal conductivity. Heat flows
through a body in the form of elastic vibrations. These waves are scat-
tered by other thermal waves, so that there is the equivalent of a thermal
resistance. The well-known theory of thermal conductivity of Peierls 1 is
based on an analysis of this scattering. Such problems have not been
by any means completely treated in actual crystals. For a more detailed
treatment of problems in elastic vibrations, the reader is referred to the
book by Ziman, "Electrons and Phonons," which we have cited several
times, as a recent treatment.
We have now presented the theory of the thermal vibrations of crystals
in sufficient detail so that the reader will be able to understand the next
problem which we shall take up, namely, the effect of the lattice vibra-
tions on the scattering of x-rays or of electrons. This involves examining
the way in which the thermal oscillations of a crystal, which introduce
waves of dielectric constant (in the case of x-rays) or of electrostatic
potential (in the case of electrons), are capable of scattering x-ray or
electron wave8 according to the principles of Bragg 8Cattering.
7-3. The Debye-Waller Factor in X-ray Scattering. In Sec. 6-2 we
have seen that to get the Bragg scattering in any direction, we must
1 R. Peierls, Ann. Physik, 3 :1055 (1929).
analyze the charge density of the crystal in plane waves. For an undis-
torted crystal, we have only waves whose wave vectors are the vectors K
of the reciprocal lattice, and the structure factor F given in Eq. (6-9)
gives the amplitude of the plane wave having the wave vector K. We
have seen that a single one of these plane waves produces a scattered
wave of x-rays, satisfying the Bragg law. This law, as we know from
Volume 2, Sec. 7-6, can be stated as follows: When a wave of x-rays, with
initial wave vector k and angular frequency w, is scattered by a plane
wave of charge density with wave vector K, the wave vector of the scat-
tered wave will be k + K, and its angular frequency will equal the initial
angular frequency w. Since the magnitude of the wave vector of the
x-rays must be related to w by the relation w/lkl = c, where c is the
velocity of light, and the scattered wave has the angular frequency w but
the wave vector k + K, it must be that k + K has the same magnitude
ask.
For a crystal in which thermal oscillations are occurring, the atoms
no longer will be in their undistorted positions, and new plane waves
will be introduced into the Fourier analysis of the charge density. We
shall show shortly that the wave vectors of these new plane waves can
have any arbitrary wave vectors, though their amplitudes will be small,
proportional to the amplitudes of the thermal oscillations of the atoms.
Hence Bragg scattering will be introduced in all directions, leading to
what is called the thermal diffuse scattering. Since this diffuse scattering
will rob intensity from the ordinary Bragg-scattered beam, the intensity
of the latter must decrease with increasing temperature, and this decrease
is what is known as the Debye-Waller factor, to which we have referred
in Sec. 7-1. We shall take up this factor in the present section, going
on to the thermal diffuse scattering in the next section.
It is clear that we must modify the analysis of Sec. 6-2 by replacing
the positions of the atoms used in computing the structure factor of
Eq. (6-9) by the modified positions, equal to the undisplaced positions
plus the displacements which we have been taking up in Sec. 7-2. To
describe the displacements arising from thermal oscillations, we need
somewhat more notation than was used in Sec. 7-2. We have mentioned
that for each value of q, the wave vector of the elastic wave, we have 3g
normal modes of oscillation, where g is the number of atoms in the unit
cell. Let these modes be denoted by an index l, which runs from 1 to 3g,
and by the value of q, so that we may write the frequency of the mode
as w(l,q). In writing the displacement of an atom, we shall use a real
function of time, rather than a complex exponential, which would result
in difficulties when we take the square of the displacement. When we
do this, we note that the quantities w (s), in Eq. (7-4), the amplitude
0
functions for the ath component of the sth atom, will in general be com-
plex quantities, for different atoms in the unit cell will vibrate not only
with different amplitude, but with different phase as well. If we write
wa(s) as Wa(s) exp -ia(s), where Wa(s) is real, and a is a phase constant,
the real part of Eq. (7-4) can be written in the form Wa(s) cos [wt - q · R;
- a(s)]. We must really have indices l, q attached to the quantities
Wa(s) and a(s), as well as tow. Furthermore, it is convenient to nor-
malize the Wa's, and to have a separate amplitude for each plane wave.
Thus we shall write
u(s,i) = ~(l,q)A(l,q)W(s,l,q) cos [w(l,q)t - q · R; - a(s,l,q)) (7-6)
This equation gives the vector displacement u(s,i) of the sth atom in
the ith unit cell. The summation over l and q is over the normal modes
of vibration. The amplitude A(l,q) is arbitrary, but its mean square
value will later be determined by thermodynamics, assuming that it
corresponds to thermal oscillation. The quantity W(s,l,q) will be
assumed to be normalized according to the rule
~(s,i)m.lW(s,l,q)l 2 = 1 (7-7)
where the summation is over all atoms of the crystal, m, is the mass of
the sth atom in the unit cell, and IW(s,l,q)j 2 is the square of the magnitude
of the vector. The phase a(s,l,q) is not determined by the normalization;
the relative phases of vibration of the various atoms are uniquely fixed
by the solution of the equations of motion, Eq. (7-5), but we may assume
an arbitrary additional phase associated with each normal mode.
Our problem is now to calculate the summation
~(s,i)f. exp ik1 • [r. + R; + u(s,i)] (7-8)
where as before r. + Ri is the undisplaced position of the sth atom in the
unit cell distant from the origin by the amount R;, and where u(s,i) is
the displacement of this atom from its equilibrium position on account
of the lattice oscillation. Following the discussion of Sec. 6-2, this sum-
mation of Eq. (7-8) would be zero for any value of k 1 except one of the
vectors K of the reciprocal lattice, provided the displacements u(s,i) were
all zero, while if k 1 were one of the K's, the summation would be N times
the structure factor, where N is the number of unit cells in the repeating
volume of the crystal. However, in the presence of oscillations, as we
have mentioned earlier, we shall find nonvanishing values of the summa-
tion of Eq. (7-8) for any value of k 1 . We shall continue to assume
periodic boundary conditions, so that we need only consider k 1's leading
to waves which repeat in each periodic region of space.
The expression of Eq. (7,-8) can now be written in the form
~(s,i)f. exp ik1 • (r. + R.)II(l,q) exp ik1 • {A(l,q)W(s,Z,q)
cos [w(l,q)t - q · R - a(s,l,q)]} (7-9)
Let us consider one of the terms from the product. It can be written as
exp (iz cos ct>), where
z = A (l,q)k1 · W (s,l,q)
cf, = w(l,q)t - q • R; - a(s,l,q) (7-10)
Now one can show that
.l inJn(z)(ein</> + e-in<I>)
00
exp (iz cos ,ct,) = J 0 (z) + (7-11)

n=l
which follows from the well-known integral relation

(-l)n (2"
J,,(z) = ~ Jo exp i(z cos q, + n<f,) dq, (7-12)
Jn(z) being the Bessel function of the nt.h order, and where by definition
(7-13)
We now substitute the expression of Eq. (7-11) for each term of the
product in Eq. (7-9). The product of leading terms, J 0 (z), leads to a
constant quantity multiplying the exponential function exp ik 1 • (r. + R;).
Any other terms, however, lead to products of exponentials like
exp ± in[w(l,q)t - q · R; - a(s,l,q)]
which combine with the exponential exp ik 1 • (r. + R) to lead to func-

tions with other wave vectors than k 1 . It is these other terms, as we
shall see in the next section, which lead to the Brillouin or thermal diffuse
scattering, while the leading terms, in J 0 (z), lead to the Debye-W all er
factor. Let us start by taking only these leading terms. It is clear that
the product of these terms,
II(l,q)Jo[A(l,q)k 1 • W(s,l,q)] (7-14)
will carry through to multiply the structure factor of Eq. (6-9). The
summation over R, as we have already noted, will vanish unless k 1 is one
of the vectors K of the reciprocal lattice, which we shall therefore assume.
Now let us evaluate the Debye-Waller factor of Eq. (7-14), where k 1 is
replaced by K. In doing so, we must average over the thermal distribu-
tion. We shall carry out this average using classical statistics, where we
have equipartition, in which case it can be carried out very easily, and
shall quote the result of the same calculation for the quantum-theoretical
case which must be used at low temperatures. In classical statistics, the
amplitude A (l,q) acts like the amplitude of a classical oscillator of fre-
quency w(l,q), and we knmv that the probability of finding thii::i amplitude
in a range dA is given by the Boltzmann factor exp (-energy/kT), where
k is Boltzmann's constant (not to be confused with wave vectors k), T is
the absolute temperature, and the energy concerned is the energy of the
oscillator. The first step in carrying out the calculation is to find the
energy of the oscillator, in terms of A.
We can find the energy by finding the mean kinetic energy, and doubling
it, for we remember that for a linear oscillator the mean kinetic energy
equals the mean potential energy. Let us then start with Eq. (7-6) for
the displacement, differentiate with respect to time, find the kinetic
energy from this velocity, and average over time. Since the single sum-
mation in Eq. (7-6) must be squared, we have a double summation, in
which we have products of cosine factors to be averaged. The time
average of a square of a cosine is ½, that of the product of two cosines is
zero, on account of the different frequencies (or the arbitrary phases), and
we are left with the result that
Mean energy of whole crystal
= 1:(s,i,l,q)½m,A 2 (l,q)[W(s,Z,q)]2w 2 (l,q)
= 1:(l,q)½A 2 (l,q)w 2 (l,q) (7-15)
in which we have used Eq. (7-7). Hence we may interpret 3,fw 2 (l,q)A 2 (l,q)
as the energy of the mode Z, q.
Next we must set l\P an expression for the probability of finding A in
the range dA, in thermal equilibrium. We must remember that in
classical statistics, equal areas in a phase space in which the coordinates
and momentum of a particle are plotted as variables have equal a priori
probabilities. The area of phase space enclosed by a curve of constant
energy for a linear oscillator is an ellipse, whose area is proportional to A 2 ,
so that the increment of area between two curves of constant energy cor-
responding to A and A + dA is proportional to d(A 2 ), or proportional to
A dA. The probability of finding the system in unit area of phase space
is, according to the Boltzmann factor and the expression of Eq. (7-15) for
the energy, proportional to exp -A 2w 2 /2kT. Thus the probability of
finding the system between A and A + dA is
I :1 ro b a b"l· A exp (-A 2w 2/2kT) dA
1 1ty = - - ~ - - - - - - - - (7-16)
Jo00 A exp (-A 2w 2/2kT) dA
We must now find the average over A of the quantity
Jo[A(l,q)K · W(s,l,q)]
of Eq. (7-14). To get this, we multiply the Bessel function by the
probability of Eq. (7-16), and integrate over dA from Oto oc. In doing
this, we use the theorem
fo 00
A exp (-aA 2 )J 0 (bA) dA
0 .,., = exp ( -b 2 /4a) (7-17)
lo A exp ( - aA 2 ) dA
Sec. 7-3) EFFECT OF THERMAL VIBRATIONS ON X-RAY SCATTERING 171
which can be proved by expanding the Bessel function in power series

and integrating term by term. Thus we find that the average value of the
Bessel function J 0[A(l,q)K • W(s,l,q)] is
exp {-[K • W(s,l,q)] 2kT/2w 2(l,q)} (7-18)
The whole factor from Eq. (7-14) is the product of such terms over all
values of l and q, so that we may write the Debye-Waller factor of Eq.
(7-14) as exp (-M.), where
M. = ~(l,q)[K · W(s,l,q)]2kT /2w 2(l,q) (7-19)
We can rewrite this expression in terms of the average square dis-
placement of the sth atom in the direction of the vector K. To do this,
we remember that the average energy of the model, q is ½w 2 (l,q)[A 2 (l,q)]av,
and also equals kT, by equipartition. Thus we may rewrite Eq. (7-19)
in the form
M, = ~(l,q)[K · W(s,l,q)]2[A 2(l,q)].v/4 (7-20)
But from Eq. (7-6) we can find the mean square of any component of the
displacement of the sth atom, by squaring and averaging over time, and
we find
[u;(s,i)]av = ~(l,q)[Wp(s,l,q)]2[A 2(l,q)]av/2 (7-21)
Thus finally we may rewrite Eq. (7-20) in the form
M s -_ 2
1[UK2(8,1,")] av IKl2 -- 871" 2[UK2(8 1 '1,")] a v
sin28
~ (7-22)
where we have used Eq. (6-8), IKI = (471" sin 8)/X, and uK is the component
of displacement along K. This furnishes a simple and rigorous deriva-
tion of the Debye-Waller formula for the temperature factor, in the region
of classical statistics; substantially this form of proof was used by Waller
in his thesis. It shows us that in calculating the structure factor of the
crystal, we are to use the product of the atomic scattering factor f. and
the Debye-Waller factor exp (-M.), in place of the factor f. alone, which
would, be used in the absence of thermal oscillation. In the scattered
intensity from a real crystal, in which we are concerned with the square
of the structure factor, the factor exp ( -2M,) enters.
The proof we have given holds only at high temperatures; but Ott,1 and
Born and Sarginson, 2 have given the means of carrying out the same
calculation at low temperatures, where the quantum theory must be used.
To understand the wave-mechanical problem, we must first recapitulate
what we have done. We have started with the sum
~(s,i)J. exp lik1 · [r, + R, + u(s,i)] I
1 H. Ott, Ann. Physik, 23 :169 (1935).
1 M. Born and K. Sarginson, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A179:69 (1941).
and have then taken the time average, which is essentially what we have
done by using Eq. (7-11) and keeping only the term independent of time,
as in Eq. (7-14). Then we have averaged over different amplitudes A,
according to the Boltzmann distribution. We must proceed otherwise
in wave mechanics, for we are not allowed to localize the displacement
u(s,i) of the atom s, i or to write it as a sinusoidal function of time, on
account of the uncertainty principle. Rather, we must assume that the
oscillator is in a definite stationary state, and find the average of the
quantity we desire, which in this case is exp i"k: 1 • u(s,i), over this stationary
state. This can be done, if we know the wave function of the stationary
state, which we do, since we are dealing with linear oscillators. Then,
having found this average, we must assume that the probability of finding
the system in a given stationary state is proportional to exp -E/kT,
where Eis the energy of the state, and must average over this distribution.
Ott has carried out this process, showing by an ingenious method that
the twofold procedure of averaging over the wave function, and over the
statistical distribution, can be combined into a single mathematical proc-
ess, and has been able to evaluate the quantity which we de:.3ire in the
general case (though he does not actually carry the steps through as we
have sketched them). Born and Sarginson have carried through an equi-
valent proof by another method. The net result of this derivation is that
Eq. (7-22) is rigorously true at all temperatures, where it is understood
that [ui_(s,i)]av is to be computed properly according to the quantum
theory, including the zero-point oscillation. Of course, the form of Eq.
(7-19) holds only at high temperature.
7-4. The Temperature-diffuse, or Brillouin, Scattering of X-rays. We
have now considered the Debye-Waller temperature factor, by which the
scattering arising from each of the Fourier components of charge density
which would be present without temperature agitation is reduced by the
thermal oscillations. But in addition, we are interested in the tempera-
ture-diffuse scattering. In the product occurring in Eq. (7-9), where we
expand each term in the form of Eq. (7-11), we see that this forms a power
series in the amplitude A (l,q) of the thermal oscillation. The lowest
power term after the constant term will be that for n = 1 in Eq. (7-11);
for the Bessel function Jn(z) has a power-series expansion which starts as
zn. The simple theory of temperature diffuse scattering uses only this
lowest power of the amplitude, assuming that it is only at rather high
temperature that higher powers are encountered. Similarly it uses only
the case where we have a term in n = I from only one of the factors in
Eq. (7-9), multiplied by the terms inn = 0 from all other factors. The
reason is that if we multiplied two or more terms with n = I, we should
have terms proportional to the products of the amplitudes of two or more
acoustical waves, which we assume that we can neglect as we can neglect
the powers of individual A's. In other words, we are setting up a strictly

linear theory, in which we disregard all higher powers of amplitudes,
though higher powers of A's, involving scattering in which more than one
phonon is emitted or absorbed, are of considerable importance under
actual experimental conditions, and have been considered theoretically.
Let us then consider the value to assume for the product of Eq. (7-9).
The leading term in each of the exponentials, according to Eq. (7-11),
is J o(z), which is practically unity for small z. It is actually slightly
smaller then unity, in such a way that the product of all these leading
terms, which forms the Debye-Waller factor as in Eq. (7-14), is decreased
from unity to the smaller value exp (-M.), but each individual Jo(z) is
very close to unity. Similarly each term for n = 1 in Eq. (7-11) is very
closely equal to
iA(l,q)k 1 · W(s,l,q)(exp ief, + exp -ief,) (7-23)
where ef, is given in Eq. (7-10), and where we are not to confuse the factor
i = v -1 multiplying A (l,q) with the index i of summation. Hence to
the approximation we are using the expression of Eq. (7-8) can be written
in the form
"'i:(s,i)f. exp ik1 · (r. + Ri) exp ( -M.)(1 + "'i:(l,q)iA (l,q)k1 · W(s,l,q)
( exp i[w(Z,q)t - q · Ri - a(s,l,q)]
+ exp -i[w(l,q)t - q • Ri - a(s,l,q)])) (7-24)
Let us now take one of the terms from the summation over l, q in Eq.
(7-24). It has an amplitude A(l,q)k 1 • W(s,Z,q), and an exponential factor
exp ±i[w(l,q)t - q • R - a(s,l,q)], which multiplies the exponential exp
il!: 1 • (r, + Ri), That is, the dependence of this exponential on Ri is as
exp i(k 1 + q) • R.. When we sum this exponential over i, the result will
be zero unless k 1 equals K; ± q, where K; is one of the vectors of the
reciprocal lattice. Since the vectors q can fill up the complete Brillouin
zone, we see that the wave vectors of the resulting waves of charge density,
or index of refraction, can have any possible value, so that we are led to a
real diffuse scattering. Though this can occur for any vector in reciprocal
space, however, nevertheless this scattering becomes much stronger near
the lattice points of the reciprocal lattice, as we can show simply.
The reason is that the amplitude of this wave of charge distribution,
and consequently the amplitude of the scattered x-rays, will be propor-
tional to A (Z,q)k 1 • W(s,l,q), as we have seen above. The intensity will
be proportional to the square of this quantity. But by Eq. (7-1.'5), the
average energy of this term is HA 2 (l,q)w 2 (l,q), which is equal to kT in
the range of temperatures where classical statistics holds. Consequently
the average value of A 2 (l,q) is 2kT / w 2 (Z,q), becoming infinite as the fre-
quency goes to zero. If we are considering the acoustical branches of the

vibration spectrum, their frequency will go to zero as the wave vector q
goes to zero, or as the wave vector of the scattering wave of charge
density approaches K;, one of the vectors of the reciprocal lattice. Hence
we have a scattering which becomes infinitely large as we approach these
values K;, and which can give us information about the acoustical modes
of the vibration spectrum. The optical branches, which have much higher
frequencies, will contribute to a diffuse scattering which is not peaked in
the same way about the lattice points of the reciprocal lattice, but is
i
distributed more uniformly between these lattice points.
We see, then, the general nature of the temperature diffuse scattering.
It helps our understanding of the problem if we state very simply the way
{l
I
in which the information about the vibration spectrum can be found from j
the measurements of the temperature diffuse scattering. 1 Using a mono-
chromatic beam of x-rays, one observes scattering in a given direction, ,I
l
in which we should not have Bragg scattering from the undistorted crystal.
This scattering must come from the plane wave of charge density whose
If
wavelength is related to the scattering angle by Bragg's law. The inten-
sity of this scattered wave then gives information about a particular
thermal wave. But we have just seen that this intensity is proportional
to 2kT/w 2 (l,q). Thus measurement of the scattered intensity gives the
frequency of the wave, whose wave vector is already known from the
scattering angle. It is clear that the method is not as simple as it seems
at first sight, for we can actually have scattering not only by the three
acoustical modes, but also by the optical modes; for this reason, in a crystal
having more than one atom in the unit cell, special means have to be
used to separate out the scattering by the various branches of the spectrum.
In the cases which have been carried through, it has been possible to
work through to find experimental values of a number of the elastic
constants Cab(s,t,Rv) which we have considered in Sec. 7-2. Then by use
of Eq. (7-5) the frequencies of modes with arbitrary wave vectors have
been found. From this information one can in a well-known way find the
vibrational specific heat of the solid, and in cases where this has been
calculated, it is in good agreement with experiment. It is worth while
pointing out, however, that in addition the Debye-Waller factor could be
calculated once the vibrational frequencies are known, and it would
be a valuable addition to present experimental procedures to find the
Debye-Waller factors theoretically in this way, and compare with direct
observation.
7-5. The Bragg Conditions for Brillouin Scattering. In the preceding
section we have seen that the thermal oscillation of wave vector q will
introduce an exponential term into the charge distribution with wave
1 References to studies by this method are given in Sec. 8-1.
vector K ± q, where K is one of the vectors of the reciprocal lattice. We

have not considered the whole situation, however, for as we see from Eq.
(7-24), this exponential term also has an angular frequency ±w, where wis
the angular frequency of the sound wave, just as q is its wave vector.
Let us now examine this situation, and show, as pointed out in Sec. 1-5,
that there is a change of frequency of the scattered x-rays or light, as
a consequence of this angular frequency w present in the acoustical wave.
Let us go back to Sec. 6-4 and 6-5, where we were discussing the scatter-
ing of a light wave by a sinusoidal disturbance of the dielectric constant.
We need make but one modification in the argument: in place of the
dielectric constant depending only on position, as given in Eq. (6-13),
we shall let 1/K. be given by
_! = 1 + w[exp i(w1t - k 1 · r) + exp -i(w1t - k1 • r)] (7-25)

Ke
Here we have included only a single sinusoidal wave, for simplicity, and
since they will scatter independently. The amplitude w is that derived
from the small amplitude of oscillation A(l,q), the angular frequency w 1 is
Frn. 7-1. Diagram to illustrate Bragg scattering from moving ultrasonic wave fronts,
resulting in Doppler change of frequency of the scattered radiation.
what we have previously written as w, and the wave vector k1 has the
same significance as in our earlier discussion in this chapter. Instead of
carrying through the whole problem, as in Secs. 6-4 and 6-5 (which can
now be done without difficulty, but which would give us nothing new),
we shall turn at once to the case met in Eq. {6-27), where we are in the
neighborhood of the Bragg angle, so that only a single scattered wave
needs to be considered. Furthermore, from the start, we shall take the
case where D is perpendicular to the plane of the paper, in Fig. 6-1 or 7-1.
In place of Eq. (6-10), we then shall consider only an incident wave, with
angular frequency and wave vectors of w0 and ko, respectively, and a
single scattered wave, with angular frequency wo + w1 and wave vector
ko + k 1 ; we shall show that the superposition of these two waves furnishes
an acceptable solution. We then have in place of Eq. (6-10)
D = D(O) exp i(wot - ko • r) + D(k 1) exp i[(wo + w1)t - (ko + k1) • r]

. (7-26)
We then proceed as in the derivation of Eq. (6-18), and multiply Eqs.

(7-25) and (7-26) to get the electric field. We have
EoE = _! D = [D(O)
Ke
+ wD(k 1)] exp i(wot - ko • r)
+ [D(k + wD(O)] exp i[(wo + w1)t -
1) (ko + k1) • r] (7-27)
In setting up this equation we have disregarded the terms involving
exponentials other than the two written, since further investigations would
show that their amplitudes will be small enough, near the Bragg angle, so
that they can be neglected. There is, in particular, an exponential
which we have omitted.

For the case we are considering, div E = 0, and Maxwell's equations,
as in Eq. (6-19), lead to V2E = µ 0 a2D/at 2 • We substitute into this equa-
tion, using Eqs. (7-26) and (7-27), and proceed as in the derivation of
Eq. (6-27). In place of that equation we find
( k~ - ;!) D(O) + wk~D(k1) = 0

(7-28)
w(ko + k1) D(O) + [ (ko + k 1)
2 2 - (wo ; wi) 2 ] D(k 1) = O
These equations differ from Eq. (6-27) only in having (w 0 + w1) 2 in place
of w 2 in the second equation, as well as in the trivial matter that we have
set (K,)av equal to unity in this simple case.
We may now follow the type of discussion used for Eqs. (6-28) and
(6-29), and show that Bragg reflection will occur for a narrow range of
angles in the neighborhood of that determined by the equality and vanish-
ing of the diagonal matrix elements in Eq. (7-28). That is, it is deter-
mined by the conditions
2
k2 _ "'o (7-29)
o - c2
which verifies the statement in the text that not only do we have the two
plane waves appearing in Eq. (7-26), but the wave vector and frequency
of each must be related properly to represent a solution of the wave
equation. Examination of the magnitudes of the various quantities con-
cerned shows that for optical or even more for x-ray frequencies w 0, the
ultrasonic or infrared frequency w 1 of the sound wave will be very small
compared with w 0 , so that the deviation from the ordinary Bragg law is
very small. Examination of the remaining discussion given in Sec. 6-5,
concerning the gaps in propagated waves in the neighborhood of the Bragg
angles,_the damping, and so on, goes through essentially as in that section.
In other words, the only important feature introduced by the fact that
the sound wave is traveling is the very slight frequency change resulting
from the absorption of the phonon by the scattered electromagnetic wave.
The other case, where a phonon is emitted, is obtained by changing the
sign of k 1 in Eq. (7-27).
We can now make connection with our discussion of Sec. 1-1. We
have seen that we start with a wave which is to be scattered, which we
write as the real part of exp i(w 0t - k 0 • r), which in the classical Bragg
case is a wave of x-rays; in Brillouin scattering it could be electromagnetic
waves of any frequency. Next, we have a wave which is to do the scatter-
ing, which we can write as the real part of exp i(w 1t - k 1 • r). In the
case of Bragg scattering by a sinusoidal component of the stationary
electron density, w1 would be zero, and k 1 would be the vector representing
the particular Fourier component of charge density we were considering.
However, if we are considering Brillouin scattering, w 1 is the angular
frequency of the sound wave being considered, and k 1 equals q + K,
where q is the wave vector of the sound wave, K is one of the vectors of
the reciprocal lattice, which can be zero. Then we have found that the
scattered wave is represented by the real part of exp i[(w 0 ± w1)t - (ko ±
k 1) • r) and its amplitude will be proportional to the interaction between
the wave which is being scattered, and the wave which is doing the scatter-
ing. In the x-ray case, with stationary electron density, this scattered
wave has the angular frequency w 0 , since w 1 = 0, and it is one of the
ordinary coherently scattered waves encountered in x-ray diffraction. In
order that the scattered wave may have the same angular frequency wo
as the incident wave, it is necessary that the wave vector (ko ± k1) of
the scattered wave have the same magnitude as the wave vector ko of
the incident wave. This is the condition which was seen to lead to the
Bragg law, in Volume 2, sec. 7-6.
In the more general case where w 1 is not zero, so that the sinusoidal
disturbance which is doing the scattering is a progressive wave rather
than a fixed disturbance, it is still necessary that (ko ± k1) should be so
chosen that the wave with this wave vector may have the appropriate
angular frequency w 0 ± w 1• The scattered wave has a different frequency
from the incident frequency, and as we have mentioned earlier, this is
interpreted as a Doppler effect, since the reflection is from a moving
rather than a stationary set of waves. Thus, if the scattering waves are
traveling upward, in Fig. 7-1, the scattered wave may be considered to be
emitted from a moving image which is traveling upward twice as fast
as the scatterer, so that its emitted frequency will appear greater than the
true frequency. We remember that in the theory of the Doppler effect
it is shown that a source moving with a velocity v, emitting radiation
whose frequency in a system of reference in which the source is stationary
would be w 0 , will have an apparent frequency if observed in a direction

making an angle cf, with the velocity v equal to
W = Wo (1 + ~ COS cp) (7-30)
where c is the velocity of light. In our present case we are observing in

the direction shown as k 0 + k 1 in Fig. 7-1, so that cos cf, = sin 0. The
velocity of the scattering wave is wi/lk 1 I, and the velocity v of the image
emitting the scattered wave is twice this velocity. The velocity of light
c is wo/lkol- When we substitute these values in Eq. (7-30), and use
Bragg's relation X = 2d sin 0, we find that the observed frequency of the
scattered wave should be w 0 + w 1 , in accordance with our general state-
ment of the scattering condition. In other words, we have verified the
interpretation of the frequency shift in terms of the Doppler effect.
There is another interpretation which we can give to the scattering
process. Let us continue to assume that we are considering the scattering
of electromagnetic waves, either x-rays or light waves, by a wave of sound,
and let us take the case where k 1 = q. We remember the quantum inter-
pretation of a light wave: the radiation consists of photons, of energy
hvo = hwo, and of momentum h/X = hk 0 , where X is the wavelength. In
a scattering process in which a wave of angular frequency w 0 changes to
wo + w1, and in which k 0 changes to k 0 + q, we must assume that the
energy increases by hw 1 , and the momentum by hk 1 . But at the same
time, we remember that vibrational waves of sound are quantized, one of
the quanta being a phonon, which has energy hw 1 , and momentum hq.
The interpretation of the scattering process which we have just described,
then, is that a photon of energy hw 0 and momentum hko is destroyed, a new
photon of energy h(w 0 + w 1) and momentum h(ko + q) is created, and
conservation of energy and momentum is achieved by the destruction of
a phonon of energy hw 1 and momentum hq. In an analogous way, the
scattering process in which the final frequency is wo - w 1 , the final wave
vector ko - q, is one in which a phonon of energy hw 1 , momentum liq, is
created.
There is another feature of the scattering: the wave vector k 1 can equal
q + K, where K is a vector of the reciprocal lattice, as well as equaling q
itself. These cases where K ~ 0 are called, using a German term, Umk-
lapp processes, and are of importance in problems of electrical and thermal
conductivity. They are a sort of mixture of ordinary Bragg scattering
with thermal diffuse scattering, in which the change in crystal momentum
of the scattered wave is compensated partly by the quantity qli of the
sound wave, partly by a reaction K/i on the lattice.
We now see the general properties of the scattering of one wave, such
as a wave of light or x-rays, by another, such as a wave of sound. In the
cases we are most interested in, there are many scattering waves; in
ordinary x-ray scattering, we have all the Fourier components of charge
density, and in scattering by temperature agitation, or thermal diffuse
scattering, we have a very large number of waves of mechanical oscilla-
tion. To handle the problem properly, we must use the equivalent of the
dynamical theory of x-ray scattering, taking into account the multiple
scattering by different mechanical waves. However, in case the inter-
actions are small, the processes of scattering by the various waves can be
handled independently, as is ordinarily the case, to a fair approximation,
with x-rays.
7-6. Scattering of Electrons and Neutrons by Thermal Oscillations.
The principles of the scattering of electrons by thermal oscillations are
essentially the same as those of the scattering of x-rays, as will be obvious
from our general mode of treatment. The scattering will be produced by
the sinusoidal waves of effective potential energy set up by the thermal
oscillation, as we have described in Sec. 2-3, rather than by waves of
density. To a fairly good approximation, the potential energy within a
crystal can be regarded as the sum of potential energies arising from the
separate atoms, and to the approximation to which this can be done, we
can proceed with the theory along lines exactly parallel to those which
we have used in the preceding section, merely substituting for the atomic
scattering factor f, the Fourier transform of the potential energy inside
the atom, rather than the charge density. A good deal of discussion has
been given of the adequacy of this approximation, as we pointed out in
Sec. 2-3, and the net result of this is that the approximation is not quantita-
tively very good, though qualitatively it is correct. The importance of
the scattering of electrons by thermal oscillations comes not principally
from the problem of electron diffraction, but much more because it is the
main cause of electrical resistivity, as we have seen in Chap. 1.
Neutron scattering by thermal oscillations differs from the scattering
of x-rays or electrons in one rather striking way, as a result of the large
mass of neutrons. We have pointed out that in all cases the frequency
of a scattered wave is changed when it is scattered by a wave which
oscillates sinusoidally in time, as a thermal wave does. However, with
x-rays, the frequency of the acoustic vibration is so small that this change
of frequency is negligible. With electrons, it is not quite negligible, but
still small compared with the total energy of the electron. It has its
importance, as we emphasized in Sec. 1-5; it is the mechanism by which
the electron scattered by a lattice vibration transfers energy, which it has
picked up from the external electric field, to vibrational energy of the
lattice, in the case where we have scattering with the production of a
phonon. This, in other words, is the mechanism of the production of
Joulean heat in a conductor.
With neutrons, on the contrary, the energy of a neutron whose wave-

length is of the order of magnitude of interatomic spacings is comparable
with thermal energies, so that the hw of the vibrational wave of thermal
oscillation is comparable with, or in some cases much larger than, the
neutron's energy. Hence the final energy of the scattered neutron can
be very different from its incident energy. This fact is used in the method
of investigation of lattice vibrations by inelastic neutron scattering. Very
slow incident neutrons are used, corresponding to a very small value of
w 0 • When they are scattered by a thermal wave, they cannot lose energy
equal to that of a thermal phonon, for they do not have enough energy to
start with. Rather, they must gain an energy equal to that of a phonon,
and this gives them a recoil energy far larger than their incident energy.
The measurement is then of these recoil neutrons, which have gained the
energy of a phonon from the lattice. This is a very different sort of
experiment, in its practical arrangements, from the thermal diffuse scatter-
ing of x-rays; but as we see, the principles are not essentially different.
We shall take up this method further in the next chapter, together with
the resulting information regarding the vibrational spectra of solids.
8
Lattice Vibrations of Metals and
Insulators
8-1. Experimental Determination of Vibration Spectra. In the pre-

ceding chapter we have seen that it is possible to investigate the vibrational
spectra of crystals by either the thermal diffuse scattering of x-rays or
the inelastic scattering of neutrons. The method which was first employed
was the x-ray thermal diffuse scattering, but it has proved to be more
difficult experimentally, and has been largely supplanted by neutron scat-
tering. The earlier results by the x-ray method were mostly obtained soon
after the Second World War, before the neutron method had been adapted
to the problem. The difficulty with x-ray scattering arises from a number
of sources. First, we have noted that we can get scattering from each of
the modes of oscillation in the same direction. The scattering direction
depends only on the wave vector k 1 of the disturbance in the crystal
leading to the scattering. This normally is equal to the q of the elastic
wave, and since there are 3g elastic waves all with the same q vector, we
see that they will all scatter in the same direction. The method has been
used almost exclusively for crystals with only one atom in the unit cell,
in which case there are three elastic waves, and in special directions of
propagation, such as the 100 or 111 direction in a cubic crystal, these
reduce to two, on account of degeneracy. Then it is possible to separate
these two by using the fact that the scattering amplitude, as we have seen
in the preceding chapter, depends on the. scalar product k1 · W(s,Z ,q).
Here, we recall, k 1 is the wave normal of the sound wave (if k1 = q, or
we are not concerned with an Umklapp process), and Wis a vector in the
direction of the oscillation of the sth atom in the unit cell (of which there
is only one in this case) in the Zth mode (longitudinal or transverse in this
case), associated with the waye vector q. One will have these scalar
products equal to zero for a mode in which the vibration is transverse
to the scattering wave vector, and by using facts of this type one can
derive information about the different branches of the spectrum. A num-
181
ber of crystals have been investigated, using this method, and useful
results have been obtained. 1
The inelastic neutron scattering is free from the difficulty we have just
been describing. The reason is that one can measure not only the direc-
tion in which the scattered neutrons emerge, but also their energies.
Hence one gets separate information about both quantities of interest,
the w 1 and the k 1 or q of the sound wave. Different waves with the
same wave normal, but different frequencies, will deliver different amounts
of energy to the scattered neutron, where we recall that the energy liw 1 is
large compared with the energy of the incident neutron. Hence in each
direction one finds different groups of neutrons, with different energies,
thereby making it easy to differentiate between different branches of the
spectrum with the same wave vector. It is to be noted that though in
principle the same thing would be found with x-ray scattering, in practice
the frequency w1 of the sound wave makes such a small modification in the
frequency wo of the incident x-ray that the frequency change cannot be
measured experimentally. With the neutrons, on the contrary, the meas-
urement is simple.
It should be mentioned for comparison that with visible light, where one
has spectroscopic methods of much higher resolving power than in the
x-ray region, it is not hard to measure the frequency change of the scattered
light. A standard method of investigating ultrasonics is to inject an
ultrasonic wave into a liquid or solid, and observe the Brillouin or Debye-
Sears scattering of a beam of visible light scattered by the wave fronts of
the sound wave. The change of frequency is easily found, from which one
can find the w1 and k 1 or q of the wave, leading immediately to the velocity
of the sound wave. One might ask why this does not give the information
we are interested in, relating to the spectrum of the vibrations of the
crystal lattice, in case the experiment is made on a crystal. The reason
I
'l
1 The reader will find papers dealing with the subject of thermal diffuse scattering
of x-rays and light in the Bibliography at the end of this volume, by the following f
authors:
M. S. Ahmed (1952), J. L. Amoros (1955-1957), B. W. Batterman (1962), G. H.
Begbie (1947), L. Brillouin (1914, 1922), M. Born (1942), M. Canut (1957, 1961), L.
Cartz (1955), W. Cochran (1964), H. Cole (1952-1959), D. Cribier (1953, 1958), H.
Curien (1952, 1955), P. Debye (1913, 1932), H. Faxen (1918, 1923), J. Hoerni (1952-
1956), W. Hoppe (1956), E. H. Jacobsen (1955, 1958), H. A. Jahn (1942), R. E.
Joynson (1954), Y. Kashiwase (1965), M. A. Krivoglaz (1957-1961), A. Laberrigue
(1959), J. Laval (1938-1941, 1958), K. Lonsdale (1941-1942), P. Olmer (1948), S.
Parathasarathy (Hl56), A. Paskin (1958), P. Phariseau (1957), L. P. Potapov (1953),
S. C. Prasad (1955), E. Prince (1953), G. N. Ramachandran (1951), E. Sandor (1959),
K. Sarginson (1942), A. A. Smirnov (1959), S. Takagi (1958), M. Velasco (1954),
E. H. Wagner (1951-1959), C. B. Walker (1956), W. H. Zachariasen (1940-1941), C.
Zener (1936).
Sec. 8-1] LATTICE VIBRATIONS OF METALS AND INSULATORS 183
is that the q or k1 of an ordinary sound wave is very small compared with

the dimensions of the Brillouin zone, so that the information that .can be
found in this way tells about the elastic vibration spectrum only in the
immediate neighborhood of the origin of reciprocal space, or the center
of the Brillouin zone.
To find information about sound waves whose q vectors cover the whole
Brillouin zone, one must first have the sound waves, and must next be
able to investigate them. Present technique does not allow one to gen-
erate sound waves of sufficiently short wavelength for the purpose; one is
forced to rely on the thermal waves which are always present in the
crystal. And as far as investigating them goes, Bragg's law.}.. = 2d sin 8
shows, since sin 8 must be less than unity, that X must be less than 2d,
twice the distance between wave fronts of the acoustic wave, in order to
use the Brillouin scattering methods. Since at the edge of the Brillouin
zone the value of the acoustical wavelength approaches twice the inter-
atomic distance, we see that one must use wavelengths of the electro-
magnetic waves comparable with interatomic distances, in order to get
information covering the whole Brillouin zone. This limits one to x-rays,
if one is using the electromagnetic spectrum, or to neutrons, which have
wavelengths in the same range.
These considerations indicate that the neutron scattering method is best
for investigating the elastic spectrum. Its only disadvantage is that neu-
tron beams from any but rather large reactors are weak enough so that
long exposures are required to investigate the scattering, and the cost
of operating reactors is such that these experiments are very expensive.
Consequently the situation has arisen that most of the experimental work
in this field has been done at the various government laboratories which
have large reactors available. Among the leading programs in this area
have been those at the Chalk River Laboratory in Canada, under Brock-
house, and at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in the United States,
under the late D. J. Hughes, and his associates Palevsky, Eisenhauer,
and others. 1
As a-result of work to date, we have reliable information about the
elastic spectra of a number of metals, of the semiconductors germanium
and silicon, and about a number of alkali halides. For the cases of those
1 References in the Bibliography at the end of this volume to papers in this field will
be found under the following authors:

G. E. Bacon (1953-1955), B. N. Brockhouse {1952-1962), B. Buras (1959), R. S.
Carter (1956-1957), A. E. Dixon (1963), G. Dolling (1962), C. M. Eisenhauer (1958),
A. Ghose {1959), D. J. Hughes {1959), M. A. Krivoglaz (1957-1961), G. G. E. Low
(1962), H. Palevsky (1959), I. Pelah (1957-1959), G. Placzek (1954), G. Safford
(1963), A. Sjolander (1958), G. L. Squires {1956), A. T. Stewart (1958), L. V. Tarasov
(1961), G. H. Vineyard (1958). ·
184 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCT'ORS, AND METALS [Chap. 8
metals which were also investigated by the method of thermal diffuse

scattering of x-rays, the results of the two methods agree well. And as we
have mentioned earlier, when the lattice specific heat, and other thermal ·
properties of the crystals, are computed from the elastic spectra found
from the experiments, the results agree well with thermal experiments.
We shall now go on in the next section to the nature of the lattice spectra
found experimentally for these various types of elements and compounds.
8-2. Results of Experimental Determinations of Lattice Spectra. Let
us start our discussion with the vibration spectrum of metallic sodium,
which has been determined by neutron s-cattering. 1 In Fig. 8-1 we show
the frequencies of the transverse and longitudinal acoustic modes as func-
tions of wave vector, along symmetry directions in the Brillouin zone,
arranged much as in the corresponding treatment of energy-band theory.
V
4x10 12
3 .... ·\. j:x••••··•t
X
• )(
.
xx!•xxx>
•
. L )(
x •'\ L •
~·
2
~ ••
/\.
X
r
i/f H
•
p N L r
FIG. 8-1. Vibration frequencies of metallic sodium as functions of wave vector, along
100 (,l), 110 (2:), 111 (A), and other directions o·n surface of Brillouin zone. [From
Woods, Brockhouse, March, Steuart, and Bowers, Phys. Rev., 128:1112 (1962).) Cir-
cles, longitudinal mode; crosses, transverse modes. Straight lines represent long-
wave limits determined from macroscopic elastic constants.
Along the directions 001 and lll, or t:. and A, we have a degenerate
transverse mode, with two directions of polarization at right angles to
the wave vector, and a nondegenerate longitudinal mode. In the direc-
tion ~. or 0ll, the symmetry does not lead to the degeneracy, and the
three modes are separated. In all these directions the longitudinal mode
has a higher frequency than the transverse mode. This is a general situa-
tion: the restoring force for longitudinal oscillations, in which the material
is compressed and expanded, is larger than for transverse oscillations, in
which there is a shearing motion. There is, of course, no optical branch
for this case, since sodium, with one atom in its body-centered cubic unit
cell, has only the acoustic branch. Along each of the three directions
mentioned, full lines are drawn in the figure, representing the limiting
straight lines corning from measured low-frequency elastic constants of
the crystal, from which the velocity of sound, giving the slope of the
curve, can be computed. It is clear that these straight lines give cor-
1 A. D. B. Woods, B. N. Brockhouse, R. II. March, A. T. Stewart, and R. Bowers,
Phys. Rev., 128 :1112 (1962); Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 79 :440 (1962).
Sec. 8-2] LATTICE VIBRATIONS Of METAL:S AND INSULATORS 185
rectly the limiting values of the curves for low frequencies. It is neces-
sary, to get this good agreement, to use elastic constants found at the
same temperature (in this case 90°K) at which the neutron scattering
measurements are made. The results of Fig. 8-1, in which the reader will
realize that each of the points represents direct experimental results, with-
out any theoretical hypotheses, indicate the accuracy with which the
elastic spectra can be found experimentally by this technique.
Results similar to these for sodium have been obtained for a number
of other metals with one atom in the unit cell, including aluminum and
V
7x 1011 ........ .... - - - Point ion model ,.,.,,.-
- - Shell model ,,,,,,
'' /
' .... ,...,_
6
5
L
-....' y / /
/
/
/
/
/
4
..
T • • •
3
r X K r _A L
FIG. 8-2. Vibration spectum of Nal. [As determined by Woods, Cochran, and Brock-
house, Phys. Rev., 119 :980 (1960).] Optical branches above, acoustic branches
below. The dashed Jines represent calculations by the point ion model, the full Jines
by the shell model, as described in Sec. 9-5.
vanadium. For comparison, let us now consider an alkali halide, with

two different atoms per unit cell. In Fig. 8-2 we show the similar results
for the crystal sodium iodide, 1 in fewer directions in the Brillouin zone.
In this case, in addition to the observed points and the straight lines
derived from the elastic constants, two sets of curves are drawn, derived
from two attempts to calculate the curves theoretically, which we shall
take up in Sec. 9-5. The full curves, found from the so-called shell model,
are fairly successful in reproducing the experimental points. For this
crystal, with two at.oms per unit cell, we see clearly the lower, acoustic
branch of the spectrum, looking quite similar to the case of sodium, but
also the upper optical branch, also consisting of a twofold degenerate
1 A. D. B. Woods, W. Cochran, and B. N. Brockhouse, Phys. Rev., 119 :980 (1960).
transverse mode, and a nondegenerate longitudinal mode, so that we have

the correct six modes, equal to 3g, where g = 2.
As a third example, we show in Fig. 8-3 the vibrational frequencies
for germanium. 1 This crystal, like the alkali halides, has two atoms
per unit cell, but in this case they are of course alike. In this case, sym-
metry demands that the longitudinal acoustic and optical modes should
be degenerate at the point X, at the boundary of the Brillouin zone along
the 100, or .6., direction. This degeneracy is somewhat similar to that
found in the energy-band structure of the same material, as shown in
Volume 2, Fig. 10-16. The vibrational spectrum for silicon is found to
be similar to that for germanium, as would be expected.
II
9xl0'2 • •• • •
• • • • • ••
8 •• •
7 •
6 •• •
5 •• •
•
4 •
3
• • ••
2 • • • ••
1
0
r A L r ti X
Fm. 8-3. Vibration spectrum of germanium. [From Brockhouse and Iyengar, Phys.
Rev., 111 :747 (1958).]
The three cases which we have illustrated are typical of the rather
restricted set of cases which have been worked out experimentally. As
we have mentioned, we shall discuss the attempts to derive these spec-
trum distributions theoretically later in Sec. 9-5. Before doing so, how-
ever, we shall come in the next section to a discussion of an interesting
and well-known phenomenon, the so-called residual rays, or Reststrahlen.
This is a phenomenon met with the alkali halides, and similar ionic
crystals, whose study dates back to the early 1900s. Rubens, and vari-
ous other experimenters, were studying the reflection of crystals in the
very far infrared part of the spectrum. They found a maximum of
reflecting power at a fairly definite frequency, which was observed by
allowing the radiation, with a continuous frequency distribution, to be
multiply refleeted by mirrors of the material concerned. When the
resulting radiation, after many reflections, was examined spectroscopi-
1 B. N. Brockhouse and P. K. Iyengar, Phys. Rev., 111 :747 (1958).

cally, it was found to be nearly monochromatic, showing that this particu-

lar frequency was more highly reflected than any other.
The interpretation which was given at the time to these residual rays
(so called because they were the only ones left after the multiple reflec-
tion), was that the whole lattice of positive ions was oscillating with
respect to the lattice of negative ions. This led to an oscillating dipole
set up by the crystal as a whole, and crude estimates of the restoring
force for such an oscillation indicated that the resonance should come
in the part of the spectrum where it was observed. Now, with our inde-
pendent study of the vibration spectrum, we can verify the correctness
of this hypQthesis regarding the residual rays. It was clear from the
theory of Born and von Karman what was going on. If we investigate
the nature of the transverse optical branch of the spectrum of an alkali
halide, at the center of the Brillouin zone, or for q = 0, we find that the
two ions in the unit cell have in fact oscillations in opposite directions,
and since the wavelength is infinite for q = 0, all unit cells of the crystal
are behaving alike. In other words, the oscillation concerned in the
phenomenon of residual rays is just that arising from the limiting value
of the transverse optical mode at q = 0. Hence the ·observed residual
ray frequency should agree with the corresponding limit of the transverse
optical frequency at q = 0, as found in Fig. 8-2, for instance. It is found
experimentally that this agreement is actually observed. Thus one can
tie in the vibration spectra as found by neutron scattering, not only with
the observed elastic constants of the crystal, but also with the observed
residual rays, or infrared peak of reflecting power. This high reflecting
power, however, comes at a resonance frequency in the optical index of
refraction of the crystal, and this suggests a relation between optical
properties and mechanical oscillations, which we have not mentioned
hitherto. We shall start our discussion of this relation in the next
section.
8-3. The Interaction of Acoustic and Electromagnetic Waves in
Crystals. In the interpretation of residual rays which we have just
described, we have a motion of a lattice of positive ions with respect to
a lattice of negative ions. If we look at this in a broad way, it consists
simply of an oscillating electric dipole moment, arising not from the
motion of electrons, as in our earlier discussion, but from the motion of
the ions as a whole. If there is a linear restoring force, as our treatment
of lattice vibrations implies, we have all the requirements for the applica-
tion of the Drude-Lorentz theory, which must be modified only by using
for them which appears in the equations a suitable reduced mass of the
ions rather than the mass of the electron. We shall start our discussion
of the residual rays by deriving the dielectric constant as in Eq. (4-11),
but handling the Lorentz correction as in Eq. (4-51). For the present
188 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chap, 8
we leave out discussion of the damping term in the equation of motion.

Then we have
(8-1)
where N is the number of positive ions per unit volume (if we assume that
they move with respect to an equal number of negative ions), m is the
reduced mass of the ions, w 0 is the natural resonant frequency in the
absence of the Lorentz correction, and where on account of the Lorentz
correction the resonant frequency is modified to the value
v'w~ - N e2/3mEo (8-2)

It is this frequency of Eq. (8-2) which the residual-ray experiment would
be measuring, according to this very simplified theory.
In our discussion of the preceding section, we have found it convenient
to plot the frequency of a wave, w, as a function of the magnitude of the
wave vector, k, or q. These quantities are connected by the relation
(8-3)
where c is the velocity of light in empty space, as we see from Eqs. (4-17)
and (4-18), plus the fact that the phase velocity of the wave is w/k. If
we insert Eq. (8-3) into Eq. (8-1), we have an equation relating w and k.
In Fig. 8-4 we have plotted w as a function of k, from this equation,
combining the resulting curve with that of was a function of k for sodium
iodide, from Fig. 8-2; we indicate propagation along the 100 direction
only. It is the features of Fig. 8-4 at small k which are of interest here,
and which arise from Eq. (8-1); they are not present in Fig. 8-2. Let us
discuss these features.
These features at small k should really be squeezed even farther to the
left than is indicated, so far that they would not show at all on this scale,
and we have had to draw them incorrectly to make them visible. In the
first place, we have an almost vertical straight line through the origin,
given by the equation k = w/c, or w = kc. As we have just mentioned
the ratio w/k gives the phase velocity. We have not pointed out before
that in the acoustical branch of the spectrum, where the tangent to the
curves at k = 0 measures the low-frequency velocity by its slope w/k,
the fact that the curves are not straight indicates dispersion: the velocity
of the acoustic waves decreases for high frequency. The slope of the
curves, dw/dk, measures the group velocity, as we recall, and this is differ-
ent in such cases from the phase velocity. Now we can understand the
curve w = kc. This is a straight line representing propagation with the
velocity w/k, or c, the velocity of light in free space. Since this velocity
is many powers of 10 greater than the velocity of acoustic waves, the slope
of this curve should be so great that it would be practically vertical; but
as stated above, we have modified this by using a smaller slope, so as to
make this part of the figure visible.
The intersection of this almost vertical line with the curve of w versus
k for the transverse optical mode is what we have considered in our
elementary treatment of residual rays in the preceding section. In the
phenomenon of absorption of light by the crystal, a photon of light is
annihilated, and a phonon of elastic vibration is produced, taking up both
w
Electromagnetic
mode
...-Longitudinal opticol mode

w, ___,.:.;.~--1'-Transverse optical mode
Electromagnetic
mode
- Longitudinal acoustic mode
-Transverse acoustic mode
r t:,. X
Frn. 8-4. Vibration spectrum of Nal, as in Fig. 8-2, with schematic indication of
effect of interactian with electromagnetic mode of oscillation, at very small wave
number or very long wavelength. [As discussed by Huang, Nature, 167:779 (1951).)
the energy and the momentum of the photon. The conservation laws are
obeyed at the point where the curve of w versus k for -the transverse
optical mode, and the curve w = kc for the photon, intersect, for there
they both have the same frequency (and hence the same energy), and the
same k (and hence the same momentum). Since the curve w = kc is
nearly a vertical line, this means that the frequency of residual-ray
absorption is practically the value indicated in Fig. 8-4 as wr at which
the transverse optical curve intersects the axis of ordinates, which is the
value suggested by the elementary treatment.
The true situation, however, is more complicated than this. We noted
above that the dielectric constant equaled (kc/w) 2 for the electromagnetic
wave propagated in the dielectric medium. This leads to the equation

k2 = w2
c2
(1 + w~ - Ne2/meo
Ne 2/3meo - w2
) (8-4)
as we see from Eq. (8-1). This equation, as we noted earlier, gives lkl
as a function of w through the region of anomalous dispersion in the
neighborhood of the residual-ray frequency, and it is this equation which
is plotted on the left side of Fig. 8-4. This represents the propagation of
an electromagnetic wave in the dielectric medium (with neglect of the
absorptive term in the equation of motion of the vibrating particles).
Let us examine the various features of the curve, which merely represents
the anomalous dispersion phenomenon, when interpreted in terms of a
curve of w versus lkl.
First let us consider the case where the frequency w is small compared
with the value v w~ - N e2/3me 0 • Then we see that
k2 = w2
c2
(l + w5 -NeN/meo
2
e /3meo
2
) (8-5)
For this part of the curve, w is proportional to lkl, and the velocity,
w/lkl, is less than c, being in fact simply the velocity of an electromagnetic
wave in a medium whose index of refraction is given by the square root of
the dielectric constant given in the parentheses in Eq. (8-5). This leads
to the straight-line portion of the curve shown for small wand lkl, with a
slope somewhat smaller than the value c characteristic of the velocity of
light in empty space.
Next, as w approaches the value y w5 - Ne 2/3me 0 , we see from Eq.
(8-4) that the wave vector lkl becomes infinite. What is actually happen-
ing here is that this curve is merging with the one which we have drawn
giving the value of w versus !kl for the transverse optical mode; there is
nothing in our simplified theory to give the departure of this curve from a
straight line, and in fact this departure comes only when the wavelength
gets small compared with the free-space wavelength of the electromagnetic
wave concerned. In other words, we have a mode of oscillation which, at
frequencies much less than the one concerned, is really an electromagnetic
wave, while near this frequency it becomes an elastic wave. Born and
Huang, 1 to whom the discussion of the present section is due, have
investigated the relative magnitudes of the electromagnetic field vectors,
and of the amplitude of mechanical oscillation, as we go through this
region, and have shown that in the almost vertical part of the curve the
electromagnetic vectors are large and the mechanical amplitude is small,
1 M. Born and K. Huang, "Dynamical Theory of Crystal Lattices," Oxford Uni-
versity Press, New York, 1954. K. Huang, Nature, 167 :779 (1951); Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A208 :352 (1951).
while in the almost horizontal part the situation is reversed. In other

words, there is no perfectly clear-cut distinction between an electromag-
netic and a mechanical wave in this region, merely a rapid transition from
the one to the other. It is only the transverse mechanical vibration
which is concerned, for it is the only one which can interact with the
transverse electromagnetic wave. It is now plain that the frequency
v w5 - N e2 /3mE 0 where we are seeing these phenomena is the same as the
frequency WT at which the transverse-optical curve cuts the axis of ordi-
nates, and is also the same as the residual-ray frequency.
Now let us consider the next features of the electromagnetic treatment
of the problem. There is a range of frequencies for which the wave
vector Jkl, given in Eq. (8-4), is imaginary, so that there is no real propaga-
tion, only a damped oscillation. This comes between the frequency WT
which we have described above, and a frequency for which !kl is zero, so
that the expression indicating the dielectric constant is zero. We shall
write down the equation for this in a moment, but in the meantime let us
note the remarkable fact that this higher frequency is the same as the
frequency WL which is the limit of the curve of longitudinal optical vibra-
tion as k goes to zero. The reason why these are the same can be seen
from Maxwell's equations, using the same type of argument which we
have employed in Sec. 5-2, where we were taking up plasma oscillations.
We recall that these were longitudinal electromagnetic waves, and we
observed that this is possible only where the dielectric constant goes to
zero, so that D, and div D, which is proportional to the charge density,
can vanish. We thus see that this limiting value of the longitudinal
optical mode, corresponding to long wavelength, must come at a point
where the dielectric constant vanishes.
We see, then, that our curve of w versus !kl for the electromagnetic field
in the dielectric starts from zero !kl when w = WL, and for higher fre-
quencies lkl approaches !kl = w/c, or the curve representing the velocity
of light in free space. We note this in the asymptotic way in which the
curve approaches the free-space curve at the top of Fig. 8-4. Here the
curve lies above the straight line w = kc. This means that the phase
velocity is greater than the velocity of light, or the index of refraction less
than unity, a familiar fact when we have passed beyond the resonant fre-
quency in the phenomenon of anomalous dispersion. The group velocity,
however, given by the slope of the curve, is always less than c.
The net result of considering the interaction with the electromagnetic
wave, then, has been to introduce an extra branch into the curve, so that
for any value of lk/ we have three transven,e modes, the transverse
acoustical mode, the transverse optical, and the electromagnetic mode;
but the two latter interact with each other, so that the wave of one type
merges continuously into that of the other type, and the curves of w versus
lkl for these two modes do not cross. Between the frequencies WT and WL
there is absorption of the transverse modes. If we introduce a real
absorption term into the differential equation, the absorption maximum
proves to come at WT, verifying the observation that this is the residual-ray
frequency (for the high reflectivity going with the residual-ray phenomenon
is associated with an absorption maximum). The experiments show a
wide range of absorption about this frequency, presumably connected
with the phenomenon we have just been observing.
We see that we now have the material for giving formulas relating the
frequencies WT, wL, and the features of the dielectric constant. These
formulas were originaily derived by Lyddane and coworkers, and by
Frohlich and l\fott, 1 and have been recently stressed by Cochran. 2 We
recall that WT is the frequency for which the denominator in the dielectric-
constant formula goes to zero, and WL is that for which the whole dielectric
constant goes to zero. Hence we have
wi = w5 - Ne 2/3mEo
Ne /mEo
1 + -~-~--~- 2
-wi + wg - Ne /3mEo 2
=0 (8-6)
w;, = wfi + 2Ne /3mEo 2
from which we find that

w5 + 2Ne2/3mfo 1 + Ne 2/mE 0 Ko
(8-7)
w5 - N e2/3mEo w5 - N e2/3mEo
where Ko is the dielectric constant at zero frequency, and Koo is the dielec-
tric constant at infinite frequency, here unity. This is the relation of
Lyddane, Sachs, and Teller, referred to above, between the limiting values
of the longitudinal and transverse optical modes at zero lkl, and the
dielectric constant. It has been shown, and we shall prove in the next
section, that it holds under much more general conditions than the simple
case we have considered here. In particular, if we include electronic
polarizability of the ions, as we shall discuss later, it still holds, where
now we are to interpret K as the dielectric constant at a frequency high
00
compared with the infrared residual-ray frequency where the anomalous

dispersion occurs, but low compared with the ultraviolet resonant fre-
quency of the electronic transitions leading to the electronic polarizability.
In Sec. 4-4 we have considered the possibility that the Lorentz correc-
tion N e 2 /3nuo arising from electronic polarization, which we were discuss-
' R. H. Lyddane and K. F. Herzfeld, Phys. Rev., 64 :846 (1938). R. H. Lyddane,
K. F. Herzfeld, and R. G. Sachs, Phys. Rev., 68:1008 (1940). R.H. Lyddane, R. G.
Sachs, and E. Teller, Phys. Rev., 69:673 (1941). H. Frohlich and N. F. Mott, Proc.
Roy. Soc. (London), A171 :496 (1939).
2 W. Cochran, Phys. Rev. Letters, 3 :412 (1959); further papers in Bibliography.
ing in that section, might become so large as to reduce the resonant fre-
quency V wfi - Ne 2/3mE 0 to zero, where w 0 in that section referred to an
electronic resonance frequency. We pointed out that this would result
in an infinite dielectric constant at zero frequency, leading to the phe-
nomenon of ferroelectricity. We pointed out that this was not likely
to happen, but mentioned that as a result of the joint action of electronic
and lattice polarization we might have such a situation. We have now
considered the lattice polarization, and have seen that it makes a con-
tribution similar to that of the electronic polarization. It is obvious
that we should next ask how to combine these two effects, since a real
crystal composed of ions, like an alkali halide, will have both types of
polarizability. We shall take this topic up next.
In the meantime, however, we may note that, as Cochran (Zoe. cit.)
has pointed out, if the denominator in Eq. (8-7) goes to zero, which is
what would lead to the infinite dielectric constant at zero frequency, as
in a ferroelectric, we should have wi/w~ becoming infinite, which would
imply that WT should go to zero. This observation of Cochran's, that
the frequency of the transverse optical mode should go to zero in a ferro-
electric case, can be proved for much more general models than we have
used here, so that it is undoubtedly a valid conclusion. In Sec. 8-5 we
shall discuss an experimental verification of this prediction.
8-4. Lattice and· Electronic Polarization. In the preceding sections
we have been seeing that to a certain approximation we can handle the
effect of the lattice vibrations on the dielectric constant of an ionic crystal
such as an alkali halide simply as a resonance term in the Drude-Lorentz
theory. From Fig. 8-4 we see that this is allowed for wavelengths large
compared with the lattice spacing; as we go to smaller wavelengths, or
larger wave vectors, the theory must merge somehow into a more elabo-
rate theory of the lattice vibrations, and must take account of the disper-
sion of these vibrations. The resonance frequency which we must assume
for the residual-ray type of lattice oscillation is given by Eq. (8-2), if we
are assuming the correctness of the Lorentz factor for this particular case.
We realize, however, as we have been mentioning in the preceding
section, that there are other contributions to the dielectric constant, or
refractive index, of an ionic crystal: there is the electronic polarizability,
describable by the method of Drude and Lorentz, with resonant fre-
quencies which, according to the quantum theory of dispersion, as given
by Kramers and Heisenberg, are associated with electronic transitions
from the ground electronic state of the crystal to excited states.
In Volume 2, Figs. 10-27 and 10-28, we have seen the general nature
of the energy bands of an alkali halide. There is a gap of considerable
amount between the topmost occupied band [for NaCl, that arising from
the CJ- 3p atomic orbitals, if we describe the bands in the language of the
194 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND MET~LS [Chap. 8
method of linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO)] and the bot-

tom of the empty conduction band (composed of excited CI- states, and
the Na 3s and higher states, for NaCl). These gaps are known experi-
mentally to lie rather far in the ultraviolet; it is there that strong absorp-
tion sets in, the crystal being quite transparent at lower frequencies. 1
The absorption cannot actually be described entirely correctly in the
energy-band language. Rather, one has the formation of excitons, com-
plexes formed from the interaction of an electron in the conduction band,
and a hole in the valence band, executing orbits around each other under
the action of the Coulomb attraction between them. We shall postpone
the discussion of exciton formation until the next volume, though they
are mentioned briefly in Appendix 2. However, this makes a relatively
small change in the situation, and for a first elementary discussion, we
may assume that there is a strong absorption frequency for an alkali
halide in the far ultraviolet. There are, of course, still further absorp-
tions in the shorter wave region, arising from the excitation of electrons
from the inner shells of the atoms.
When we take all these absorptions into account, we have a formula
for the index of refraction of the nature of Eq. (4-12). As we indicated
in Sec. 4-4, we can absorb the Lorentz correction into a modification of
the resonant frequencies Wk- The lowest of the resonant frequencies in
Eq. (4-12) will be that associated with the lattice vibrations; we see in
the preceding section that for it we must use WT in place of the resonant
frequency wk, and must use a reduced mass for the ions in place of m.
For the electronic transitions, we must use the Kramers-Heisenberg
dispersion formula, Eq. (4-48), with frequencies which, as we have said,
lie in the far ultraviolet and x-ray parts of the spectrum. The contribu-
tions of these electronic terms in the polarizability to the dielectric con-
stant, as given in Eq. (4-12), will be practically constant, independent
of frequency, all through the infrared region in which the residual rays
are located. If we call the dielectric constant arising from these elec-
tronic terms in the polarizability Koo, the value of dielectric constant at
frequencies very high compared with WT (though not, of course, really
infinite frequency), we may then rewrite the equations of Sec. 8-3 in a
form including the electronic as well as lattice polarizability, making no
specific assumptions about the Lorentz correction.
In place of Eq. (8-1), we have
(8-8)
where as before in is a reduced mass for the ions. Here we recall that Koo
goes through an anomalous dispersion region in the ultraviolet, but is
1 See R. Hilsch and R. W. Pohl, Z. Physik, 59:812 (1930).
constant through the infrared. In place of Eq. (8-4) we have
k 2 = w2
c2
(K + Ne
"'
/me
w} - w
2 0)
2
(8-9)
In place of Eq. (8-6) we again have the longitudinal frequency WL deter-

mined by the vanishing of the dielectric constant. That is, we have
+ Ne 2/mto = 0 (8-10)
K.., 2 2
WT - WL
We then find in place of Eq. (8-7)
(8-11)
where as before Ko is the dielectric constant at zero frequency. In other

words, the relation wi/ wi = Ko/ K.., of Lyddane, Sachs, and Teller holds
here as in the more restricted case of the preceding section, and is not
dependent on any special assumptions about the validity of the Lorentz
correction.
It is interesting to ask what sort of graph we find for w as a function
of k, in case we have electronic resonances such as we have just been
considering. In Fig. 8-5 we show schematically what is to be expected.
Here the infrared part of the frequency spectrum has shrunk down to
the lower part of the diagram, and we have a new, practically horizontal
curve of w versus lkl, with a gap above it, in the neighborhood of the
ultraviolet absorption. The gap, as we now realize, corresponds to a
frequency range in which only a damped electromagnetic wave can be
propagated through the crystal, rather than a sinusoidal wave.
We have mentioned on several occasions the possibility that the trans-
verse optical frequency WT might go to zero, and simultaneously the
dielectric constant at zero frequency, Ko, might become infinite, as in a
ferroelectric material, which we shall discuss in the next section. If we
are using the hypotheses of Eq. (8-7), this would demand that Ne 2/3meo
should become as great as w~. In actual crystals, the values of Ne 2 /3meo
are much too small for this to occur. However, by combining two varia-
tions in the theory, one can get circumstances under which WT might
actually become zero. First, we must include electronic polarization;
second, we may assume that the ordinary Lorentz factor is too small, and
that the correct value should be b times as great, where b is a quantity
greater than unity. As we shall point out in the next section, both these
situations may actually occur in ferroelectric crystals. Let us then ask
how our calculation of the dielectric constant would be modified if these
two changes were made.
Let us start with Eq. (4-20). In place of the local field E + P/3£o,
we shall use E + bP /3£ 0• In place of the term
2: (k) Nke 2/m . (8-12)

Wk - w2 + iwgk
we shall take only two terms, one representing the lattice oscillations,
the other a constant term representing the electronic contribution, which
we set equal to a constant, since we are assuming that we are working
w
i--vw=ic
Ultraviolet { ~- Optical
resonance
,Electromagnetic
mode
LO
Lattice
TO } vibration
Infrared { L~
TA
modes
r
Fw. 8-5. Diagram similar to Fig. 8-4, but carried to much higher frequency, to
indicate schematically the effect of the electronic resonance at ultraviolet frequency
on the curve of w versus k.
at an infrared frequency, small compared with the resonance frequency

of this oscillation. In the term representing lattice oscillations, we omit
the damping term, as we have been doing in our discussion of the present
chapter. Thus we replace the term of Eq. (8-12) by
+ Ne 2/m
a " 2
(8-13)
Wo - W
Then in place of Eq. (4-20) we have
p = (E +bP) (a+ Wfi -

3£o
Ne 2/m)
w2
(8-14)
If we solve for IPI/IEI and use the equation Ke = 1 + IP\/EolEJ, we find
Ke = l + a/Eo + (Ne 2/mE 0 )/(w~ - w2) (8-15)

1 - (b/3)[a/e 0 + (Ne 2/mE 0 )/(w5 - w2)]
The dielectric constant at high frequency, the quantity called K 00 in Eq.
(8-8), is found by setting w = oo. That is, we have
a/Eo
Koo = l +1- (b/3)(a/Eo) (8-16)
We can use this equation to rewrite the constant a in terms of K 00 •
Let us now manipulate Eq. (8-15) so as to put it into a form similar to

that of Eq. (8-8). As a first step, we multiply numerator and denominator
of the right-hand term of Eq. (8-16) by the quantity which appears in the
denominator in Eq. (8-15). We then have
K _ 1 + a/Eo 1 - (b/3)[a/Eo + (Ne /me )/(w5 -2 0 w2 )]
"" - 1 - ab/3E 0 1 - (b/3)[a/e 0 + (Ne /meo)/(w5 -
2 w2 )]
= 1 + a/Eo - (ab/3Eo)(Ne 2/mEo)/[(w5 - w2 )(1 - ab/3E 0)]
1 - ab/3e 0 - (b/3)(Ne 2/me 0 )/(w5 - w2)
(Ne 2 /me 0 )/[(w5 - w2 )(1 - ab/3eo)]
(8-17)
= Ke - 1 - ab/3e 0 - (b/3)(Ne 2 /mEo)/(w5 - w2 )
We now use Eq. (8-16) to eliminate the constant a. We have

a K00 - 1
(8-18)
Eo 1 + (b/3)(K 00 - 1)
from which we find that
1
1 - ab/3eo = 1 + (b/3)(Koo - 1) (8-19)
We now substitute from Eq. (8-19) into Eq. (8-17), solve for Kc, and
multiply numerator and denominator of the fraction by (w~ - w2 ) (1 - ab/
3Eo). The result then can be written in the form
[I (b/3)(K +
1)]2(Ne 2 /mE 0 ) 00 -
Ke= Koo+ w5 - (b/3)[1 (b/3)(K +

l)](Ne 2 /meo) - w2 00 - ( 8- 20)
This equation differs from Eq. (8-1) in three respects. First, the constant,
nonresonant term is K rather than unity. Second, there is a factor
00
[1 + (b/3)(K 00 - 1)]2 (8-21)
multiplying the resonant term. Third, and most important, the fre-
quency wr, for which the resonant term becomes infinite, is given by
wi = w~ - (b/3)[1 + (b/3)(K 00 - l)](Ne 2/mEo) (8-22)

198 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS (Chap. 8
rather than by the expression wi = w~ - Ne 2/3meo of Eq. (8-6). In

other words, the effect of the polarization term in tending to cancel w~,
and reduce the transverse frequency WT to zero, is greater than given in
Eq. (8-1) by an enhancement factor
b[l + (b/3)(K.. - 1)] (8-23)
Even if the Lorentz correction can be used, so that b equals unity, this
factor is still equal to 1 + (K .. - 1)/3, which can be considerable if the
high-frequency dielectric constant Kao is much greater than unity. If in
addition bis considerably larger than unity, the enhancement can become
very large. In the next section we shall take up the actual situation in
ferroelectrics, and shall show that it is probable that the enhancement
arising from these two effects is actually great enough to produce an
infinite static dielectric constant (very nearly), and a nearly vanishing
transverse frequency, in actual cases.
T, T
Frn. 8-6. Spontaneous polarization of a ferroelectric, as function of temperature

(schematic).
8-6. The Nature of Ferroelectricity. A good many crystals, of which

BaTi03, barium titanate, is an example show a remarkable set of properties
known by the name of ferroelectricity, by analogy with the magnetic
properties of ferromagnetic substances. Above a certain critical tem-
perature, T,, the dielectric constant is approximately given by the relation
constant
Ke= T - Tc (8-24)
so that it becomes approximately infinite at the critical temperature

(actually, it becomes very large, but not infinite). Below the critical
point, the crystal takes on a spontaneous electric polarization, the polariza-
tion varying as a function of the temperature as shown schematically in
Fig. 8-6. At the same time that this spontaneous polarization sets in,
there is a slight deformatioq of the crystal, both a modification of the unit
cell, and more importantly, a relative displacement of positive and negative
ions, as if they were setting up a permanent polarization arising from ionic
displacement.
Almost every case of ferroelectricity is different frmn every other one.
In many caies, the ions whose displacement is effective in producing the
polarization are hydrogen ions or protons, which appear to be moving
from one potential minimum to another. An example of such a crystal

is KH2P04, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, in which the motion of the
hydrogens is instrumental in the behavior. 1 A quite different type of
ferroelectric crystal is barium titanate. 2 This crystal, in its high-tem-
perature form, has the perovskite structure (see Volume 2, p. 68). This,
as we recall, is a simple cubic structure, in which we have a titanium atom
at the center of the cubic unit cell, bariums at the corners, and oxygens
at the face centers.. This is the simplest type of structure which ordinarily
shows ferroelectric behavior. Since there are no hydrogens, the polariza-
tion must arise from relative displacements of lattices of positive ions with
respect to the negative ions.
Oxygen I
-----44------ Barium
!
Titanium
Oxygen II
Frn. 8-7. Relative displacements of ions in permanent polarization of BaTiOa,

[From Frazer, Danner, and Pepinsky (loc. cit.).] The actual displacements, in multi-
ples of the edge of the cube, are as follows: Ba, 0.004; Ti, 0.018; 0 I, -0.019; 0 II,
-0.010. These values are all greater by 0.004 than the numbers in the paper quoted
above, which are given on the basis of stationary bariums. The numbers chosen here
give approximately zero displacement of net charge, if an entirely ionic state is
assumed, Ba+-TiH(0-•) 3 •
For some time the details of these displacements were not known.
However, the neutron diffraction work of Frazer, Danner, and Pepinsky
[Phys. Rev., 100 :745 (1955)] has shown the nature of the displacements.
Below a critical temperature, the oxygen ions displace along a 100 direc-
tion, while the titaniums and bariums displace in the opposite direction.
Each different set of ions displaces by different amounts, but the general
situation is a relative motion of the positive and negative ions. The
actual displacements are shown in Fig. 8-7.
1 For references on this substance, see papers in the Bibliography by J. West (1930),
J. C. Slater (1941), B. C. Frazer (1953), S. W. Peterson (1953), H. A. Levy (1954),

R. S. Pease (1954), G. E. Bacon (1953-1955), G. Shirane (1955). The last-named ref-
erence, G. Shirane, F. Jona, and,R. Pepinsky, Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs., 43 :1738 (1955),
is a general review of ferroelectricity.
2 See papers in the Bibliography by A. F. Devonshire (1949-1954), J. C. Slater
(1950), B. C. Frazer (1955), G. Shirane (1955), W. Cochran (1960).

The details of the phenomenon have not been worked out since these
exact displacements were known. However, the treatments of Devonshire
and of the present author (loc. cit.), carried out before the neutron work,
explain the general outlines of the phenomenon. The work of the present
author, in particular, considered the effect of the Lorentz factor and the
electronic polarizability in enhancing the effect of the polarization arising
from ionic motion. It was assumed in the latter work, for lack of better
information, that the ionic motion concerned was that of the titanium
with respect to the oxygens. Though this has not proved to be exactly
the situation, still it furnishes a not unreasonable first approximation.
The Lorentz factor was considered, leading to a complicated situation,
since the polarization of each of the types of ions would exert fields at the
position of each type of ions. However, it was found that the effective
Lorentz correction at the position of a titanium ion was some three times
as large as the standard Lorentz value. This came about on account of
the oxygen ions close above and below the titanium, as we see in Fig. 8-7.
We may, then, roughly take b = 3 in the enhancement factor of Eq.
(8-23). Furthermore, the dielectric constant K"' of barium titanate at
high frequency is approximately 5. 76. Hence the enhancement factor
is of the order of magnitude of 3(5.76) = 17.3. Actually, a somewhat
smaller value was found. This is large enough, however, to make it
plausible that even a relatively small term (Ne 2 /m~o) could be enhanced
sufficiently to allow it to cancel w~. While no claim can be made at
present for the accuracy of the calculation, at least it shows the importance
of the type of enhancement which we have considered in the preceding
section, and makes it plausible that we might find a dielectric constant
of very high value, in spite of the fact that the individual polarizabilities
concerned were of normal size.
Next we should consider the explanation of the temperature dependence
of dielectric constant above the critical temperature, given by Eq. (8-24),
as well as the factors limiting the polarization below the critical tempera-
ture to a finite value. If the crystal becomes infinitely polarizable, why
do not the ions displace by an indefinitely large amount? The reason, as
Devonshire and the present author (loc. cit.) have pointed out, is that we
must assume a nonlinear restoring force acting on the ions, for the large
displacements encountered in this case. If we assume that there is not
only a linear restoring force, or a corresponding quadratic term in the
energy, but also a fourth-power term in the energy, we can get a set of
curves of energy versus displacement, at different temperatures, similar to
that given in Fig. 8-8. Here ,ve have over,,implified the problem by
assuming that the linear restoring force goes to zero at the critical temper-
ature, but more elaborate study of the statistical mechanics of the problem
indicates that such a picture is essentially correct. We can see that above
Sec; 8-5] LATTICE VIBRATIONS OF METALS AND INSULATORS 201
the critical temperature, the restoring force gets smaller and smaller as the
temperature is reduced. Below the critical temperature, on account of
the fourth-power term in the energy, we find two minima. In an external
field, one of these will lie lower than the other, and the ions will settle in
that minimum, corresponding to a permanent polarization, as is observed.
It now turns out that when statistical mechanics is properly applied to
the problem, the presence of the fourth-power term in the energy results
in a value of wo which is effectively a slowly varying function of tempera-
ture. Looked at very crudely, at high temperatures the amplitude of
oscillation will increase, the fourth-power term will increase, and will
FIG. 8-8. Energy of ferroelectric as function of displacement of ions (schematic).

The curves show an energy proportional to ax 2 + bx', where a is a function of tem-
perature going through zero at the critical temperature, and is negative below the
critical temperature. .The two minima for T < Tc indicate two possible stable dis-
placements corresponding to permanent dipoles in either of two opposite directions.
appear to increase the restoring force, or to increase the value of wo. If

the other term in Eq. (8-22), arising from the Lorentz correction, is tem-
perature-independent, it can well happen that wi will be slightly positive
at high temperatures, slightly negative at lower temperatures, going
through zero at a critical temperature. In other words, for zero fre-
quency, w = 0, the denominator of the resonance term in Eq. (8-20)
would be proportional to the first approximation to T - Tc, leading to
the type of behavior indicated in Eq. (8-24).
We shall not go here into the more detailed theory of the phenomenon;
we shall return to it in the next chapter, but refer the reader to the various
review articles for more detailed discussion. However, one point which
has been checked experimentally is the vanishing of wr as the critical tem-
perature is approached. This has been done, not for BaTi03, but for the
202 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS; AND METALS [Chap. 8
similar crystal SrTiO 3, which also shows ferroelectricity, by R. A. Cowley. 1

He has studied the behavior of the transverse optical mode of strontium
titanate as the temperature is reduced toward the critical point, which for
this crystal comes at about 32°K. In Fig. 8-9 we show the curves of w
versus !kl, for this mode, at 90 and 296°K, showing the striking decrease
of the frequency as the temperature is lowered. What is going on can be
interpreted in terms of Fig. 8-4. Instead of having a practically .vertical
line for the electromagnetic mode, we are approaching a situation, as the
critical temperature is approached, in which the initial slope of the curve
for the electromagnetic mode indicates a velocity, not similar to the
. -,!
11
5 X 1012 >-
0 0 O O O
0 •• • • • 0
4
• e I)
3 ~ 0 • ...
u
I)
• .,
C
::,
a-
2 ~
• o 296°K
u..
- • 90°K
r t,. 0 100 200

"K
300 400 500
Fm. 8-9. Frequency versus wave num- Frn. 8-10. Square of frequency of
ber for transverse optical mode of transverse optical mode at zero
SrTiO, at two temperatures, 296 and wave number, for SrTiO,, as func-
90°K, illustrating decrease of frequency tion of temperature, illustrating
wr in a ferroelectric as the temperature vanishing of the frequency at the
is reduced to Tc. [From R. A. Cowley, critical temperature. [Curve from
Phys. Rev. Letters, 9 :159 (1962).] Cowley (loc. cit.).]
velocity of light, but much more like the velocity of sound. The curve
merges into the curve representing the elastic vibration, not at a very
small value of k or q, but at a value representing quite a large fraction of
the dimensions of the Brillouin zone. In Fig. 8-10, Cowley has shown ''1
'i
the temperature dependence of this transverse optical mode. Since we i
!
expect w~, as given in Eq. (8-22), to be proportional to T - Tc, Cowley
plots the square of the frequency against the temperature, and gets an
approximately straight line.
We have seen here some of the elements going into the theory of ferro-
electricity. The reader must have felt, throughout the present chapter,
1 R. A. Cowley, Phys. Rev. Letters, 9 :159 (1962).
Sec. 8-6) LATTICE VIBRATIONS OF METALS AN.D INSULATORS 203
however, that it should be possible to predict the law of force between

ions, and to work out from this law of force a fundamental theory of
lattice vibrations, from which the curves of was a function of k could be
calculated. In Fig. 8-2 we showed such a calculated curve, for sodium
iodide, and promised an explanation later of the method used in the cal-
culation. In the next chapter we shall come to the line of argument
which has led to such calculations. We must go back, for the beginning
of this line of argument, almost to the time of the original lattice-vibra-
tion theory of Born and von Karman, and in fact to other work of Born;
for it was as obvious to him as it must be to the reader, that a more funda-
mental treatment of interionic forces was needed, if we were to get a
satisfactory theory of lattice vibrations.
In this section we have given a number of references to papers dealing
with ferroelectricity. For a more complete coverage, the reader should
consult papers in the Bibliography by the following authors:
K. Aizu (1964-1965), H. Akao (1955), N. S. Akulov (1959), G. E. Bacon
(1953-1955), J. H. Barrett (1952), P.A. Bazhulin (1963), R. Bline (1960),
M. E. Caspari (1950), W. Cochran (1959-1961), R. A. Cowley (1962-
1964), L. E. Cross (1956), A. F. Devonshire (1949-1964), M. E. Drougard
(1957), E. Fatuzzo (1964), A. D. Franklin (1959), B. C. Frazer (1953-
1955), V. L. Ginzburg (1960), G. Harbecke (1963), V. L. Indenbom
(1957), I. I. Ivanchik (1961-1962), E. T. Jaynes (1950), V. J. Johnson
(1963), G. H. Jonker (1949), W. Kaenzig (1950-1957), L. P. Kholodenko
(1956), W. Kinase (1955, 1964), C. Kittel (1951), V. I. Klyachkin (1959-
1960), V. Kh. Kozlovskii (1956-1963), J. T. Last (1957), A. N. Lazarev
(1960), I. Lefkowitz (1962), H. A. Levy (1954), I. T. Lyast (1960),
V. N. Lyubimov (1962), W. P. Mason (1948-1952), B. T. Matthias
(1956), H. D. Megaw (1952), T. Mitsui (1958), T. P. Myasnikova (1962),
T. Nagamiya (1952), E. Nakamura (1963), N. N. Neronova (1959),
R. S. Pease (1954), C. H. Perry (1964), S. W. Peterson (1953), J. Pirenne
(1949), C. F. Pulvari (1958), A. J. Rajagopal (1962), R. G. Rhodes (1949),
D. G. Sannikov (1962), H. C. Schweinler (1952), M. E. Senko (1961),
G. Shirane (1955-1957), H. B. Silsbee (1964), J. C. Slater (1941, 1950),
G. A. Smolenskii (1956-1961), Y. Takagi (1953), S. Tanisaki (1963),
A. V. Turik (1963), J. West (1930), H. H. Wieder (1955), H. J. Willard
(1949), G. S. Zhdanov (1957), V. A. Zhirnov (1958).
8-6. Bibliography on Lattice Vibrations. The subject of lattice vibra-
tions has been an active one, particularly during the last few years. We
have given a number of references in the present chapter, but many more
are given in the Bibliography at the end of this volume. The reader
will find papers dealing with one or another aspect of the problem under
the following authors:
K. S. Aleksandrov (1956-1957), A. B. Almazov (1959), A. I. Anselm

(1957), S. Asano (1957), M. Ashkin (1964), Y. Ayant (1957), M. Azuma
(1963), M. D. Bacon (1962), T. A. Bak (1959), G. R. Baldock (1956),
M. Balkanski (1964), S. W. Barber (1959), A. S. Barker, Jr. (1964),
R. B. Barnes (1935), T. H.K. Barron (1957-1963), E. Bauer (1956-1957),
R. Bellman (1956), W. T. Berg (1957), D. D. Betts (1956), R. Bingen
(1955), W. P. Binnie (1956), R. J. Birgenau (1964), J. L. Birman (1959),
R. L. Bjork (1957), M. Blackman (1933-1959), N. Boccara (1960), V. G.
Boitsov (1963), V. T. Borisov (1963), M. Born (1912-1943), W. A. Bowers
(1950), L. Brillouin (1935-1936), C. V. Briscoe (1957), R. Brout (1959-
1961), A. D. Buckingham (1956), E. E. Budzinski (1957), V. M. Buimis-
trov (1957), T. N. Casselman (1963), R. G. Chambers (1961), B. C. Clark
(1964), C. B. Clark (1962), W. Cochran (1954-1964), R. A. Coldwell-
Horsfall (1960-1963), M. F. Collins (1962), R. A. Cowley (1962-1964),
D. W. J. Cruickshank (1956-1958), P. G. Dawber (1963), B. Dayal
(1960-1962), P. Dean (1960-1963), P. Debye (1912-1913), J. de Launay
(1953-1957), B. C. De Loach (1956), W. C. DeMarcus (1955), Z. A.
Demidenko (1961-1962), R. E. De Warnes (1964-1965), B. G. Dick, Jr.'
(1958), E. R. Dobbs (1957), G. Dolling (1962), C. Domb (1956-1963),
J. S. Dugdale (1953-1958), J. N. Eastabrook (1957), A. L. Efros (1961),
P. Ehrenfest (1925), A. Einstein (1907-1911), R. J. Elliott (1956), P. S.
Epstein (1946), S. Eros (1958-1961), K. Fajans (1942), U. Fano (1960),
P. C. Fine (1939), G. C. Fletcher (1957-1959), P. Flubacher (1959),
A. J.E. Foreman (1957-1962), S. J. Fray (1960), S. Freed (1940), E. Fues
(1958), R. Furth (1942-1944), L. Galatry (1957), C. W. Garland (1958),
S. M. Genensky (1957), R. Gerath (1964), R. E. Gilbert (1956), G. Gilet
(1961), J. Gillis (1959), J. J. Gilvarry (1955-1957), A. Granato (1957),
H.J. Grenville-Wells (1956), T. B. Grimley (1962), A. I. Gubanov (1963),
L. Gunther (1964), L. E. Gurevich (1960), R. W. Gurney (1952), C. Haas
(1956), J. 0. Halford (1951-1952), J. R. Hardy (1959-1962), M. Hass
(1963), E. E. Havinga (1950), F. H. Herbstein (1961), F. Herman (1959),
R. M. Hexter (1956-1959), P. W. Higgs (1955), T. A. Hoffmann (1946-
1947), M. C. Holland (1962), T. Holstein (1959), D. J. Hooton (1958),
J. Hori (1957, 1964), M. Horowitz (1953), G. K. Horton (1956-1959),
W. V. Houston (1948), V. Hovi (1960-1961), Y. C. Hsieh (1954), K.
Huang (1950-1951), D. S. Hughes (1956), H. B. Huntington (1958),
U. Ingard (1956), JVI. Iona, Jr. (1941), H. Jahn (1937), S: S. Jaswal (1964-
1965), R. J. Joseph (1963), S. K. Joshi (1962), W. Kaenzig (1950),
H. Kaplan (1962), A. M. Karo (1959-1963), V. N. Kashcheev (1963),
T. Kasuya (195.'"i), E. Katz (1951), E. W. Kellermann (1940-1941),
C. Kittel (1948), M. V. Klein (1963), D. A. Kleinman (1960), P. G.
Klemens (1955-1962), S. H. Koenig (1959), E. N. Korol (1963), V. Kh.
Kozlovskii (1956-1960), K. S. Krishnan (1950-1958), N. N. Kristofel
(1962), M. A. Krivoglaz (1956-1961), J. A. Krumhansl (1953, 1962),

I. Kucher (1957-1962), J. Laval (1954-1959), M. Lax (1951-1964), Y.
LeCorre (1956-1958), W. Ledermann (1943), J. W. Leech (1959), G. W.
Lehman (1962), G. Leibfried (1955-1961), R. B. Leighton (1948), R. L.
Liboff (1964), D. S. Liebermann (1956), I. M. Lifshits (1955-1956),
0. Litzmann (1957-1959), K Lonsdale (1956-1958), R. Loudon (1964),
G. G. E. Low (1962), W. Ludwig (1958), S. 0. Lundqvist (1954-1959),
R. H. Lyddane (1938-1941), C. W. McCombie (1964), E. Madelung
(1910), A. A. Maradudin (1958-1960), D. A. Martin (1965), V. S. Mashke-
vich (1956-1962), P. Mazur (1956), A. N. Men (1959), K. Mendelssohn
(1956), L. Merton (1958), G. F. Miller (1956), G. B. Mitra (1957),
S. S. Mitra (1962), V. V. Mitskevich (1961-1963), K. Miyakawa (1957),
B. Ya. Moizhes (1959-1961), E.W. Montroll (1942-1956), G. F. Nardelli
(1964), H. C. Nash (1959), J. Neuberger (1960), G. F. Newell (1953-
1958), A. F. Nicholson (1964), A. Nierenberg (1951), A. A. Nranyan
(1963-1964), N. Ockman (1958), P. Olmer (1948), W. C. Overton, Jr.
(1959), J. Peretti (1955-1959), J.C. Phillips (1956-1959), G. Picus (1959),
J. Pirenne (1958), A. L. Polyakova (1964), N. N. Porfireva (1957),
H. Poulet (1958), Yu. L. Rabotnikov (1960), A. K. Rajagopal (1960-
1962), C. V. Raman (1955), D. R. Renneke (1965), M. Robert (1955),
F. R. Rollins, Jr. (1964), H. B. Rosenstock (1953-1961), J. Rosenthal
(1936), B. D. Saksena (1956), L. Salter (1955), A.G. Samoilovich (1960),
E. Sandor (1959), D. G. Sannikov (1962), R. A. Satten (1958), E. Schrod-
inger (1914-1922), L. P. Semenov (1962), Y. R. Shen (1965), P. B. Sherry
(1956), T. Shimanouchi (1955), R. 0. Simmons (1957), S. Simons (1964),
D. N. Singh (1959), N. N. Sirota (1957), G. A. Slack (1957), J. C. Slater
(1958), L. J. Slutsky (1957-1960), H. M. J. Smith (1948), M. Smollett
(1952), J. Sosnowski (1962), C. F. Squire (1958), J. J. Sullivan (1964),
P. M. Sutton (1955), B. Szigeti (1935, 1949-1961), L. H. Taylor (1964),
W. J. Taylor (1956), E. Tenerz (1956-1957), R. N. Thurston (1964),
K. B. Tolpygo (1956-1962), T. Toya (1961), P. van der Leeden (1955),
L. van Hove (1953), J. H. 0. Varley (1956), W. M. Visscher (1964),
D. C. Wallace (1964), R. F. Wallis (1957-1962), T. H. Walnut (1957-
1959), G. Weiss (1958-1959), H. C. White (1958), E. Wigner (1930),
T. Wolfram (1963), A. D. B. Woods (1960-1964), S. Yanagawa (1953),
A. Yoshimori (1956), J. A. Young (1964), I. H. Zaslavska (1956), A. P.
Zvyagina (1957-1962).
9
The Lattice Energy of Ionic Crystals
9-1. The Total Energy of Crystals. As soon as the structure of NaCl

was determined by x-rays, almost immediately after the development
of the x-ray diffraction method by Laue and the Braggs in 1912, it was
very natural to try to explain the statics and dynamics of its structure.
It was obvious to assume that it was made of Na+ and Cl- ions. These
would attract each other with a Coulomb attraction. The attractive
potential energy between any pair of ions would then be proportional
to the reciprocal of the distance between them. Since this was propor-
tional to the reciprocal of the lattice spacing, the complete Coulomb
energy would be proportional to 1/a, where a was the lattice spacing.
(We shall use a to refer to the side of the cubic cell in the face-centered
cubic sodium chloride structure.) Since each ion was surrounded more
closely by ions of charge opposite to itself than by ions of the same charge,
the net result of the Coulomb interactions must be an attraction, leading
to an energy proportional to -1/a. The determination of the constant
of proportionality was a rather complicated question, first solved by
Madelung, 1 which we shall take up in Sec. 9-3. For the moment, we
merely write the attractive part of the potential energy as -A/a.
If there were no other forces between the ions, of course the crystal
would collapse; the lowest energy would correspond to a = 0. But it
is obvious from many different points of view that there must be repul-
sions between the ions at short distances, which will prevent this collapse.
One piece of evidence is that the ions of such a crystal have the same
electronic structure as inert gases, and we know from the equation of
state of these gases that their atoms repel· at small distances. Of course,
at the time the theory we are speaking of was first proposed, the theory
of the periodic table had not been worked out, one did not completely
understand the electron shelh, in a.toms, and one did not have the same
clear picture of inert-gas configurations that we do now. In spite of this,
the general idea of the stability of inert-gas· atoms was well understood.
1 E. Madelung, Physik. Z., 19 :524 (1918).
206
Sec. 9. 1] THE LATTICE ENERGY OF IONIC CRYSTALS 207
Born and Lande 1 wished to describe this repulsion. Since the analytic
form of the repulsion could not be derived from any theory then available,
they looked for an empirical function which would have the proper
behavior, of increasing very rapidly as the internuclear distance decreased.
One of the simplest such functions is an inverse power, such as 1/rn. If
each pair of ions, at a distance r from each other, repels like 1/rn, the
sum of these terms will go as I/an. The constant in the total energy
can be easily found from that for a pair of ions, for if n is large, the repul-
sions between distant ions will be very small, and we can find the total
repulsive energy by summing the interactions between individual ions,
dealing with a very rapidly converging sum. As a result of this, Born
and Lande postulated that the total repulsive energy could be written
as B/an. The sort of value of n which they were considering was a large
integer. From arguments based on an electrostatic model of the atom
which was in vogue at that time for chemical applications, they arrived
at a value of n = 9 for all the alkali halides except the lithium salts, for
which they deduced n = 5. The theoretical basis for these numbers is
now seen to be invalid, but the numbers are fairly near the best experi-
mental values.
With these assumed interionic interactions as a basis, Born, Lande,
Madelung, and various other writers 2 carried out an extensive study during
the years following 1918 of the statics of ionic crystals, particularly the
alkali halides. They considered a crystal with the structure of sodium
chloride, but in which the lattice spacing a, or in other words the volume,
was variable. By studying the energy as a function of the volume, there
are a number of experimental quantities which can be predicted. We
may expect that the energy as a function of interatomic spacing will
behave very much like the energy of a diatomic molecule as a function of
internuclear separation, as discussed in Volume 1. Just as withdiatomic
molecules, there will be an energy minimum corresponding to the equilib-
rium atomic or ionic positions. The dimensions of the crystal, which of
course are found experimentally by x-ray diffraction, will be found from
the internuclear separation at this minimum of energy. The energy
required to dissociate the crystal is the difference between the energy at
1 M. Born and A. Lande, Sitzber. preuss. Akad. Wiss., 1918, 1048; Verhandl. Deut.
Physik Ges., 20 :202, 210 (1918); further papers in Bibliography.

2 See papers in the Bibliography not only by these authors, but also by 0. Emersleben,
H. M. Evjen, P. P. Ewald, K. Fajans, H. Grimm, K. F. Herzfeld, lVl. L. Huggins, F.

Hund, R.H. Lyddane, J.E. Mayer, B. Y. Oke, S. C. Power, J. Sherman, J.C. Slater,
H. Sponer, A. Unsold, J. A. Wa.saRtjerne, and their collaborators, in the years before
the Second World War. Some of these authors take into account the Van der Waals
attraction between ions, which we take up in Appendix 5, as well as the energy terms
considered in the text, and show that these Van der Waals terms are of significantly
large magnitude.
the minimum and the value at infinite separation of the nuclei. These
dissociation energies are known experimentally from thermochemical
experiments.
In addition to these two experimental quantities, we have information
about the behavior of the curve of energy versus internuclear separation,
in the neighborhood of the minimum. We have experimental measure-
ments of the compressibility of the crystal, and of the change of com-
pressibility with pressure. For many substances we have curves of
volume, or internuclear separation, as a function of pressure, over quite
a large pressure range. From such curves, we can deduce the energy as a
function of internuclear separation, over an equally great range. 1
In spite of the simplified hypotheses which went into the theory of the
cohesive energy of ionic crystals, of Born, Lande, l\lfadelung, and others,
it had a very considerable success. The reason for this was that the main
term in the cohesive energy of such a crystal is simply the electrostatic
attraction between the oppositely charged ions. This is a purely classical
effect, which did not require the wave mechanics for its understanding.
The other term, the repulsion between ions at shorter distances, which
was put in as an empirical quantity, could be estimated well from some of
the experimental facts, and was then used to predict other effects. It
was only later that this empirical theory gave way to wave-mechanical
theories, which explain the cohesion of ionic crystals in a completely non-
empirical manner, as we shall describe in Sec. 9-6. There the total energy
of the crystal, as a function of the nuclear positions, was computed, and
by the Born-Oppenheimer theorem it could be used as a potential energy
function for studying the nuclear motions.
Theories of the type we have been describing, both the earlier classical
theory, and the later wave-mechanical one, serve not only to describe the
statics of a crystal lattice, but also its dynamics, the study of atomic
vibrations, which we have been meeting in the preceding chapters. This
problem is far more complicated than for the diatomic molecule. The
crystal can be distorted not merely by expanding or contracting it as a
whole, retaining the same geometry, but also by displacing any individual
atom or ion in the crystal from its equilibrium position. Thus as we
have seen it has 3N degrees of freedom, and 3N normal modes of vibration.
These modes constitute the elastic spectrum of the crystal, which we have
been describing in the preceding chapters, and at any temperature above
the absolute zero, they will have varying amounts of excitation. There
has been a good deal of study of the elastic spectrum, both on the basis
of the classical Born-Lande type of theory, and by use of more sophisti-
cated methods, which we shall describe in Sec. 9-5. However, we still do
1 For a detailed discussion of these points, see J.C. Slater, "Introduction to Chemical
Physics," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1939, chap. XIII.

Sec. 9-2] THE LATTICE ENERGY OF IONIC CRYSTALS 209
not have a completely satisfactory treatment of lattice dynamics based

purely on the wave-mechanical model of the crystal.
9-2. The Theory of Born, Lande, and Madelung. The total energy
of an alkali halide crystal, according to the hypotheses of Born, Lande,
and Madelung, as we have outlined them in the preceding section, is
A B
E=--+-
a a"
(9-1)
where a is the lattice spacing, A and B and n are constants, the first term
represents the Coulomb attraction between ions, and the second represents
the repulsions between the closed-shell structures of the ions. From this
equation we can derive the various quantities which we have mentioned
in the preceding section. We shall first express the energy in terms of the
volume, rather than of a. We let V be the volume of the cube of side a,
and let E be the energy in this volume. Then V = a 3, and
A B
E = - V~i + vn1a (9-2)
The pressure pis given by the thermodynamic relation dE = -p dV, or

p = -dE/dV. Thus
dE 1 A n B
P = - dV = - 3 V~f, + 3 v<n+aJ/ 3 ( 9-3 )
For the equilibrium situation, at the absolute zero of temperature, we

have zero pressure. If we set p = 0 in Eq. (9-3), we find that
(9-4)
where VO is the equilibrium volume.

Next we find dp/dV, which we need for finding the compressibility.
We have
dp 4 A n (n ) B
dV = 9 V:~1 - 3 3 + l V<n+sJta (9-5)
The compressibility is defined as xo = -(l/V 0 )(dV/dp)o, where we are

finding it at zero pressure, and where dV /dp, like Vo, is to be computed at
zero pressure. We find this by substituting B/ A from Eq. (9-4) into
Eq. (9-5). Similarly we find the cohesive energy E 0 at zero pressure by
substituting B/A into Eq. (9-1). When we do this, we find that
Eo = - -~1
V0
(1 - n~-) (9-6)
9Vr (9-7)
xo = A(n - 1)
We see that if we assume VO as known from experiment, compute A as

in the next section, and assume a value for n, as Born and Lande did,
we can calculate both the cohesive energy and the compressibility. They
carried out this calculation, and showed that they had a surprisingly good
agreement with experiment. A somewhat more reasonable procedure,
which they also used, is to regard n as a quantity to be found from experi-
ment. They assumed the experimental value of compressibility, and thus
could compute n from Eq. (9-7). They found, as they had postulated,
that n was near 5 for the lithium salts, near 9 for the other alkali halides.
Then they used this value in Eq. (9-6), finding a computed value of
cohesive energy, and compared this with experiment. The agreement
was within a few percent. We notice that in Eq. (9-6) the first term
arises from the electrostatic attraction, and the second, which is only 1/n
times as great, is the contribution from the repulsion. Since n is large,
this means that any error in describing the repulsion will make only a
small error in the cohesive energy, which is undoubtedly the reason for
the good agreement.
The present author 1 tried to make a somewhat more detailed com-
parison of the theory with experiment. He made measurements of the
compressibility of more of the alkali halides than had been previously
measured, and at the same time found experimentally the change of com-
pressibility with pressure, which is derived from the next derivative,
d 2p/dV 2 • One can calculate this quantity from the Born-Lande model,
obtaining a quantity depending, as does the compressibility of Eq. (9-7),
on Vo, A, and n. By trying to fit this measured quantity, one finds an
alternative value of n, which proved not to agree well with the value
derived from the compressibility. In other words, the inverse-nth-power
repulsive energy was found not to express the facts very satisfactorily.
Born and Mayer 2 later suggested that in place of the repulsion 1/rn
between ions, it might be more reasonable to use an exponential, propor-
tional to e-ar. This suggestion was made after it had been found from
wave mechanics that the repulsion between inert-gas shells could approxi-
mately be described by such an exponential. Such a form for the repulsive
energy, again with parameters determined from the compressibility, gives
a much better account of the energy as a function of the internuclear
separation than does the original 1/rn assumption of Born and Lande,
and it is generally used at present when one wants a simple analytical
formula for the repulsive interaction in such a crystal.
There is one point which should be noted regarding the cohesive energy
determined by Born and Land8's method. This is the energy difference
between the crystal in its equilibrium condition, and the separated ions.
1 J. C. Slater, Phys. Rev., 23 :488 (1924).
2 M. Born and J. E. Mayer, Z. Physik, 76 :1 (1932).
However, in considering molecules in Volume 1 of this work, we have

always found binding energies as the energy differences between the
molecule in its equilibrium state, and the separated neutral atoms. This
would be a much smaller quantity than the Born-Lande energy. For
example, in Volume 1, Fig. 7-4, we consider the LiH molecule, and show a
curve going to the Li++ H- ionic state, lying far above the curves going
to the Li + H state of the separated atoms. Either definition is perfectly
correct, provided we understand what we are doing. However, it is
natural that the relatively small absolute error of the calculation, by the
Born-Lande method, is a much smaller fractional error of the large Born-
Lande cohesive energy, computed with respect to the separated ions, than
it would be of the much smaller cohesive energy computed with respect
to the separated atoms. It is this latter fractional error which should be
compared with the errors of computed binding energies in molecules,
discussed in Volume 1.
9-3. Electrostatic Energy and the Madelung Problem. We have
mentioned that the problem of finding the constant A, in Eq. (9-1), giving
the electrostatic attractive energy in the ionic crystal, in the form -A/n,
was solved by Madelung. This is an important and interesting problem,
which comes in whenever we are concerned with energies in ionic crystals,
as we have seen for example in Volume 2, Sec. 10-7, in our discussion of
energy bands of alkali halides. Since it is met in solid-state theory in
various forms, we shall discuss it in detail. We recall, in the first place,
that according to electrostatics, the electrostatic potential energy of a set
of charges q, is given by the expression
(9-8)
where V, is the electrostatic potential at the position of the ith charge,
produced by all other charges. This expression is equivalent to
E.z = \' (pairs i, j) q..q; (9-9)

/..; r,;
where rii is the distance between the ith andjth charges, and where we use
Gaussian units. The potential V, is given by
V. = \' (j ~ i) q; (9-10)
/..; r;;
and the½ in Eq. (9-8) arises because if we should combine Eqs. (9-8) and
(9-10) to get the result of Eq. (9-9), we should be having a double sum
over i and .i, which would give twice the sum over pairs ij, the 2 being
canceled by the ½ in Eq. (9-8).
To find the electrostatic energy of an ionic crystal composed of point
ions, we must then find the potential at each ion arising from all other ions
except itself; the summation in Eq. (9-10) of course does not include the
term j = i, which would be infinite. This is not a trivial problem. If we
have the NaCl problem, a positive ion is surrounded by 6 negative ions
at distances a/2, by 12 positive ions at distances a y2/2, and so on.
More generally, we shall find other ions for x = n 1a/2, y = n 2a/2,
z = n3a/2, where n 1, n 2, n 3 are any positive or negative integers. If
n1 + n2 + n 3 is even the other ion will be positive, while if it is odd it will
be negative. In Table 9-1 we give the tabulation of the neighbors with
Table 9-1. Calculation of Electrostatic Energy, Sodium Chloride Structure
Number
n1n2n, of Distance Contribution to potential energy
neighbors
100 6 (a/2)-y'l (e 2/a) X (-6) X (2/y'l) = -12.000000

110 12 (a/2)v'2 (e 2/a) X (12) X (2/v'2) = 16.970563
111 8 (a/2)y3 (e 2/a) X (-8) X (2/y3) = -9.237604
200 6 (a/2)v'4 (e 2/a) X (6) X (2/0) = 6.000000
210 24 (a/2)v'5 (e 2/a) X (-24) X (2/v5) = -21.466252
211 24 (a/2)v'6 (e 2/a) X (24) X (2/v'6) = 19.595918
220 12 (a/2)y18 (e 2/a) X (12) X (2/y'B) = 8.485282
221 24 (a/2)v'9 (e 2/a) X (-24) X (2/v'9) = -16.000000
222 8 (a/2)v'l2 (e 2/a) X (8) X (2/y'l2) = 4.618802
300 6 (a/2)v'9 (e 2/a) X (-6) X (2/v'9) = -4.000000
310 24 (a/2)-y'lO (e 2/a) X (24) X (2/y'IO) = 15.178933
311 24 (a/2)-v'TI (e 2 /a) X (-24) X (2/v'TI) = -14.472544
320 24 (a/2)y'l3 (e 2/a) X (-24) X (2/y'13) = -13.312800
321 48 (a/2)y'l4 (e 2/a) X (48) X (2/y'l4) = 25.657079
322 24 (a/2)y'I7 (e 2/a) X (-24) X (2/y'17) = -11.641710
330 12 (a/2)y'l8 (e'/a) X (12) X (2/y'IS) = 5.656854
331 24 (a/2)v'I9 (e 2/a) X (-24) X (2/y'l9) = -11.011955
332 24 (a/2)y'22 (e'/a) X (24) X (2/y'22) = 10.233635
333 8 (a/2)v'27 (e 2/a) X (-8) X (2/-y'27) = -3.079201
each combination of n's up to 3, the number of neighbors with each

distance, the distances, and the contributions of these neighbors to the
potential energy.
It is obvious that if we continue this tabulation indefinitely, we shall
have an oscillating series whose terms decrease extremely.slowly, if at all,
so that it would be quite impractical to find the sum by direct summation.
A device for improving the convergence was suggested by Evjen. 1 His
suggestion was to set up a cube, as shown in Fig. 9-1, its faces cutting
through planes of atoms. Then if we count each ion on a face of the cube
as being half in the cube, each one on an edge as being a quarter inside,
1 H. M. Evjen, Phys. Rev., 39 :675 (1932).
and each one at a corner as being one-eighth inside, the total charge
within the cube will be zero. Enlarging the cube by a distance a/2 all
around will then add a volume that contains a net charge of zero, and so
contributes fairly little to the total potential at the origin. In other
words, if we set up the total potential energy of interaction of the ion at
the origin, and all ions in such a cube, the result should converge fairly
rapidly as the size of the cube is increased.
This is in fact the case. If the cube extends from - a/2 to a/2 along
each axis, the points 100 will be counted as half in the cube; those at 110
Fm. 9-1. Ions in NaCl structure on faces, edges, and corners of a cube, illustrating
Evjen's method of evaluating Madelung's constant.
will be a quarter in; and those at 111 one-eighth in. Thus the contribution
of these terms to the potential energy will be e2/ a times
_ 12.0~0000 + 16.9:0563 _ 9.23:604 = -2.912060 (9-11)
If the cube extends from -a to a, the points 100, 110, 111 will be entirely
inside the cube, those at 200, 210, 211 will be half inside, those at 220, 221
one-quarter inside, and those at 222 one-eighth inside. Thus for the
potential energy we have e2/ a times
-12.000000 + 16.~70563 - 9.237604
+ ½(6.000000 - 21.4662.52 + 19.595918)
+ H(8.485282 - 16.000000) +
½(4.618802)
= - 3.503538 (9-12)
Similarly if the cube extends from -3a/2 to 3a/2, the sum comes to
- 3.494078. We see that these numbers are converging, and would guess
that the true answer is somewhere between -3.503538 and -3.494078.
This assumption is correct. The accepted value of the constant, generally
called the Madelung constant, is -3.495129, to six decimal places. 1 We
see, however, that even with Evjen's method of accelerating the con-
vergence, the direct summation is not a very good way of computing the
1 Y. Sakamoto, J. Chem. Phys., 28 :164 (1958). For an earlier, slightly less accurate
value, see 0. Emersleben, Z. Physik, 24 :73, 97 (1923).
constant. The total number of neighbors concerned in Table 9-1 is 342.

We would have to take a good many more neighbors than this to get six-
place accuracy in the result.
In the next section we shall discuss a method of computing the Madelung
constant suggested by Ewald, 1 which is used a great deal for this problem
and similar ones. Ewald's method, an outgrowth of the calculation
described in Sec. 4-3, is capable of finding the potential not merely at a
lattice point, but throughout the unit cell, which we often have need for.
We note that if we had used Evjen's method to find this quantity, all 342
contributions of neighboring ions in the calculation we have just made
would be different, so that the labor of making the calculation would have
been greatly increased. Even in spite of the relatively poor convergence
of Evjen's method, still it is convenient for a first approximate survey of
a new crystal structure. Madelung constants have been computed for a
great many crystal structures. In many cases Evjen's method has been
used for preliminary work, and Ewald's method for the actual calculation.
However, there are a number of other useful methods for carrying out the
calculation. Both Emersleben and Sakamoto, quoted above, have used
methods which they have developed, rather than Ewald's method.
Before we go on with Ewald's method, let us use the value of Madelung's
constant which we have quoted above to find the constant A in Eq. (9-1).
The cube of side a, being the cubic uriit cell for the face-centered cubic
structure, contains four ions of each type. Hence in the summation of
Eq. (9-8), over this cubic cell, we have four terms for positive ions, and
four for negative. Each of these eight terms will be equal, since the
potential at the position of a negative ion will be the negative of that at
the position of a positive ion. Hence the electrostatic energy per unit
cube of side a will be
. 8~ ~
E,1 = -2 -a ( -3.495129) = -13.980516 -a (9-13)
in Gaussian units. If we measure a in Bohr atomic units, a 0, the elec-

trostatic energy will be
13.980516 e2
a/ao ao
Since e2/ ao is 2 Rydbergs, or a Hartree atomic unit, the energy is
E,1 = -13.980516 ! Hartree units

a
-13.980516 ~
a
Rydbergs (9-14)
where now a is in atomic units, or equals a/ ao above.

1 P. P. Ewald, Ann. Physik, 64:253 (1921).
9-4. Ewald's Method for Madelung's Problem. Ewald's calculation

is not directly that of the potential of the lattices of positive and negative
ions found with the sodium chloride structure. Rather, he assumes a
unit positive charge at the lattice points of a Bravais lattice, plus a uniform
negative charge distribution of such an amount as to make the crystal
electrically neutral. We shall first carry the calculation through for an
arbitrary Bravais lattice, then shall specialize for the case of the face-
centered cubic, which we have with the sodium chloride structure. To
get the sodium chloride case, we superpose two Ewald solutions, one for
unit positive charges at the origin, the other for unit negative charges at
points such as x = a/2, y = z = 0. When we superpose these cases, the
uniform charge distributions cancel, leaving just the point charges.
First we note that there are two alternative ways of calculating the
potential arising from a set of charges. In the first place, we can sum
terms q/r, as we have just been doing. Second, we can solve Poisson's
equation. This equation is
(9-15)
where the first form holds in Gaussian units, or with Hartree atomic units
(if in the latter case the distances are measured in atomic units), and the
second holds in mks units. We shall use the first form, which goes with
the units we have been using in the preceding section. In Eq. (9-15), q, is
the potential in Gaussian units, or the potential energy of a charge of
magnitude 1 electronic unit in Hartree atomic units. The quantity p is
the charge density, in Gaussian units, or in units of numbers of electronic
charge per volume at where a 0 is the atomic unit of length, if we are using
Hartree atomic units. The proof that the solution of Poisson's equation
can be written as a sum of terms q/r is given in elementary discussions of
electrostatics, by means of Green's theorem.
In the preceding section we have seen that it is not very practical to
solve the problem we are interested in by direct summation of terms q/r.
We shall find that it is much more convenient to look for a solution of
Poisson's equation. Here we shall first try to take advantage of the
periodicity of the crystal, and express both q, and p in three-dimensional
Fourier series. We let
(9-16)
where the Km's are the wave vectors of the reciprocal lattice, and the
P's are coefficients. "\Ve have, in other words, an expansion such as
was considered in Volume 2, Chap. 6, and again in Sec. 4-3 of the present
volume. On account of the periodicity of the crystal, we can always
carry out such an expansion. Then the solution of Poisson's equation,
written in Gaussian or Hartree atomic units, is
cf, = 41r I (Km)P(Km) exp ~~m • r (9-17)
as we can prove at once by substituting it into Poisson's equation. There

is one point to notice regarding this solution: the constant term, corre-
sponding to Km = 0, must be missing from t.he summation of Eq. (9-16).
Otherwise obviously the corresponding term in Eq. (9-17) would di verge.
This means, in Eq. (9-16), that the average charge over a unit cell' must
be zero. This is always the case in actual crystals: if they contain ions,
there are equal positive and negative charges associated with each unit
cell. The constant of integration in Eq. (9-17) is so chosen that the
average potential averaged over the unit cell is also zero. Of course,
any constant of integration could be added to Eq. (9-17), to make the
average potential take on any desired value.
To use Eq. (9-17), we must find the Fourier expansion of the charge
density of the nuclear point charges at the points of the lattice. From
Volume 2, Eq. (6-5), we know that the Fourier coefficients P(Km) for
the problem of the charge density of the unit point charges will be
P(K,,.) = o- 1Jp(r) exp -iKm. r dv (9-18)
where O is the volume of the unit, cell, and where the integration is over
the unit cell. We assume that the charge density p consists of a delta
function at the origin, r = 0, plus a uniform negative charge sufficient
to balance it. The integral of the delta function, times the exponential,
which will be unity for r = 0, will itself be unity, so that we shall have
(9-19)
for Km ¢. 0. The uniform charge density does not contribute to P(Km)

for Km ¢. 0, for we know that the product of a constant, and an exponen-
tial exp -iKm · r, integrates to zero over the unit, cell. For Km = 0, the
uniform charge density makes a contribution which cancels that of the
point charge, resulting in P(O) = 0.
We Gee, in other words, that the Fourier components P(Km) for the
Ewald problem show no convergence. The only convergence of Eq.
(9-17) in this case comes from the factor /Km/ 2 in the denominator, and
this really is no convergence at all. For if we should replace the summa-
tion over Km by an integration, in the reciprocal space, over shells between
/K/ and /Kl + /dK/, we should find the number of terms included in such
a :,hell to be proportiorial to the volmne of the shell, ur to /Kl 2 /dK/.
Hence the IK/ 2 arising from the volume of the shell cancels the l/lK/ 2 ,
leaving equal contributions from each shell of the same thickness. These
contributions will oscillate in sign on account of the factor exp iKm • r as
IKml increases, but their amplitudes will not decrease with increasing IKI,
so that we have no convergence.
In other words, our attempt to solve Poisson's equation in terms of a
Fourier expansion has not improved the situation at all; we have no better
convergence than we had with the direct sum of Coulomb terms 1/r. It
was to avoid this difficulty that Ewald introduced his famous device,
which we have already mentioned in Sec. 4-3 (see, in addition, Appendix 4).
We may describe this device in the following language: We replace each
point charge, or delta function, by a Gaussian function,
(9-20)
where E is a parameter determining the width of the Gaussian, and where

the factor E3 (1r)-H normalizes the Gaussian. We find the Fourier expan-
sion of the sum of these Gaussians, and find that the coefficients P(K;,.)
now decrease rapidly with IKml, so that instead of the divergent series
found with the point charges, we have a rapidly convergent series. In
other words, we can easily solve a problem of finding the potential arising
from the distribution of Gaussians, plus the negative charge density
which compensates their charge.
This is the wrong problem, however: we really wish the potential of
the point charges, plus the continuous distribution. Let us then correct
our rapidly convergent expansion, by adding to it the potential of a dis-
tribution at each lattice point consisting of a point charge, plus a nega-
tive Gaussian distribution which cancels the positive Gaussian used in
the earlier part of the problem. Such a positive point charge plus a
negative Gaussian is very much like the charge distribution in an atom,
and of course at points outside the tail of the Gaussian, its potential will
fall to zero. Consequently we can directly add the potentials of these
distributions of point charges plus Gaussians, and as we get to more and
more distant lattice points, the series will rapidly converge, on account
of the rapid falling off of the tails of the Gaussians. The secret of the
success of the Ewald method is the fact that it is possible to choose a
value for E, the parameter determining the width of the Gaussian, which
will make the Fourier expansion fall off rapidly, and at the same time
make the sum of the potentiah, of the Gaussians converge conveniently.
There is a considerable range of E over which these conditions are satis-
fied, and over this range the result is independent of E. Outside this
range the convergence of one series or the other is so slow that calculation
is not practicable.
Let us now carry through the mathematical details of this method,
showing how the formulation of Ewald's method can be obtained in an
elementary way. We must first substitute the Gaussian of Eq. (9-20)
for the density p(r) of Eq. (9-18). We have one Gaussian per cell, at
218 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS (Chap. 9
the origin. Its tail will extend outside the unit cell, but tails of Gaussians
in other cells will extend inside, exactly compensating, so that we shall
get the correct integral if we integrate a single Gaussian over all space.
Thus we have
P(Km) = (1/n) JJJ E3 (7r)-% exp [-E 2 (x 2 +y +z

2 2)]
exp [-i(Km:i:X + KmYY + Km,z)] dx dy dz

(1/n)[e7r-~i J_"',.
exp (-E 2x 2 - iKm:i:X) dx] X similar
integrals in y, z
= (1/n) exp -\K,,.\ 2/4e 2 (9-21)
where we have used the integral
h"' exp ( - e x 2 2) cos K:i:x dx = (7r~!i /2E) exp ( - K!/ 4e 2) (9-22)
Thus the expression replacing Eq. (9-17), for the potential of the Gaus-
sians plus the uniform negative charge distribution, is
,i. = 41r \' (K ~ 0) exp (-K!,/4e 2) exp (iKm • r)
(9-23)
'I' n L., "' \K,,.\2
In other words, the Gaussian convergence factor exp (-\Km\ 2/4E 2) has
been introduced as compared with the potential of the point charges.
By a suitable choice of E, the essential contributions to the summations
of Eq. (9-23) come from only a few terms.
Next we must find the potential at a distance r from a unit point charge,
surrounded by a negative Gaussian distribution given by Eq. (9-20).
By direct integration of Poisson's equation in spherical coordinates, we
find that this potential is
1 -
cf>= - 2 !."'
r 7r½ ,r exp (-x ) dx
2
1 - erf (er)
(9-24)
r
where erf x is the error function,
2 {" (9-25)
erf x = 1r½ Jo exp ( -x 2 ) dx
We can verify Eq. (9-24) by finding the Laplacian of <J,. It proves to be

41r times the Gaussian charge density of Eq. (9-20), showing that the
potential of Eq. (9-24) is that of a negative Gaussian. This function
furthermore approaches 1/r as r approaches zero, a limit in which erf x
approaches zero, so that the potential includes not only that arising from
the negative Gaussian, but also from a unit positive point charge at the
origin.
We can then get the potentials of all Gaussians plus point charges, at
an arbitrary point of space, by adding the functions of Eq. (9-24) for
each such charge. On account of the falling off of the tails of the Gaus-
sians, we find as mentioned earlier that we need to take into account
only a very limited number of Gaussians in our summation. We then
add this summation of functions of Eq. (9-24), and the potential of
Eq. (9-23), to find the total potential.
There is still something missing, however. In the integration of
Poisson's equation to get the potential of Eq. (9-17), we have noted that
we could have had a constant of integration. This contribution in the
present case could depend in any arbitrary way on the parameter e. But
we must now demand that the potential at a given point of space be
independent of e. We find that if choose this constant of integration to
equal -1r/0E 2 , we achieve this result. That is, we have
(9-26)
We can prove that the resulting potential is independent of E by differ-

entiating with respect to E. All differentiations can be carried out simply,
and the result is zero. In Eq. (9-26) we have Ewald's result for the
potential at any point r of the distribution of point charges, plus a con-
tinuous negative distribution of charge. The summation over Km is, as
stated earlier, over all nonzero wave vectors of the reciprocal lattice,
and the summation over r; is over all lattice points, r; being the distance
from the point r where the potential is b~ing computed to the lattice
point.
We notice that if E becomes infinite in Eq. (9-26), the last two terms
vanish, and the factor exp (-IK,,.l 2/4E 2) in the first term becomes unity.
Hence the expression reduces to Eq. (9-17), with P(Km) = 0- 1, as given
by Eq. (9-19). This of course is necessary, since Eq. (9-17) is a perfectly
valid expression for the potential. Since we have shown that the func-
tion of Eq. (9-26) is independent of e, this verifies that the result of
Ewald's method is merely a convenient way of calculating the solution
of Eq. (9-17). In particular, as in that case, the average potential
averaged over all space is zero in the expression of Eq. (9-26). As in
our discussion of Eq. (9-17), we may of course add an additive constant
to the expression of Eq. (9-26), if we wish to have an average potential
different from zero.
In Appendix 4, we consider specifically the case of the face-centered
cubic lattice, which we need for the sodium chloride structure. We
discuss the potential throughout the cell, and in particular derive the
value of the Madelung constant which we have discussed in Sec. 9-3.

We also derive the information which we need in Sec. 4-3 for discussing
the Lorentz factor for cubic crystals.
9-5. Lattice Theory and Crystal Vibrations. In Sec. 9-2 we have
described the theory of Born and Lande for the cohesive energy of ionic
crystals, and since then we have been filling in one mathematical point
connected with it, the computation of the electrostatic or Madelung
energy. The theory as we have outlined it postulates completely the
form of interatomic forces. Consequently one can use it to discuss lattice
vibrations, and to derive the frequency spectrum which we have been
discussing in Chaps. 7 and 8. Early treatments of this problem were
those of Lyddane and Herzfeld,1 and Kellermann. 2 The latter treatment
in particular carries the problem of sodium chloride through in detail.
Kellermann proceeded directly according to the methods of Born and
Lande as far as the forces were concerned, and of Born and von
Karman in his treatment of lattice vibrations. He first asked what the
energy of the crystal is with displaced atoms, or alternatively what the
forces acting on all the atoms are if they have small displacements.
There will be forces for two reasons. First, he assumed short-range
repulsive forces, like the 1/ rn force of Born and Lande, or the force exp - ar
of Born and Mayer. In any case he needed only two constants derived
from this repulsive force, namely, the value of the force and its derivative
with respect to r at the equilibrium separation, and by expressing his
theory in terms of these two constants, he avoided a statement as to
which form of short-range force he was using. These two constants could
be determined directly from the lattice spacing and the compressibility,
as in Sec. 9-2. Second, he assumed Coulomb interactions between the
displaced ions, which he found by extensions of the method of Ewald.
Once Kellermann had made these assumptions (including the simplifica-
tion of disregarding repulsive forces between any but nearest neighboring
ions), he was in a position to calculate the coefficients which we have
denoted by Cab(s, t, Ri - Ri) in Sec. 7-2. Hence he could go ahead as
described in that section, and find the frequencies of the various modes of
vibration for any arbitrary wave vector. He calculated some 280
vibrational frequencies, corresponding to 48 distinct points in the Brillouin
zone, which on account of symmetry really lead to about 6,700 frequencies
in the whole Brillouin zone. The only test which he was able to give for
these calculations was to compute the specific heat from the lattice
vibrations; the result was in good agreement with experiment, but we
have already noted that the specific herit i:;; not a very Rensitive test for
1 R. H. Lyddane and K. F. Herzfeld, Phys. Rev., 64 :846 (1938).
2 E. W. Kellermann, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London), A238 :513 (1940); Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), Al 78 :17 (1941).
Sec. 9-5] THE LAmCE ENERGY OF IONIC CRYSTALS 221
the correctness of a spectrum of lattice vibrations, as is shown by the

comparative success of the Debye theory.
Lyddane and Herzfeld, however (loc. cit.), had already pointed out at
the time that Kellermann made his calculations that a simple model such
as he used was inconsistent with the known dielectric behavior of the
crystal. Kellermann disregarded the electronic polarizability of the ions,
and thus, as we see from the relation of Lyddane, Sachs, and Teller, given
in Eq. (8-11), he could not possibly arrive at the correct ratio of the fre-
quencies WL and wT, of the longitudinal and transverse optical modes at
long wavelength. This is shown in Fig. 8-2, taken from the work of
Woods, Cochran, and Brockhouse (loc. cit.) on sodium iodide. The
dashed curves in that figure give calculations for sodium iodide carried
out by the method of Kellermann, to show the large discrepancy found in
the calculation of WL when that method is used. Kellermann's method
leads to fairly good values of WT, the residual-ray frequency, as Fig. 8-2
shows.
The first obvious step toward improving the results of Kellermann is to
include the electronic polarizability along with the lattice displacement,
as we have done in Sec. 8-4. This, however, still does not lead to results
in very good agreement with the experimental lattice spectrum. Szigeti1
carried through a treatment like that of Sec. 8-4, except that of course for
an alkali halide he assumed that the ordinary Lorentz factor was correct,
or that the constant b which we introduced in that section is unity. He
derived the equivalent of Eq. (8-20) for the case b = I, which is
+ (Koo+ 2) 2 (Ne 2/9mEo) (9 27)
"· = Koo wi - (Koo + 2)(Ne 2/9mEo) - W2 -
In this equation, one knows experimentally the value of K.,,, N, e, the

reduced mass m, and consequently can find the value of the resonant fre-
quency WT, given by
w~ = w~ - (Koo+ 2)(Ne 2/9mEo) (9-28)
provided one knows wo. The latter quantity can be found from the
methods of Kellermann, deriving it from the experimental values of
lattice spacing and compressibility, according to the Born-Lande theory.
The value of WT found in this way proved not to agree very well with
experiment. Szigeti found that he had to modify it by replacing e by an
effective charge, less than the true electronic charge. Hence it was clear
that further modification in the theory was required. Lyddane and
Herzfeld had already pointed out in the work referred to earlier that some
modification of the theory was required, and had suggested a line of
procedure.
1 B. Szigeti, Trans. Faraday Soc., 45 :155 (1949); Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A204 :51
(1950).
They had suggested that the short-range repulsive interaction between

10ns should depend on their electronic polarization. This idea was
developed by Yamashita and Kurosawa,1 by Dick and Overhauser, 2 and
by Hanlon and Lawson, 3 in several papers in the 1950s, and has since been
extensively employed by Cochran and coworkers. 4 The general idea can
be described by reference to Fig. 9-2. In Fig. 9-2a, we show a line of
(a)
(b)
(cl
(d)
Frn. 9-2. Diagram illustrating the shell model. Larger circles represent electron
shell of negative ions; smaller circles, of positive ions. Points represent nuclei and
inner cores: (a) Undisplaced positions of ions; (b) ions displaced bodily, without dis-
tortion, by electric field pointing to right; (c) shells displaced to left by field, showing
effect of electronic polarization [nuclear positions same as in (b )] ; (d) shells of adjacent
ions pushed apart by repulsive effect, partly canceling effect of electronic polarization.
positive and negative ions, in an unpolarized crystal of an alkali halide;

we have shown a case with small positive ions and large negative, similar
1 J. Yamashita, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 7 :284 (1952); Progr. Theoret. Phys. (Kyoto),
8 :280 (1952), 12 :454 (1954). J. Yamashita and T. Kurosawa, J. Phys. Soc. Japan,
10 :610 (1955).
2 B. G. Dick, Jr., and A. W. Overhauser, Ph,is. Rev., 112 :90 (1958).
3 J. E. Hanlon and A. W. Lawson, Phy8. Rev., 133 :472 (1959).
4 See numerous papers in the Bibliography, by W. Cochran (1959 to date), R. A.
Cowley (1962 to date), and A. D. B. Woods (1960 to date). Review articles by

Cochran are given in Rept. Progr. Phys., 26 :1 (1963), and Advan. Phys., 9 :387 (1960),
10 :401 (1961).
to the case of sodium iodide which was used as an illustration in Fig. 8-2.
In (b) we show the result of displacement of the ions, as would occur in
the residual-ray or transverse optic mode if there were no electronic
polarization. We assume an electric field along the x direction, and show
the positive ions displaced in that direction, the negative ions displaced
in the opposite direction.
In addition to this effect, however, there will be electronic polarization,
in which we can consider very roughly that the shell of negative charge
is being displaced along the direction of negative x, leaving the nucleus
undisplaced. Since the polarizability of the negative ion is much greater
than that of the positive ion, we have shown in (c) a considerable displace-
ment of the outer electronic shell of the negative ions to the left, with very
little dispacement of the shells of the positive ions.
We now notice, in (c), that we have closely spaced pairs consisting of a
positive and a negative ion. In such a case, from the principles of molec-
ular theory, as outlined in Volume 1, we know that there will be distor-
tion of the electronic shells, not taken into account in the simple theories
of ionic displacement and electronic polarization. We clearly have a par-
tial overlapping of the closed-shell structures of a positive ion and its
neighboring negative ion. In such a case, as we know from the very ear-
liest example of repulsive electronic states treated in Volume 1, namely,
the Ht ion, overlap charge will be removed from the region of overlap of
the ions, and will reappear on the opposite sides of the ions. In fact, it
is this redistribution of overlap charge which is partly responsible for the
repulsion. In Fig. 9-2d, we have endeavored to show this effect schemati-
cally by pushing the electronic shells of the negative ions slightly to the
right, those of the positive ions slightly to the left, on account of the local
repulsions of the shells. The net result of this is that this repulsive effect
between shells produces a net polarization, particularly of the negative
ions, in the opposite direction to that already produced by the displace-
ment of the ions, and the electronic polarization. This affects both the
dielectric constant and the forces acting on the ions.
Yamashita and Kurosawa, Dick and Overhauser, and Hanlon and
Lawson all considered approximately this same effect, and were par-
ticularly interested in the effect on the dielectric constant. Dick and
Overhauser made some effort to calculate the amount of displacement of
the shells on account of overlap, by comparison with the Reitler-London
calculation of the repulsion of two helium atoms, which we have outlined
in Volume 1. 1 The other writers have treated the effect simply as an
1 They did not, however, take aecount c,f the need of varying the wave function~ so
as to minimize the energy, and of its effect on the virial theorem and the relation
between kinetic and potential energies. As a result of this, they came to erroneous
conclusions regarding the changes of potential and kinetic energy in the process of
overlap.
empirical one, to be described by assumed parameters. The formulation

which they adopted, and which Cochran, who was interested mainly in
the lattice dynamics, has extended, can be described in words as follows:
They assumed that the contents of a unit cell, namely, a single positive
and single negative ion, could be described in terms of the displacements
of four, rather than two, variables: the displacements of the nuclei, or
cores (nuclei plus inner shells), of the two ions, and the displacements of
the outer shells of the two ions, the latter not necessarily equaling the
displacements of the cores. They assumed that the forces between
neighboring ions consisted of four different sorts of terms: interactions
between the cores of the two ions, interactions between the core of one
ion and the outer shell of the same ion, interactions between the core of
one ion and the outer shell of the other ion, and interactions between the
outer shells of the two ions. The second type of interaction, between
the core and shell of the same ion, leads essentially to the electronic
polarizability. They assumed that a considerable part of the short-range
repulsion between neighboring ions came from the interactions between
the outer shells of the two ions, thereby describing the effect by which
these shells tend to push each other apart, as in Fig. 9-2d. To carry out
these assumptions, they set up classical equations of motion for each of
these types of systems, namely, for each core, and each shell, in the unit
cell. They were then in position to set up the theory of lattice vibrations,
as we have done in Chap. 7, on the assumption of four particles per unit
cell. However, they assumed the effective masses of the electronic shells
were so small as to be negligible compared with the nuclear masses,
thereby pushing the extra resonant frequencies which would otherwise be
introduced out to infinity (as we have done with the electronic resonant
frequencies, when considering the infrared resonant vibrations). They
assumed empirical values for the various force constants concerned.
Cochran in particular has proceeded in this way, and has adjusted
the empirical constants to get the best fit possible with the lattice vibra-
tion spectra, and other experimental data. It is such a fit which was
used in calculating the full lines in Fig. 8-2. In that particular case,
simplifications were made: the electronic polarizability of only the negative
ion was considered, since the electronic polarizability of the sodium ion
is so small compared with that of the iodide ion. Furthermore, repulsive
interactions between any but closest neighboring ions were neglected.
Later more elaborate work not making these approximations gave
formulas with more disposable constants, with which practically perfect
fit hl'iwecn observations aud experiment was obtained. However, in
these more elaborate calculations, the physical meaning of the various
arbitrary constants was largely lost, and it is an open question how far
it pays to carry this type of calculation. In any case, constants can be
obtained by fitting the vibration spectra along special symmetry direc-

tions in the Brillouin zone, and when calculations from the theory are
made for nonsymmetry directions, the results prove to agree very well
with experiment, so that the method in any case proves to be a valuable
interpolation method.
This shell model has been extended and reinterpreted in many different
ways. In the first place, a substantially equivalent method has been
suggested by Mashkevich and Tolpygo, 1 from a somewhat more theoreti-
cal point of view. Namely, they wrote the energy of the crystal as a
quadratic function both of the nuclear displacements of the various ions,
and of the electronic polarizations. The shell model as used by Cochran
can be interpreted in these terms, though without giving such a clear
picture of the physical processes concerned. Second, a good deal of the
application of the method, including some of the work of Cochran and
associates, and of Mashkevich and Tolpygo, has been concerned with
nonionic crystals with more than one atom per unit cell, particularly
with such crystals as silicon and germanium. It is clear from Fig. 9-2
that the effect of repulsion between the outer shells of atoms will occur
whether we are dealing with atoms or ions, and that in any case it will
result in additional polarizations of the atoms, not describable in terms
of ordinary polarizabilities in a macroscopic external field. By use of
this type of model, very satisfactory theories of the lattice vibrations
of such crystals have been given. In Fig. 8-3 we showed the case of
germanium, and calculated curves for this problem agree well with the
experiments. Incidentally, we may now comment on a feature of that
figure which we have not mentioned previously: the limiting frequencies
of the optical transverse and longitudinal branches agree in the limit of
k = 0, rather than differing as in an alkali halide. The reason is clear
at once from the Lyddane-Sachs-Teller relation of Eq. (8-11). Nonionic
crystals do not have an infrared resonance which is optically active, since
the infrared vibrations are not associated with the motion of ions but
of neutral atoms, which therefore do not interact with the light waves.
Hence 'there is no difference between the quantities called Ko and Koo in
Eq. (8-11), and consequently no difference between wL and wr.
Still another use which has been made of the shell model is a discussion
of ferroelectricity by Cochran (loc. cit., Advan. Phys.). Cochran has
adapted the same kind of argument to a crystal such as barium titanate,
with more than two atoms in the unit cell. He obtains reasonable expla-
nations of the ferroelectric properties of this material, without invoking
the enhanced values of the Lorentz factors which we have mentioned in
Secs. 8-4 and 8-5. He feels that polarizability effects arising from the
1 See papers in Bibliography by V. S. l\fashkevich and K. B. Tolpygo (1956-1962).

interactions of the shells help in producing the infinite dielectric constant

which is very nearly achieved at the transition temperature in such
materials. Since however the assumptions of the standard Lorentz
calculations really do not apply in such crystals, it appears to the present
author that additional study of these more complicated cases is required.
All the treatments which we have been describing are following the
same semiempirical line which was originated by Born and Lande in
1918. These, as we have noted earlier in the chapter, treated the short-
range repulsions as empirical facts, and of course at that period it was
impossible to explain them in terms of more fundamental theory. Now,
however, of course we know how to explain them in terms of wave
mechanics. In the next section we shall come to a discussion of the
work which has been done in extending the general methods of Born
and Lande to a discussion of the energy of ionic crystals on the basis of
wave mechanics. We shall find that as far as the static problem is con-
cerned, great success has been attained from the fundamentals of quan-
tum mechanics in explaining the cohesive energy of ionic crystals. Only
a start 1 has been made toward applying the same sort of treatment to
the problem of lattice vibrations, and to a fundamental discussion of the
phenomena described semiempirically by the shell model. The tech-
niques exist at present for considering a crystal in which the positive and
negative ions have the type of displacements relative to each other found
in the transverse optical mode. For an alkali halide, the crystal in such
a distorted state would have tetragonal symmetry. One could solve
for the energy bands with different amounts of distortion, and find the
restoring force constant for the transverse optical mode by finding the
total energy as a function of the displacement, getting the quadratic
approximation to the energy, or using the Hellmann-Feynman theorem.
It is to be hoped that such calculations will be attempted before too long,
so as to put the theory of lattice vibrations on a more fundamental basis.
9-6. Quantum-mechanical Calculations for Ionic Crystals. We have
just mentioned the existence of quantum-mechanical calculations paral-
leling the work of Born, Lande, and Madelung on the cohesive energy
of ionic crystals. Let us ask how this calculation would be made, in the
light of wave mechanics. We may hope, as mentioned in Sec. 9-1, to
calculate the energy of the crystal wave-mechanically as a function of
the parameter a, and we may hope that the results will agree with the
empirical equation of Born and Lande, Eq. (9-1), or a corresponding
. formula with the Born-Mayer exponential repulsion, well enough to give
agreement with experiment. Such calculations have been carried
1 See S. 0. Lundqvist, V. Lundstrom, E. Tenerz, and I. Waller, Arkiv Fysik, 16 :193
(1959), and other papers by Lundqvist in the Bibliography.

Sec. 9-6] . THE LATTICE ENERGY OF IONIC CRYSTALS 227
through, first by Landshoff, 1 and later in much more detail by Lowdin. 2

We shall describe Lowdin's calculations, which are among the most com-
plete which we have for ionic crystals, and which were carried out for
the whole series of alkali halides, both with the sodium chloride and the
cesium chloride structures.
Lowdin based his calculations on an assumed completely ionic struc-
ture. That is, he assumed, for instance in NaCl, that he was dealing
with Na+ and Cl- ions, whose wave functions could be taken to be those
determined by the self-consistent field method for the corresponding free
ions. The problem is then quantum-mechanically similar to that of
the repulsion of two helium atoms, treated in Volume 1, Sec. 6-4. We
noted in that section that for such a problem of interaction of closed-shell
atoms or ions, the result is identical whether we use a Reitler-London
or a molecular-orbital approach. In Volume 1, Appendix 10, we carried
through the case of two helium atoms by both methods, showing that
the results were the same by either. Lowdin took advantage of this fact,
and in fact the general treatment of the Reitler-London method with
use of nonorthogonal orbitals, which was given in Volume 1, Appendix 9,
was worked out by Lowdin for use in the problem of the ionic crystals.
The characteristic of this problem of interacting closed-shell atoms or
ions is that a single determinantal wave function forms a satisfactory
description, and configuration interaction is much less necessary than
in such a problem as the R 2 molecule, involving covalent binding. We
recall that in setting up such a determinant, the result is not changed
if we use a new set of orbitals which are linear combinations of the original
orbitals. This is the reason why the Reitler-London and molecular-
orbital methods lead to the same answer in this case. In the Reitler-
London method, we assume that the orbitals are atomic orbitals on the
various atomic sites. In NaCl, for instance, we should have ls, 2s, 2p
orbitals on the sodium, and ls, 2s, 2p, 3s, and 3p on the chlorine. In
the molecular-orbital method, we replace the atomic orbitals by Bloch
sums of the atomic orbitals, representing filled energy bands. For the
reason 'just stated, the determinantal functions set up in both cases are
identical, though they have quite different appearances. We can also
set up a determinantal function in a different way, by finding orthogo-
nalized atomic orbitals, essentially similar to W annier functions, and
making a determinantal function from these. This is the method which
was used by Lowdin. By using the orthogonalized functions, he had
the advantages of dealing with a determinantal function formed from
orthogonal orbitals. From Volume 1, Appendix 9, we know that the
1 R. Landshoff, Z. Physik, 102 :201 (1936); Phys. Rev., 52 :246 (1937).
2P. 0. Li:iwdin, Arkiv Mat. Astron. Fis., A35(9): (1947), (30) (1948); Advan. Phys.,
6:1 (1956).
formulas for energy and other quantities are much simpler in such a
case than when nonorthogonal orbitals are used.
The various integrals which must be calculated to find the energy are
familiar from earlier discussions which we have given of the energy of
single determinantal functions. One meets the various types of integrals
encountered in molecular theory: one-center, two-center, three-center,
and four-center integrals. Lowdin computed the required integrals,
using a method essentially the same as that of Barnett and Coulson (see
Volume 1, Appendix 15, for a discussion of this method), though his work
in fact preceded that of those workers. He was able to make simplifica-
tions on account of the fact that he was dealing with closed shells of
electrons; in many cases he could combine integrals connected with the
various m values, where m is the magnetic quantum number of the atomic
problem, in such a way as to simplify the results. Some of the integrals
are of the Coulomb type, and these include calculations of the interaction
of nuclei on each ion, with the total charge distributions of all other ions
in the crystal. These terms are of the type which we have been con-
sidering in the preceding sections dealing with the Madelung problem
and Ewald's method of solving it. These applications of Ewald's
method find their place in Lowdin's calculation, and if one analyzes it,
one finds that here, as in the classical theory of Born and Lande, the
electrostatic interactions between ions form the leading term in the
problem. It is not surprising, then, that the final result resembles that
of Born and Lande, and in turn agrees with experiment. ·
What Lowdin found, in fact, was a far-reaching resemblance between
the quantum-mechanical calculation and the Born-Lande theory. There
is no point going into the details of the calculation. As we have indicated,
it does not involve any types of result which were not already familiar,
either from molecular calculation or from the Madelung theory. We
shall instead concentrate on the results. As we have just hinted, there
was a widespread agreement with experiment, holding qualitatively, and
to a very considerable extent quantitatively. ·
For example, in Fig. 9-3 we give a figure from Lowdin's paper, showing
a remarkable agreement with experiment. This figure shows results on
the change of volume with pressure of KCl. Instead of merely computing
the compressibility and its change with pressure, Lowdin has found the
fractional decrease of volume as a function of pressure, over a range com-
parable with that which can now be reached by high-pressure experimenta-
tion. There are two curves of volume versus pressure in Fig. 9-3, one for
the sodium chloride structure, the other for the cesium chloride structure.
It is found experimentally that though KCI has the sodium chloride
structure at low pressure, it changes to the cesium chloride structure at
high pressure. The latter structure has a smaller volume. The experi-
mental curve of change of volume versus pressure thus takes a sudden

break at the point where this polymorphic transition occurs. As we see
from Fig. 9-3, this results in the experimental curve suddenly jumping
from quite good agreement with the computed curve for the NaCl struc-
ture to the computed curve for the CsCl structure. The close agreement
between computed and experimental curves in each of these ranges is
typical of what Lowdin finds for all the alkali halides, several of which
show such transitions. When we remember that there are no empirical
facts going into the calculation, we see how far the theory has progressed
beyond the semiempirical Born-Lande treatment.
Free-energy
No Cl structure
Free-energy CsCI structure
Fw. 9-3. Lower curves, relative compression AV /Vo of KCl as function of pressure.
[From Lowdin, Advances in Phys., 6 :1 (1958).] Theoretical curves show both the
NaCl and CsCl structures. Experimental curve shows polymorphic transition,
sudden transition from NaCl structure at low pressure to CsCl structure at high
pressure. Upper curves, free energy of both phases as function of volume, theoretical.
The stable state is that of lower free energy. The two curves should cross where
transition occurs.
We next ask: Why do we have the transition from the one crystal
structure to the other at the particular pressure where it occurs? Here
we must make connections with the thermodynamic theory of phase
transitions. (See for instance Slater, "Introduction to Chemical Physics,"
chap. XI, particularly sec. XI-7.) The condition for equilibrium between
two phases is that their free energies should be equal, and the phase with
the lower free energy is the stable phase. To find where the transition
should occur, one must then compute the free energy of each phase as a
function of pressure, and see where the two curves intersect. This was
done by Lowdin, and the curves are given in Fig. 9-3. We see that they
do in fact intersect, not far from the observed pressure where the transition
occurs, and the curve for the NaCl structure lies lower at low pressure,
while that for the CsCl structure is lower at high pressure. In other
words, the theory is capable of explaining the phase transition, as well as
the properties of each individual phase. We can see from the figure that
a very small modification of the energy of one of the phases with respect
to the other would cause the intersection of the free-energy curves to shift
to the observed value.
Lowdin not only considered the uniform compression of the crystal, as
in Fig. 9-3, but also other types of distortion, such as shear. He found
the change of energy produced by these strains, and from this information
was able to deduce the elastic constants. In this connection, he discussed
a point which has received a great deal of attention. It can be shown
that a general cubic crystal possesses three independent elastic constants,
cu, c12, and C44. We shall not go into the theory of elasticity to define
these constants, but refer the reader to Lowdin's papers, or to references
given there, for such a treatment. The point, however, is that it was
shown many years ago that a crystal in which the interatomic forces were
of the type assumed by Born and Lande, namely, attractions or repulsions
between pairs of atoms, which were functions only of the distances between
the two atoms, had a special property; it was necessary in such a crystal
that c12 = C44. It had been known experimentally for some time that
this relationship did not hold for the alkali halides. Lowdin found that
in his treatment of elasticity, the relation c12 = C44 did not have to hold
in the quantum theory, and in fact the three elastic constants which he
found agreed rather well with the experimental values. Thus it is clear
that one can get a good treatment of elasticity in general from the wave-
mechanical model, not merely of the compressibility.
Finally Lowdin investigated the cohesive energy of the alkali halides,
namely, the total energy of the crystal at the equilibrium distance, minus
the energy of the separated ions. He found this by separate calcula-
tions of both cases. The results could be compared with experiment in
several cases, notably LiCI, NaCl, and KCl, and the calculated values
agreed with the observed values within 1 or 2 percent. This shows very
fine agreement, though we must remember, as has been pointed out
earlier, that the major part of the cohesive energy in these cases comes
from the electrostatic energy, and the cohesive energy as computed in
this way is much larger than the energy difference between the equilibrium
configuration and the state of the separated atoms, rather than ions.
The general conclusion of this discussion is that Lowdir{'s calculations
showed remarkable agreement with experiment. Nevertheless we must
realize that there are a number of points in which the calculations could
be improved. In the first place, the atomic orbitals used in the calcula-
tion were taken from the calculations of isolated ions, and were not modi-
fied as the ions ,vere brought together to form the crystal. We know
now from recent molecular calculations that such modification is of con-
siderable importance, and really should be included for an accurate result.
It will be much less important in an alkali halide crystal than in a crystal
Sec. 9-6] THE LATTICE ENERGY OF IONIC CRYSTALS 23l
with covalent binding, since there is much less overlapping between the
atoms in the ionic case, but nevertheless one should really include some
variable parameters in the description of the atomic orbitals, and should
determine these parameters by variational methods at each interatomic
distance. By so doing one would approach self-consistency.
Next, we know that configuration interaction is necessary in order to
get a really good agreement with experiment. As we have pointed out
earlier, this is less important for an alkali halide crystal than for a covalent
case, but still it should be considered. Specifically, the extreme ionic
picture which is represented in the single determinant used by Li:iwdin
certainly overemphasizes the ionic nature of the crystal. In our discussion
of the LiH molecule in Volume 1, Sec. 7-2, we have seen that for that case
we need not only an ionic basis function, but also covalent types of basis
functions, in order to get a good description of the molecule. The LiH
case undoubtedly has much more covalent character than an alkali halide
crystal would have, but this still suggests that a linear combination of
determinantal functions would give a better description of the alkali halide
crystal than the single determinant used by Li:iwdin. In particular, if a
sufficiently complicated configuration interaction were used, we should
find that the curve of energy versus the constant a would go from the
ground state at the equilibrium distance, not to an ionic state at infinite a,
but to the state of separated neutral atoms. It is likely, however, that the
change from a typically ionic type of wave function, which we presumably
have at small distances, to the atomic type at large distances, would occur
rather suddenly at values of a considerably greater than the equilibrium
distance, unlike the case of LiH, where there was a gradual change over
the whole range of internuclear distances considered.
In spite of these misgivings about the results of Lowdin's calculations,
they remain a landmark in the development of the theory of the cohesive
energy of crystals. Very few ionic crystals have yet been investigated in
anything nearly approaching the same detail. Lundqvist1 has studied
LiH in approximately the same detail, going somewhat beyond Li:iwdin's
methods in that he has investigated the effect of varying the atomic
orbital of the hydrogen atom. Y amashita 2 has calculated the lattice
energy of LiF, to approximately the same accuracy. Howland 3 has car-
ried through a calculation of KCl similar to that of Lowdin, in connection
with a study of the energy bands of that crystal. C. M. Sonnenschein
(unpublished) has made a calculation of the binding energy of the MnO
crystal, by methods as accurate as those of Lowdin, getting a very satis-
factory result. P. De Cicco (unpublished) has calculated the binding
1 S. 0. Lundqvist, Arkiv Fysik, 8:177 (1954).
2 J. Yamashita, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 7 :284 (1952).
3 L. P. Howland, Phys. Rev., 109 :1927 (1958).
energy of KCl, using augmented plane-wave types of wave functions, and

the free-electron approximation for exchange, rather than the LCAO
method used by all other workers, and has found equally satisfactory
results.
In addition to these relatively few calculations of fundamental accuracy,
there has also been a good deal of study of more complicated ionic crystals
from a point of view closer to that of Born and Lande. The Madelung
energies have been computed, as we have stated earlier, for a variety of
crystal structures, and since the electrostatic energy is the major com-
ponent in the cohesive energy of an ionic crystal, one can get rather good
values for the binding energies even of complicated crystals in this way.
In particular, the energy differences between different polymorphic forms
of the same crystal come in some cases mostly from differences in Madelung
energies, and by computing these, it has often been possible to draw
conclusions regarding the stability of various polymorphic forms of the
same substance. We shall not go further into these calculations, but
references to a few of them are given in the bibliography in Sec. 10-4, in
case the reader is interested in following the subject further.
10
The Thomas-Fermi and Wigner-Seitz
Methods, and the Cohesive Energy
of Metals
10-1. The Thomas-Fermi Method and Its Application to Solids. In

the preceding chapter, we have seen how Born, Lande, and Madelung
were able to set up a very usable theory of the cohesive energy and elastic
constants of ionic crystals, starting in 1918, before wave mechanics was
available. No such development was possible for metals. The main
source of cohesive energy in ionic crystals is the completely classical
Coulomb attraction of the ions. With metals, there is no such classical
explanation of the binding. From Volume 1 we know that in the covalent
bond, as in the hydrogen molecule, the overlap charge between atoms, a
result of wave mechanics, is the explanation of the binding. Metallic
bonds are of the same general sort, and for this reason it was not possible
even in a descriptive or qualitative way to discuss metallic binding before
the development of wave mechanics in 1926.
Since that date, however, developments of several different orders of
sophistication have led us closer to a proper understanding of metallic
binding, and we shall take up these methods in the present chapter. We
have noted that the first treatment of metallic properties, after 1926, was
the free-electron theory of Sommerfeld and his colleagues, based on Fermi
statistics. This method did not include any study of the interaction of
the electron gas with the atomic nuclei, being based on the idea of an
electron gas in the presence of a uniformly distributed positive charge, so
that the crystal as a whole was electrically neutral. No mechanism of
binding was present in this model. However, the Thomas-Fermi model, 1
1 L. H. Thomas, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 23:542 (1927). E. Fermi, Z. Physik,

48:73 (1928). For the application to atomic structures, a short discussion is given in
"Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure," vol. 1, appendix 17. Many papers dealing
with the method are included in the bibliography in vol. 2 of that work. One may cite
233
suggested by those authors in 1927 and 1928, applies the Fermi-Dirac

statistics to electrons in a variable potential field, combining this with a
requirement of self-consistency, but using classical mechanics and the
ideas of the free-electron gas instead of solving Schrodinger's equation.
Its first applications were to problems of atomic structure, but it has
since proved valuable in the study of solids, both ionic crystals and metals.
We take up these developments in the present section, then go on in later
sections to more sophisticated treatments of the metallic-cohesion problem,
based on real solutions of Schrodinger's equation.
We may introduce the idea of the Thomas-Fermi method by considering
Eq. (1-12). This states that the number of electrons per unit volume in a
free-electron gas is given by
N
(10-1)
V
in the Fermi-Dirac statistics. If the charge on the electron is - e, this

leads to a charge density
1
p = -e%11'(2mEF)~i h 3 (10-2)
Let us now assume that we have a potential V(r), where r is the vector
position. We shall choose the zero of energy to equal the Fermi energy.
At any point, then, the lowest possible energy of an electron is - eV, the
potential energy, and we can have any higher value of energy by adding
an arbitrary amount of kinetic energy. The assumption of Thomas and
Fermi was that the electron gas at a given point of space behaved like a
free-electron gas, and that the maximum possible kinetic energy was that
which would bring the total energy up to the Fermi energy of zero. In
the derivation of Eq. (1-12), it was of course assumed that the potential
energy was zero, and E F referred to the maximum kinetic energy of the
electron. In the present case, we should assume that this maximum
kinetic energy plus the potential energy ( - e V) equaled the Fermi energy
(zero), or maximum kinetic energy = eV. In other words, we assume
particularly the hook by P. Gombas, "Die statistische Theorie des Atoms und ihre
Anwendungen," Springer-Verlag OHO, Vienna, 1949. Papers dealing with the
method are included in the Bibliography at the end of the present volume, under the
following authors:
R. A. Ballinger (1954), L. Brillouin (1934), P.A. M. Dirac (1930), V. A. Erma (1957),

E. L. Feinberg (H)35), E. Fermi (1928), E. S Fradkin (Hl59), H. Fujiwara (1%6-
1961), S. Golden (1957-1960), P. Gombas (1943-1963), H. Hellmann (1935), H.
Jensen (1932-1938), E. 0. Kane (1963), W. Lenz (1932), N. H. March (1957-1962),
.T. C. Slater (1935), M . .T. Stephen (1963), L. H. Thomas (1927), V. P. Trubitsyn
(1960), K. Umeda (1958).
Sec. 10-1] WIGNER-SEITZ METHOD, AND COHESIVE_ ENERGY OF METALS 235
that the charge density is related to the potential by the equation derived
from Eq. (10-2),
1
p = -e%,r(2me V)¾ h 3 (10-3)
This is the charge density of electrons; in addition, there will be charge

arising from the various nuclei of the system.
We can now apply the condition of self-consistency: the electrostatic
potential V must be determined by Poisson's equation from the charge
density p of electronic charge, as given in Eq. (10-3), and the nuclear
charge. If we use mks units, in which V 2 V = -4,rp/4,rE 0, we have
(10-4)
an equation holding except at the positions of nuclei, where V has singu-

larities. If we are using Gaussian units, we omit the quantity %Eo in
the denominator. In Eq. (10-4) we have a differential equation for the
potential, based on a self-consistent field, and on the assumption that the
Fermi distribution which actually holds only for a free-electron gas should
hold at a given point of space in a potential field varying with position.
We are to solve Eq. (10-4) subject to different boundary conditions,
depending on the nature of the problem concerned. If we are dealing
with an isolated atom, V will be spherically symmetrical, it will reduce to
the potential of the nucleus for small enough values of r, and it will go
to zero at infinite distance. This case is taken up in "Quantum Theory of
Atomic Structure," vol. 1, appendix 17.
One of the first applications of the Thomas-Fermi method to solids
was carried out by Lenz and Jensen. 1 Lenz supplied some of the initial
ideas which Jensen applied to an ionic crystal with the sodium chloride
structure. Since the statistical method is expected to be best for an atom
with many electrons, Jensen used in his first paper the crystal of RbBr,
though in his later work he treated several of the alkali halides. Lenz
showed that it is possible to derive the Thomas-Fermi equation from a
variation principle, and Jensen expanded the density functions for the
positive and negative ions in a form convenient for the application of this
method. We shall take up this variation method in the next section.
Jensen then treated the interaction of the ions in the crystal, using of
course the results of the Madelung discussion of the potential in an ionic
lattice, as we have taken it up in the preceding chapter.
1 W. Lenz, Z. Physik, 77 :713 (1932). H. Jensen, Z. Physik, 77 :722 (1932); 101 :l 64
(1936). See also II. Jensen, Z. Physik, 81:611 (1933); 82:794 (1933); 89:713 (1934);
93 :232 (1935); 101 :141 (1936); 110 :277 (1938) (with G. Meyer-Gossler and II.
Rohde); 111 :373 (1938), for further developments of the Thomas-Fermi method as
applied to solids.
He investigated the total energy of the crystal, and found how it varied
with interatomic spacing, assuming first that the ions were brought
together rigidly in the crystal, without change of their charge densities,
though later he considered their mutual polarization. It is not hard to
find the total energy of the crystal, in this type of approximation. In a
given element of volume, we know the potential by solution of Eq. (10-4),
and the charge density from Eq. (10-3). Consequently the potential
energy of the charge within this volume element can be found, and simi-
larly we find the potential energy of the nuclei in the field of electrons and
other nuclei. As for the kinetic energy, this is assumed to be the same at
a given point of space as the kinetic energy of a corresponding Fermi gas
having the same maximum kinetic energy. It is very simple to prove that
the electrons in a Fermi gas, at the absolute zero, have an average kinetic
energy which is three-fifths of the Fermi energy, where for the moment we
assume the case of zero potential energy, so that we can find the kinetic
energy. In the work of Jensen, the total energy was found to have a
minimum, at an internuclear spacing which formed a fairly good approxi-
mation to the observed internuclear distance in the actual crystal.
Lenz and Jensen discussed not only the total energy, but also the kinetic
and potential energies separately, which of course they could compute.
It is known 1 that the kinetic and potential energies in the Thomas-Fermi
approximation satisfy the virial theorem. In Appendix 6 we show that
the form taken by the virial theorem for a solid under hydrostatic pressure
lS
Kinetic energy = - 3--1 potential energy + ½,pv (10-5)
where pis the pressure, v the volume. This is a relation similar to Volume
1, Eq. (2-40), which holds for a molecule. As in the case of the molecule,
we find at infinite interatomic separation, and also at the equilibrium
separation, where the pressure is zero, that the kinetic energy is - 3--1 times
the potential energy. Hence the decrease of total energy as the atoms or
ions are bound into the crystal is made up of a decrease of potential
energy which is twice as great, and an increase of kinetic energy equal to
the decrease of total energy. The general behavior of the kinetic and
potential energies, as functions of the volume, is entirely similar to what
we have discussed in Volume 1, Sec. 2-5, in connection with diatomic
molecules. The case of an ionic crystal is one in which, as the atoms are
brought together from infinite separation, the kinetic energy increases
continuously, the potential energy decreases continuously, while the total
energy shows a minimum at equilibrium. As the crystal is compressed
1 V. Fock, Physik Z. Sowjet11nion, 1 :747 (1932). H. Hellmann, Z. Physik, 86 :180

(1933). H. Jensen, Z. Physik, 81 :611 (1933).
Sec. 10-1] WIGNER-SEITZ METHOD, AND COHESIVE ENERGY OF METALS 237
to a smaller volume than the equilibrium volume, the repulsive part of the
total energy arises because the kinetic energy is increasing faster than the
potential energy decreases. These features were found in the case exam-
ined by Jensen, and were later discussed along similar lines by Hellmann
(Zoe. cit.).
Following this work of Lenz and Jensen on ionic crystals, the present
author and Krutter 1 applied the method to metals, using the cellular
method. They replaced the Wigner-Seitz cell of an alkali metal by a
sphere of the same volume, as Wigner and Seitz had done in their dis-
cussion of sodium. The Thomas-Fermi equation, Eq. (10-4), then has
spherical symmetry, as for an isolated atom, but the boundary conditions
are different. As with the atom, the potential should reduce to that of
the nucleus at small values of r. The difference comes at large values of r.
We do not care about the solution as r becomes infinite. However, at the
surface of the Wigner-Seitz sphere, the value of dV /dr should be zero.
This is the electric field, and if the sphere is electrically neutral, as it must
be, there will be no field at the surface. In the work cited above, a
family of curves of V versus r was computed numerically, satisfying Eq.
(10-4), and having zero slope at different values of the radius. Thus
solutions were found for a variety of Wigner-Seitz spheres, or for different
volumes of the metal.
When the total energy was computed as a function of the volume of the
metal, no minimum was found. The energy increased continuously as
the volume decreased, the increase of kinetic energy more than balancing
the decrease of potential energy. It was later proved analytically by
Feinberg 2 that this had to be the case. The attraction found for the ionic
crystal by Jensen arose from the attraction between the oppositely charged
ions, which was missing in the metallic case. Hence an external pressure
would be required to keep the metal in equilibrium, which can be com-
puted at once from the relation p = -dE/dv, where v is the volume.
Similar but more elaborate treatments since the time of the work dis-
cussed above have been used to find the equation of state of metals at
very high pressures.
The calculation which we have been describing is deficient in a very
serious way: it takes no account of the exchange energy, or of correlation.
It assumes that an electron is acted on by the potential of the nuclei and
of all electrons, including itself. The next step in improving the method,
a step which was actually taken in some of the papers cited above, is to
put in a correction describing the exchange, and this will be discussed in
the next section.
1 J. C. Slater and H. M. Krutter, Phys. Rev., 47 :559 (1935). See also J. C. Slater,
Rev. Mod. Phys., 6:209 (1934).
2 E. L. Feinberg, Physik Z. Sowjetunion, 8:416 (1935).
10-2. The Exchange Correction in the Thomas-Fermi Method. The

exchange problem in the free-electron case was discussed by several
workers 1 early in the development of wave mechanics. Their arguments
are given in detail in "Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure," vol. 2,
appendix 22, and for that reason we shall only sketch the situation here.
Dirac was discussing exchange from the point of view of the Thomas-Fermi
method, while Bloch was considering a free-electron gas, in a field-free
space, but was interested in the magnetic behavior of such a gas, which
demanded a discussion of exchange. The later discussions of Wigner and
Seitz and of Brillouin were adaptations of the work of Dirac and Bloch to
practical cases.
Both Dirac and Bloch started with a wave function formed as a deter-
minant of spin-orbitals representing a state in which the electrons moved
in free space, so that their wave functions were plane waves, exp ik • r.
It was assumed that the k vectors of these plane waves filled a sphere in
k space, up to the spherical Fermi surface, discussed in Sec. 1-4. Then
it turned out to be a soluble problem to compute the exchange correction
to the total energy. As pointed out in the discussion of appendix 22,
cited above, there are two ways in which the calculation can be carried
out, and Dirac used one, Bloch the other. For finding the correction
term in the Thomas-Fermi method, the procedure of Dirac is more
suitable.
He was interested in computing the exchange term in the equivalent
of the Hartree-Fock equation. This equation, in mks units, is
Ji,2
- - v'~u;(l) - -
2m 411"Eo
e2 I (a)
z
~
Tia
u;(l)
+ 4e 2
"ll"Eo
["
~
(j) Juf(2) _!_ u;(2) dv2] ¼(l)
T12
2
- 4e ' \ ' (j) [
"ll"Eo ~
Ju;*(2) _!_ u;(2) dv2 u;(l)] = E;u;(l)
r12
(10-6)
as given in Volume 1, Eq. (5-1), except that in that case the equation is
expressed in atomic units. The quantity u.(l) is one of the spin-orbitals.
The first two terms represent the kinetic energy operating on this spin-
orbital, and the potential energy of all nuclei, where Za is the nuclear
charge, in units of the electronic charge, r 1a is the distance from the 1st
electron to the ath nucleus. Next we have the Coulomb interaction
between the ith electron, and all electrons, including itself (since the
summation over j includes the case j = i). The last term on the left
side of the equation is the exchange term.
1 F. Bloch, Z. Physik, 67 :545 (1929). P. A. M. Dirac, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc.,
26 :376 (1930). E. Wigner and F. Seitz, Phys. Rev., 43 :804 (1933). L. Brillouin,
L' Atome de Thomas-Fermi, Actualites Sci. et Ind., no. 160, 1934.
Sec. 10-2] WIGNER-SEITZ METHOD,-AND COHESIVE ENERGY OF METALS 239
In the case of the free-electron gas, where the u/s and u/s are plane
waves, it is shown in the appendix quoted above that one can compute
explicitly the exchange term in Eq. (10-6). One can write the last term
on the left side of Eq. (10-6) in the form u;(l) times an exchange potential
energy, the latter being given by
Exchange potential energy = - -4e 4 ( -83 -
7Ho 7r V
2 N)h F(,,,) (10-7)
where as before N /v is the number of electrons per unit volume. The

quantity 'T/ is given by
lkl
71 = - (10-8)
kmax
Herek is the wave vector of the orbital u; in Eq. (10-6), and kmax is the
value of lkl associated with the Fermi level. We can get at it, from Eq.
(1-12), by setting
EF = k~ax Ji,2 (10-9)
2m
where m is the electronic mass, and where Eq. (10-9) gives the kinetic
energy of a free electron. The function F(71) is given by
F(71) = !2 + 1 471
- 712 ln 1 + 71
1 - T/
(10-10)
This function is shown in Fig. 10-1, which is identical with "Quantum

Theory of Atomic Structure," Fig. A22-l. As in the discussion given in
f(77)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 7J
Fw. 10-1. Function F(TJ) of Eq. (10-1()), giving relative exchange energy in free-
electron gas, as function of 7/, ratio of momentum to momentum at Fermi surface.
appendix 22 of that work, we note that F(71) goes from unity when T/ = 0,
for an electron of zero kinetic energy, to :!,,i when 11 = 1, at the top of the
Fermi distribution.
We see, then, that the exchange term is a function of the wave vector
or energy of the electron which we are considering. For setting up the
equation of the Thomas-Fermi method with exchange, commonly called

the Thomas-Fermi-Dirac method (abbreviated TFD), we proceed in the
following way: We assume, as in the derivation of the Thomas-Fermi
method, that the Fermi energy equals zero, and the potential energy
in the field of all electrons is - eV. However, the actual potential energy
of an electron at the Fermi surface must be corrected by the exchange
potential energy at the Fermi surface, which as we have just seen comes
by setting F(TJ) = 7f Hence we have
!!!_ (i_
N)% - eV - _!:_ 2
2m 81r v 41rEo
N )~3 = 0
81r v
(i_ (10-11)
We have in Eq .. (10-11) a quadratic equation for [(3/81r)(N /v)]~3• Its

solution is
4m 2e4 2me 2 ] (10-12)
2meV + (41rE0) 2h 2 + 41rEoh
where the + sign must be chosen. We now use Poisson's equation as
before, which in terms of N /v can be stated
v2v = 41re N (10-13)

41rEo V
We thus have finally
v2v = 41re 81r [ 4m 2e4 2me 2 ] 3

(10-14)
41rEo 3h 3 2meV + (41rE0) 2 h 2 + 41rEoh
as the Thomas-Fermi-Dirac equation. We see that if the terms in 2me 2 /
(41rEo)h and its square are omitted, this reduces to the Thomas-Fermi
equation, Eq. (10-4). It is Eq. (10-14) which is used, for instance, in
the calculations of Slater and Krutter quoted earlier.
We shall now consider the total energy, and shall show that Eq. (10-14)
follows from this by a variation method, as was shown by Lenz (Zoe. cit.)
and by Jensen [Z. Physik, 89:713 (1934)]. We write the energy as a
volume integral of the energy per electron, times the volume density of
electrons, which we have been writing as N /v. As we have stated, the
average kinetic energy per electron is % times the Fermi energy E F,
which is expressed in terms of N /v in Eq. (1-12). Next we have the
potential energy of the electrons in the field of the nuclei, which is
- -e
2
471'",Eo
fl (a)---dv1
Za N(l)
r1a 1J
(10-15)
where N(l)/v represents the density of electrons at point 1, where the

nuclear potential energy is being computed. For the potential energy
Sec. 10-2) WIGNER-SEITZ METHQ_D, At-llLCOHESl\'_E ENERGY OF METALS 241
of interaction between electrons, we have
! ~ ff ~(l) N( 2) _!_ dv1 dv2 (10-16)

2 41rEo V V r12
where the ½ is to avoid counting electron pairs twice.
For the exchange interaction, we must first find the average value of the
expression of Eq. (10-7) averaged over the Fermi distribution. As stated
in appendix 22, quoted above, this corresponds to an average value of
F(ri) equal to¾- The exchange correction is to be subtracted from the
potential energy term
e2 f
N(2) 1 d
41rEo -v- r12 v2
appearing in Eq. (10-16), representing the potential at the point 1 of all
electrons, including this electron itself. Hence in finding the exchange
potential energy we require the same factor ½ which is present in Eq.
(10-16). We then find for the exchange potential energy
- 4:: 0 ; f (s: ~)½ ~ dv = - 4:: 0 ; (;1ry1 J(~Y dv

1
(10-17)
The total energy is then
This is the energy expression used by Lenz and Jensen, and Slater and
Krutter, in the papers mentioned earlier. The first term is the kinetic
energy, the second the interaction between electrons and nuclei, the third
the Coulomb interaction between electrons, including the interaction of
electrons with themselves, and the fourth is the exchange correction. The
last term is the interaction energy between pairs of nuclei. We shall
later discuss the results of energy calculation by this method. Before
doing so, however, let us follow Lenz and Jensen in showing that the
Thomas-Fermi-Dirac equation can be derived from this equation by varia-
tion of the electron density, N /v. To do this, we shall find the variation•.
of the energy expression, when N is varied. Since the total number of
electrons must remain fixed, we use the method of undetermined multi-
pliers, and set the variation of the energy, plus a constant times the
variation of the quantity J(N /v) dv, equal to zero.
We then find the following result, in which the only point of any com-
plication is that in the Coulomb interaction of electrons, we must vary

both N(l) and N(2), thus obtaining two identical terms, canceling the
2 in the denominator:
(10-19)
As usual in such problems, we set the expression multiplying o(N /v) under
the integral sign equal to zero. The constant which appears is merely an
additive constant in the energy, which can be chosen in any arbitrary
way; the choice which we have been using in our discussion is to set it
equal to zero. Hence we are left with the result
If we define the Coulomb potential V of Eq. (10-11) as
V(l) = _e_ \' (a) Za - _e_

41no L r1a 41no
f N(2) _!_ dv2
V r12
(10-21)
which is the ordinary electrostatic potential arising from the nuclei and
all electrons, we see that Eq. (10-20) is identical with Eq. (10-11), which
we have used in deriving the Thomas-Fermi-Dirac equation, Eq. (10-14).
Hence we verify our statement that this equation can be derived from an
ordinary variation principle: the particular charge density, or alternatively
the particular potential, which will minimize the total energy, including
exchange, as given in Eq. (10-18), is the one which will satisfy the TFD
equation.
There is one important point connected with this result, which we shall
notice again, and which is sometimes overlooked. In Eq. (10-20), we
have a relation equivalent to a one-electron Schrodinger equation, such
,as Eq. (10-6). We recognize in Eq. (10-20) the kinetic energy term,
treated according to the free-electron picture rather than according to
wavP mechanics; the two terms in the Coulomb potential, the first arising
from the nuclei, the second from all electrons; and the exchange term.
However, the exchange term in Eq. (10-20) is not what we should at first
expect it to be. We have stated in Eq. (10-7) that the exchange potential
energy appearing in place of the last term of Eq. (10-6) should be

2
- -e 4 ( - -
4'11"Eo
3N)~
81r V
3
F(TJ) (10-22)
where the average value of F(TJ), as we have stated, is ¾- Hence this

argument would lead us to think that the exchange term should have the
numerical factor 3, instead of the value 2 found in Eq. (10-20). The point
is that the exchange potential occurring in the Thomas-Fermi-Dirac equa-
tion is not that for the average electron, but for that at the top of the
Fermi distribution, for which F(TJ) is ½, which is only ½ as great as the
average value ¾. This is the reason why the exchange term is only ½ as
large as would be expected at first sight.
The expression for exchange potential energy of Eq. (10-22), with
F(r,) = ¾, has been recommended by the present author 1 as a substitute
for the exact exchange potential in the Hartree-Fock equations, Eq.
(10-6), treating N/v as the local electron density, and this averaged
exchange potential has been used for many solid-state as well as atomic
calculations with a good deal of success. It seems reasonable in finding
the wave functions and one-electron energies to use the average value of
F(TJ), as in this suggestion. It would presumably give a better overall
approximation to the one-electron energies than the use of F(TJ) = ½,
which occurs in the Thomas-Fermi-Dirac equation, as we have just seen.
The value ½ is appropriate for the top of the Fermi distribution, rather
than providing a suitable average. Some writers 2 have felt that on
account of the importance of the variation principle for the total energy,
it was more important to use a simplified exchange correction determined
by variation of the total energy, as in the Thomas-Fermi-Dirac case,
rather than using the averaged potential with F(TJ) = ¾. The author
does not agree with this point of view, feeling that the one-electron energies
are more important in energy-band calculations. On account of the
variation principle, the slightly different wave functions which we find by
use of F(r,) = ¾ rather than½ will make only a second-order change in
the total energy. The success of the calculations of De Cicco on the total
energy of KCl, using the APW wave functions determined by using
F(r,) = ¾, which we have mentioned in Sec. 9-6, shows that one can
get good total energies, as well as good one-electron energies, by this
procedure.
Before we leave this section, we should state the type of result found by
1 J. C. Slater, Phys. Rev., 81 :385 (195]). flee also "Quantum Theory of Atomic
Structure," vol. 2, sec. 17-3. References to atomic calculations using this method are
given in Sec. 11-3.
2 See for instance R. Gaspar, Acta Phys. A cad. Sci. Hung., 3 :263 (I 954); W. Kohn
and L. J. Sham, Phys. Rev., to appear.

l
:I
Slater and Krutter for the energy of metals as a function of internuclear

separation, using the TFD method. When the energy was computed by
Eq. (10-20), using values of N /v found by the TFD equation, Eq. (10-14),
it was found that inclusion of the exchange term had resulted in a con-
siderable decrease of the repulsive effect found by use of the Thomas-Fermi
method without exchange, but no attraction had appeared. Hence this
method did not seem capable of explaining the equilibrium of a metal.
This should not greatly surpris€ us. In Volume 1, we have considered
the energy of molecules as functions of the internuclear separation. We
have found that the result of a self-consistent-field calculation, using a
single determinantal wave function, sometimes indicates binding, but in
some cases fails entirely to lead to binding. The further improvement of
the energy, arising from correlation effects, and handled in the molecular
case by configuration interaction, in some cases is responsible for all, or
almost all, of the binding energy. The TFD calculation which we have
reported here is a fairly crude approximation to a self-consistent-field
calculation, carrying no form of correlation between electrons of opposite
spin. We can hardly expect a very good result from it. The more elabo-
rate treatments which have been given of cohesion in metals have relied
heavily on correlation effects to explain the cohesion. In the next section
we shall go on to the first of these, the calculation of Wigner and Seitz on
sodium.
10-3. Wigner and Seitz's Treatment of Exchange and Correlation.
Wigner and Seitz, in their well-known treatment of the structure of the
sodium crystal, found that the wave function of the conduction electron
of sodium was very much like a free-electron function, through all the
space except the immediate neighborhood of the inner shells of the sodium
atoms. It therefore seemed very reasonable to handle the exchange and
correlation in this problem as one would do it for a free-electron gas. They
were interested particularly in finding the complete energy of the crystal
as a function of lattice spacing, so as to compute the cohesive energy,
compressibility, and so on. This calculation, in varying degrees of sophis-
tication, was carried out in successive papers. 1
The reader will recall that Wigner and Seitz replaced the polyhedral
Wigner-Seitz cell by a sphere of equal volume, having a radius r.. They
found the one-electron energy of the atom compressed into the sphere,
as a function of r., finding that this gave a curve with a, minimum at a
given value of internuclear separation, as indicated in Volume 2, Fig.
'E. Vl'ignP-r and F. Seitz, T'h:,;s. Rev., 43 :804 (1933), 46 :.509 (1934). E. Wigner,
Phys. Rev., 46:1002 (1934); Trans. Faraday Soc., 34:678 (1938). We shall refer to
these papers as J, II, III, IV, respectively. The calculations are summarized in F.
Seitz, "The Modern Theory of Solids," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1940, particularly secs. 77-84.
Sec. 10-3] WIGNER-SEITZ METHOD, AND COHESIVE ENERGY OF METALS . 245
8-3, where it forms the bottom of the 3s energy band. They assumed that
the energy terms involving the core electrons (ls, 2s, 2p for sodium) would
be the same in the crystal as in isolated atoms, so that they could be
disregarded. Then they considered that to find the energy of the whole
crystal as a function of r,, they first had to take this one-electron energy,
Eo, as a function of r,, multiply it by the number of atoms, and then make
a number of corrections.
First, the wave function in question, which joins periodically onto its
neighbors in each unit cell, represents the bottom of the Fermi distribu-
tion. We must then add a correction term for the mean kinetic energy of
an electron in the Fermi distribution. This, from Eq. (10-18), is
Average KE= - h
-(- 3 3)% (N)~
5 2m
2
81r
-
V
1
(10-23)
If we wish to express it in terms of r,, we have the relation that the number
of electrons in a sphere of radius r, is unity; that is,
(10-24)
so that
Average KE = -3 -h
2
5 2m
(
-3
81r
)% (-41r3 )% -r;1
9h 2 ( 3 )H•l (10-25)
= 801rm 21r ~
If we express the radius r, in terms of the atomic radius, ao, and the energy
in Rydbergs, we find ·
Average KE = i~ ( 2: y 1
(r,/~o) 2 Rydbergs
2.21 Ry
(10-26)
(r./ao) 2
If we multiply this average kinetic energy per electron, by the number of
electrons per unit volume, N /v, we get the kinetic energy per unit volume,
to be added to N /v times E 0 •
We are assuming that E 0 includes the complete energy, kinetic plus
potential, of the conduction electron in the Wigner-Seitz sphere. This
does not include, however, any correction on account of the interaction
between the various conduction electrons in the crystal. If we accept
the approximation literally that a single atom is enclosed in a sphere with
impenetraolc walls, each sphere will eontain a single conduction electron,
and they cannot interact with each other. In the real crystal, however,
there are no such walls, and each electron can wander freely throughout the
crystal, so that electrons can interact with each other. The wave func-
,,
~
~
l
1
j
i
tions of the conduction electrons were found to be close to plane waves,
as we have indicated before. Hence it seemed to be a reasonable approxi-
mation to treat the interaction of the electrons as if they constituted a
free-electron gas, rather than moving in the field of the positive Na+ ions
located at the points of a body-centered cubic lattice. To make the
crystal electrically neutral, of course the electronic gas, of density equal
to one electron in a sphere of volume % 1rr!, would have to be balanced by
a positive charge distribution. Wigner and Seitz assumed, in treating
electron interaction, that this positive charge could be assumed to be
uniformly distributed over the volume. Hence they considered a free-
electron gas, in which the positive and negative charge distributions would
exactly cancel, so that the electric field would be everywhere zero, and
the exact solution of the Hartree-Fock equations would be a plane wave,
resulting in the self-consistent situation that each of these plane waves
leads to a charge distribution independent of position, so that the total
charge density would be ptecisely zero everywhere.
This is the case for which the free-electron exchange calculation holds.
Consequently they assumed that each electron would be surrounded by a
Fermi hole, as discussed in "Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure"
(quoted above), appendix 22. The total exchange potential energy is
found as the product of the number of electrons per unit volume, times an
average exchange energy found from Eq. (10-17), equal to
Average exchange energy =
(10-27)
Again we express r, in terms of a 0 , and the energy in Rydbergs, and find
Average exchange energy = 3( 3

- 2 21r
)% r,/ao
1 Rydbergs
0.916 Ry
(10-28)
r,/ao
The expressions in the form of Eqs. (10-26) and (10-28) are given m
Wigner's paper IV, quoted above.
In the most primitive form of the Wigner-Seitz calculation of the energy
of a sodium crystal, ihey found the energy Eo, corrected it by the Fermi
energy of Eq. (10-26) and the exchange energy of Eq. (10-28), and in this
way found an energy per electron, as a function of r,. This led to an
energy minimum which was not nearly deep enough to agree with the
experimental energy of the crystal, and they concluded from this that an
additional correction for correlation between electrons of unlike spin was

required. We know 1 that in the helium atom, the wave function decreases
when two electrons of opposite spin approach each other, a behavior which
is not predicted by the Hartree-Fock method. If we take account of
this fact, it will reduce the energy still further. Wigner derived a term
which took the form
. 0.58 Rydberg
Correlation energy = - (r./ao) + 5 _1 (10-29)
which is considered by many writers to give a valid representation of the

correlation energy, and is to be added to the exchange term.
Wigner's argument leading to Eq. (10-29) may be described qualitatively
as follows: He starts with unperturbed electronic wave functions in the
form of plane waves, then proceeds by perturbation theory to take into
account the repulsive interaction between pairs of electrons. This leads
to the form which Eq. (10-29) takes at large electron density, or small
values of r,. For small electron density, or larger,, Wigner considers that
a free-electron gas in the presence of a uniformly distributed positive
charge density would condense into separate electronic distributions at
the points of a body-centered cubic lattice. Then, by a Madelung cal-
culation, he finds the energy of the negative charge clouds immersed in
the uniform positive charge distribution, and comes out with the limiting
form -0.58/(r,/ao) Rydberg, which Eq. (10-29) takes in the case of large
r,. The expression (10-29) represents an interpolation between these two
cases. The detailed argument given by Wigner is so involved that it is
difficult to verify these statements from Wigner's papers.
By use of this correlation correction, as well as the Fermi energy and
exchange correction, one obtains a total energy as a function of r,, or
internuclear separation, which shows the right qualitative behavior, and
gives good quantitative agreement with the observed cohesive energy.
A large amount of discussion has been based on the expression of Eq.
(10-29) for correlation energy. Nevertheless it should be pointed out that
if we look at the problem of correlation in metallic sodium in a realistic
way, we can see that this expression does not behave in the qualitatively
correct way.
It is now generally accepted, following a suggestion of Lowdin, that the
proper definition of correlation energy is the difference between the
Hartree-Fock energy of a system, and the true experimental energy (the
Hartree-Fock calculation including the relativistic correction, whose mag-
nitude iR great enough so that it must be conRidered in a detailed compari-
son of theory and experiment). Now a sodium crystal resembles a
hydrogen molecule, in that if we take the single determinantal function
1 For a discussion, see "Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure," vol. 2, ser. 18-2.
in which each of the electrons is assigned to a spin-orbital of the Bloch type,

corresponding to a definite k value, and compute the energy of this wave
function, it will not go to the correct energy at infinite separation.
Instead, as in H 2 , it will go to too high an energy, corresponding to a wave
function in which there is a mixture of ionic with neutral type of behavior
for the separated atoms. The true correlation energy must correct this
erroneous result of the Hartree-Fock calculation. It must, then, reduce to
a finite correction at infinite internuclear separation, or infinite r•.
Wigner's function of Eq. (10-29), on the contrary, goes to zero as r,
becomes infinite. Hence we cannot accept Eq. (10-29) as representing
even approximately the correct type of function to represent the true
correlation, in a sodium crystal.
The unjustified assumption which Wigner has made is in replacing the
true distribution of positive charge, at large values of r,, by a uniformly
distributed positive charge density, or in replacing the electron cloud by
a real free-electron gas. This of course is the same assumption which
is made in using the free-electron type of exchange correction, which
likewise does not behave properly in the limit of large internuclear separa-
tion. In the next chapter we shall describe further and more sophisti-
cated treatments of correlation in the electron gas in an alkali metal,
which still make the same unjustified assumption which we have just
pointed out, and consequently are essentially just as far from the true
facts.
The writers on cohesion in alkali metals (there are many references in
the bibliography at the end of Sec. 10-4) have mostly accepted these
inadequate treatments of correlation and exchange, and have indicated
agreements between theory and experiment far surpassing in accuracy
most of the calculations of the energy of diatomic molecules as functions
of internuclear separation, except a very few cases such as the H 2 molecule
where very accurate calculations have been made. The present author
feels that these apparently accurate calculations of the cohesive energy
of alkali metals do not have the justification which is usually accorded
to them. This seems to be one of those cases in which an inadequate
theory has given numerical results more accurate than its postulates
justify, tending therefore to discourage further, more critical work.
Many such cases are known in the earlier, less satisfactory treatments
of molecular theory. In the next section we describe a more modern
approach to cohesion in alkali metals, which makes no use of these rela-
tively poor approximations to exchange and correlation.
10-4. Lowdin's Treatment of Cohesion in Alkalies, and Alternant
Molecular Orbitals. The best treatment which we have of the cohesion
in alkali metals has been given by Lowdin. 1 He has developed the LCAO
1 P. 0. Lowdin, J. Chem. Phys., 19:1570, 1579 (1951).
method to a point where it is capable of accurate results, and in the second

paper quoted above he has applied it to the sodium crystal, obtaining
results for the cohesive energy in fairly good agreement with experiment.
This calculation is essentially a Hartree-Fock type of calculation: he has
set up a single determinantal function, composed of spin-orbitals in the
form of Bloch sums of atomic orbitals, for all one-electron states below
the Fermi surface, and has made an accurate calculation of the energy
of this determinantal function, comparing it with the energy of the sepa-
rated atoms, as calculated in the same way. This is along the same
lines as his earlier ~ork on the alkali halides, quoted in the preceding
chapter, Sec. 9-6. As in that earlier work, all nonorthogonalities, three-
and four-center integrals, and other refinements, were taken into account,
though by ingenious methods the details of the calculation were simplified.
The calculation carried out in this way, of course, being a molecular-
orbital type of treatment, does not take proper account of correlation.
The actual situation in an alkali metal, at large internuclear separation,
is that the true ground state is that in which each atom is electrically
neutral, one electron condensing on each atom. The mixture of the ionic
states, corresponding to some positive and some negative ions, which is
inherent in a single-determinant wave function of the Hartree-Fock type,
must fall off to zero as the internuclear distance increases, just as the
contribution of the ionic Reitler-London state goes to zero in H 2 as the
internuclear distance increases. We must have a wave function, then,
in which the presence of an electron on one atom drives away electrons
of the opposite spin, as well as electrons of the same spin. Since there
must be as many electrons of one spin as of the other in the crystal, this
means that if an electron of one spin is located on a given atom, there
will be more than an even chance that the electrons on nearest neighbor-
ing atoms will have the opposite spin.
Such distributions were discussed many years ago by the present
author 1 in connection with this same problem. The paper just cited
played a part in suggesting the method of alternant molecular orbitals,
which Li:iwdin 2 has proposed for handling correlation both in linear chains
2 P. 0. Lowdin, Symp. Mo/. Phys., Tokyo, 1953, p. 13; Proc. 10th Solvay Conf.,
1955, p. 71; Phys. Rev., 97:1474, 1490, 1509 (1955); J. Appl. Phys., 33 (supp. 1):251
(1962). R. Pauncz, J. de Heer, and P. 0. Lowdin, J. Chem. Phys., 36 :2247, 2257
(1962). J. de Heer, J. Chem. Phys., 37 :2080 (1962); J. Phys. Chem., 66 :2288 (1962).
R. Pauncz, J. Chem. Phys., 37 :2739 (1962). J. de Heer, Rev. Mod. Phys., 36 :631
(19(;:'l). .J. de Heer and R. Pauncz, J. Chem. Phys., 39 :2314 (1963). J. n. Rwalen
and J. de Heer, J. Chern. Phys., 40 :378 (1964). J. W. Moskowitz, J. Chem. Phys.,
38:677 (1963). J. W. Moskowitz and M. P. Barnett, J. Chem. Phys., 39:1557 (1963).
R. Pauncz, "Molecular Orbitals in Chemistry, Physics, and Biology," Academic Press
Inc., New York, 1964. G. Dermit, Phys. Rev., 127:1110 (]962).
of atoms, and in such crystals as sodium. This method allows one to

set up wave functions having the desired property of concentrating
electrons with opposite spins on adjacent atoms, rather than letting them
appear on the same atom. Some work has already been done on the
cohesive energy of linear chains, and metallic hydrogen crystals, by
Calais, 1 using this method, and he is understood to be applying it to the
problem of the cohesive energy of the lithium crystal. It seems at pres-
ent the most hopeful approach toward this problem; in contrast to the
treatment of Wigner and Seitz, it leads to the correct type of behavior
in the matter of dependence on internuclear separation.
This method has been discussed in Volume 1, Sec. 12-3, in connection
with its application to the benzene molecule, the first practical problem
to which it has been applied. The method used for crystals does not
differ in fundamentals from that sketched in Volume 1. The first step is
to pair each occupied molecular orbital, or crystal wave function, with an
excited, unoccupied function corresponding to the same wave vector plus
an additional amount which results in a change of sign in going from an
atom to its nearest neighbor. By setting up two wave functions, con-
sisting of the first function, plus or minus a constant times the second, we
have two functions with the general behavior of crystal wave functions,
but in which the first has an enhanced amplitude on alternate atoms,
while the second has enhanced amplitude on the intermediate atoms. If
we are dealing with a linear chain of atoms, or a ring as in benzene, one of
these alternant orbitals is strong on the even-numbered atoms, while the
second is strong on the odd-numbered atoms (the method in this case
would work only for a ring with an even number of atoms). In a body-
centered cubic· crystal, like an alkali, one alternant orbital would be
strong on the atoms at the centers of the cubes, while the other would be
strong on the atoms at the corners.
One next sets up a determinantal function, in which orbitals of one type
are occupied by electrons of one spin, and those of the other type by elec-
trons of the opposite spin. For this reason the method is sometimes called
that of different orbitals for different spins. The energy of this deter-
minantal function can be calculated, without great difficulty. The reason
is that by the method of construction, all orbitals of one type are orthogonal
to each other, so that all spin-orbitals are orthogonal, and we have the
simplified formula for total energy which is always met with orthogonal
spin-orbitals. If one adjusts the parameter determining the amount of
alternation to minimize the energy, one finds a decided improvement as
compared with the single determinant of the Hartree-Fock method.
Studies of the method as applied to the benzene case, where a complete
configuration interaction has been carried out, are made in some of the
1 J. L. Calais, Arkiv. Fysik, 28:479, 511; 29:255 (1965).
papers cited above, and show that this simple wave function yields a large
fraction of the correlation energy. It can be easily shown to reduce to the
proper behavior of neutral atoms at large internuclear separation.
The particular wave function we have described above is not an
eigenfunction of the spin operator; while it diagol!.alizes the z component
of spin, S,, it does not diagonalize the operator S 2 , and hence does not
correspond to a singlet state. Li:iwdin, Pauncz, and de Heer, in the
papers cited, show however that one can use a projection operator to find
a singlet from the single determinant we have described. Furthermore,
Li:iwdin has shown that the energy of the singlet state approaches that of
the single determinant as the number of electrons in the system increases
without limit. Thus the simple calculation described above can be
justified for the crystal, though it must be modified for the benzene
molecule, or similar finite systems. We shall have more to say regarding
the nature of the wave function in the next section.
Calais, in the papers cited earlier, has applied this method to the
metallic form of hydrogen. This hypothetical form of hydrogen has been
studied by a number of writers, 1 who have concluded that at a high
pressure of a good many hundred thousand atmospheres, a body-centered
cubic metallic modification of hydrogen should be more stable than the
ordinary crystal formed of diatomic molecules. Experimental evidence
has been found by Alder and Christian 2 of an actual transition from the
diatomic form to a metallic form in the somewhat similar case of iodine.
The results which Calais finds agree fairly well with those of Wigner and
Huntington, obtained by the cellular method. This case of hydrogen was
undertaken only partly for its own interest, but partly also as a simplified
version of the problem which one will meet with an alkali metal. It is
hoped that with the further development of the method, theoretical results
will soon be available for alkalies, leading to a treatment of correlation
which should be a good deal more reliable than that which we discussed
in Sec. 10-3.
This is a good point to break in with a listing of authors of papers on
cohesive energy of ionic crystals and metals, which will be found in the
Bibliography at the end of this volume. Papers bearing on this subject,
or some aspect of it, will be found by the following:
J. Bardeen (1938), G. B. Benedek (1959), G. C. Benson (1956, 1964),

W. E. Bleick (1934), M. Born (1918-1942), M. Bradburn (1943), H. Brooks
(1958), H. Bruck (1928), E. S. Campbell (1963), S. Chapman (1926),
1 E. P. Wigner and H. B. Huntington, J. Chem. Phys., 3 :764 (1935). R. de L.

Kronig, J. de Boer, and J. Korringa, Physica, 12 :245 (1946). A. Bellemans and M.
de Leener, Phys. Rev. Letters, 6:603 (1961). W. J. Carr, Phys. Rev., 128:120 (1962).
2 B. J. Alder and R.H. Christian, Phys. Rev. Letters, 4:450 (1960).
M. H. Cohen (1955), R. A. Cowley (1962), F. W. de Wette (1958-1964),

B. G. Dick (1962-1963), B. Donovan (1951), T. B. Douglas (1963), 0.
Emersleben (1923, 1951-1955), P. S. Epstein (1946), I. D. Eshelby (1958),
H. M. Evjen (1929-1933), P. P. Ewald (1921, 1953), K. Fajans (1919-
1941), R. P. Feynman (1949), E. Fisher (1951), R. H. Fowler (1926),
F. C. Frank (1950), J. Frenkel (1930), H. Frohlich (1937), P. 0. Froman
(1954-1964), K. Fuchs (1935-1942), F. G. Fumi (1957-1964), G. M.
Gandelman (1960-1962), R. Gasper (1954-1956), L. A. Girifalco (1956-
1959), P. Gombas (1935, 1951-1955), H. Hellmann (1933-1936), C.
Herring (1939), E. L. Hill (1935), L. P. Howland (1958), M. L. Huggins
(1937), F. Hund (1925-1936), H. B. Huntington (1940), E. Hylleraas
(1930), L. Jansen (1964), H. Jensen (1936-1938), H. Jones (1930-1950),
R. de L. Kronig (1946), A. Lande (1918-1920), R. Landshoff (1936),
J.E. Lennard-Jones (1924-1940), E. Lombardi (1964), P. 0. Lowdin (1948-
1956), S. 0. Lundqvist (1950-1954), E. Madelung (1909-1918), R. S.
Mashkevich (1960), A. May (1937), J.E. Mayer (1932-1933), R. D. Misra
(1940), N. F. Mott (1937, 1963), M. J.P. Musgrove (1962), T. Nagamiya
(1943), T. Neugebauer (1934), J. F. Nicholas (1953), B. Y. 0ke (1936-
1937), E. 0rowan (1934), S. C. Power (1942), E. S. Rittner (1951), Y.
Sakamoto (1958), L. A. Schmid (1953), W. Schottky (1920), J. Sherman
(1932-1934), J. C. Slater (1924-1940), H. Sponer (1937), G. I. Taylor
(1934), M. P. Tosi (1963-1964), A. Unsold (1927), E. J. W. Verwey
(1940), C. N. Wall (1927-1930), D. C. Wallace (1965), J. A. Wasastjerne
(1932-1938), E. Wigner (1934-1938), J. Yamashita (1952), S. N. Zadumkin
(1960).
10-6. The Alternant Molecular-orbital Method and Antiferromagnetism.

The simple wave function which we have described in the preceding sec-
tion for an alkali metal would be one in which the electrons of one spin
tended to be localized on atoms at the centers of the cubes, in the body-
centered cubic structure found in the alkalies, while those of the other spin
would be found at the corners. The reason why this localization would
result in an energy lower than that found by the molecular-orbital method
is simple. As the amount of localization increases, electrons of opposite
spin tend more and more to keep out of each other's way, so that the
electrostatic repulsive energy between them decreases, or correlation
between electrons of opposite spins is introduced into the wave function.
At the same time, the kinetic energy would increase, since the electrons
are coni-trained to be localized more in individual atoms, rather than
spreading out over the crystal. In the papers we have referred to, the
dependence of kinetic and potential energy on the amount of localization
is investigated, and while it is found as we have stated that the kinetic
energy increases, and the potential energy decreases, with increasing
Sec. 10-5] WIGNER-SEITZ METHOD, AND COHESIVE ENERGY OF METALS 253.
localization, the net effect is to lead to an energy which first decreases as

the localization builds up, goes to a minimum with a quite finite amount
of localization, then increases again. The amount of localization increases
with increasing internuclear separation, until finally at infinite distance
there is complete separation of charge of the two spins, and just one
electron is found on each atom. It is this fact which leads to neutral
atoms, and the correct energy, at infinite separation.
At the same time, this wave function leads to a type of behavior which
is not found experimentally. As we shall point out in the next volume,
antiferromagnetic substances are known, in which atoms on alternate sites
have spin magnetic moments pointing in opposite directions. This
behavior is found in many compounds, but also in a few elements. In
chromium, in particular, which has a body-centered cubic structure like
sodium, neutron diffraction discloses an antiferromagnetic arrangement,
of just the sort which would be found from the simple wave function in
which electrons of one spin occupy the centers of the cubes, while those
of the other spin occupy the corners. The chromium atom, having six
electrons outside the closed shell of 3s and 3p electrons, might be supposed
to have five of these electrons in 3d orbitals, leaving one for a 4s-like con-
duction electron. The calculated energy bands indicate more or less this
situation. The five 3d electrons in an isolated chromium atom or ion set
themselves with spin parallel, on account of Hund's rule. We might sup-
pose that in metallic chromium there would be an effect by which these
3d electrons would show an antiferromagnetic arrangement, quite aside
from what the conduction electrons were doing. It is such an arrange-
ment that the neutron diffraction indicates, but instead of finding a mag-
netic moment arising from five parallel spins, or five Bohr magnetons, on
each atom, the experiment indicates only about a tenth as much. For a
very simplified explanation of this fact, in the language of alternant
molecular orbitals applied to the 3d electrons, we should say that the
minimum energy comes from much less localization than would correspond
to a complete assignment of plus spins to one atomic site, a complete
assignment of minuses to the adjacent site.
We shall postpone to the next volume a more sophisticated examination
of this phenomenon. We must bring up here, however, the fact that no
such antiferromagnetism is observed experimentally for the conduction
electrons of the alkali metals. How would we reconcile this with the type
of wave function assumed in the alternant molecular-orbital method?
The explanation must come from the extensive configuration interaction
which would have to be 8Uperposed on the single-determinant treatment,
to get an acceptable wave function. We have pointed out that the
process of projecting a singlet state out of the single determinant makes
a negligible change in the energy, though it changes the wave function
profoundly. The author, in the paper mentioned earlier [Phys. Rev.,

36 :509 (1930)], pointed out that an extensive configuration interaction
would have to be assumed in the present problem, to get the really correct
ground-state wave function. We can describe the configurations which
must be mixed with the purely antiferromagnetic one in the following way:
Let us assume that the crystal contains many domains, inside each of
which there is a perfect antiferromagnetic arrangement of spins, but let
the phase change from one domain to the next, so that in an antiphase
domain the plus and minus spins would be interchanged with respect to
the original domain. The energy in the interior of each domain would be
the same, but around the domain boundaries there would be a slightly
different energy, since pairs of nearest neighbors would be found with the
wrong relation between their spins. If the domain boundaries contained
a relatively small fraction of the atoms, this would mean that the energy
would be only slightly different from that of the completely antiferromag-
netic structure. Many such wave functions would be mixed, to get the
configuration interaction characteristic of the true ground state.
This domain structure would destroy the long-range order found in
the perfect antiferromagnetic structure. If the domains were small
enough, the effect on neutron diffraction would be like that of very small
samples: the lines in the neutron diffraction pattern would be so broad-
ened that they would not be recognized as ordinary diffraction lines at
all. Since long-range antiferromagnetic order is not detected in the
alkalies by neutron diffraction, we must assume that this type of domain,
or mosaic, structure in such a case is carried to such an extent that the
domains are hardly more than a few atoms across. In other words, in
the language of order-disorder phenomena, which we have not yet had
occasion to take up, we have no long-range order, but a small amount
of short-range order. This reduces the situation pretty much to what
we indicated early in the preceding section: in the neighborhood of an
electron of a given spin, we are likely to find electrons of opposite spin,
but this effect would be soon washed out as we went to larger distances.
In other words, there will be some tendency for the nearest neighbors
of an alkali atom to have the opposite spin to the electron on the central
atom; on the second-nearest neighbor, the spin would be likely to be the
same as that on the central atom. But these distributions, oscillating
as we go out from the central atom, would have an amplitude of oscilla-
tion decreasing rapidly with distance, very soon settling down to a situa-
tion where there would be equal probability of finding either spin on
an at.om only a few atomic distances away.
Such a situation is probably very widespread, while the long-range
order found in chromium, leading to an observed antiferromagnetism,
is much less common. It seems likely that this short-range antiferro-
magnetic behavior is of importance in determining the crystal structure

of the metals. The body-centered cubic structure is ideally suited to an
alternating arrangement found in an antiferromagnetic substance. The
hexagonal structure, if it departs rather widely from the close-packed
case, allows some alternation, while the face-centered cubic structure
does not permit it at all. It has been pointed out to the author by
A. J. Cornish 1 that these facts correlate in a remarkable ,vay with the
observed crystal structures of the metallic elements. The alkalies, with
a half-filled s shell of electrons, and the elements like chromium, with a
half-filled d shell, tend to be found with body-centered cubic structure.
They are elements where the individual atoms have a net magnetic
moment, so that this type of antiferromagnetic coupling, either long-range
or short-range, would be effective. As we depart in either direction from
these elements in the periodic table, we come to hexagonal structures, and
in the cases of definitely nonmagnetic elements, such as calcium with a
filled 4s shell, or an inert gas, we find more often than not a face-centered
cubic structure. It seems very likely that these facts indicate the exist-
ence of some traces of antiferromagnetic coupling, brought about by the
tendency of such a wave function to take care of correlation, in many
cases through the periodic table.
1 A. J. Cornish, personal communication.
11
The Crystal as a Many-body Problem
11-1. One-particle Versus Many-particle Approach. Our general

approach to the electronic structure of a crystal, in Volume 2, and in the
earlier chapters of this volume, has been to reduce it to a one-particle
problem, by use of the method of the self-consistent field. In the two
preceding chapters, in which we have taken up the current treatments
of the cohesive energy of ionic crystals and of metals, we have had to
consider the many-electron aspect of the problem, since this is involved
in the calculation of the total energy of the crystal. We have not gone
very deeply into this many-body side of the crystalline problem, however,
and in the present chapter we shall indicate a few points of view regarding
it, which will lay the foundation for some of the work in the next volume
of this series.
Of course we are familiar with the standard method of reducing the
many-body problem to a one-electron approximation. First, we separate
the nuclear motion from the electronic motion, by use of-the Born-Oppen-
heimer approximation. Next, we use the Hartree-Fock method to set up
one-electron equations for the spin-orbitals of the problem, and use
Koopmans' theorem to identify the one-electron energies of the Hartree-
Fock equations with the negatives of the ionization potentials of the
various electrons. From our earlier work on atoms and molecules, we
understand the shortcomings of this approach, and we know in principle
how to take account of the correlation of electrons, either by means of
configuration interaction or by including the relative electron coordinates
ri; in the wave function. Let us look at these matters rather more
closely, however, and see what we are led to in the present problem of a
crystal.
One is interested in two quite different sorts of problems. First, one
may consider the cohesive or binding energy, a;; a function of nuclear
positions, as in the problem of the equation of state. . Here an accurate
total energy is important. Of course, if we had the exact wave function,
we should have this, but with the present imperfect state of the theory,
256
Sec. 11-1] THE CRYSTAL AS A MANY-BODY PROBLEM 257
we must ask what is the most practical way to get a good approximation.
The discussions of cohesive energy of ionic crystals and of metals in the
two preceding chapters have endeavored to treat this problem. We have
pointed out shortcomings in some of the current methods of handling
metals, though these shortcomings do not come into the problem of the
ionic crystals. The distinction between the two cases goes back to a
corresponding situation in molecules. Our treatments in general start
with something like a Hartree-Fock treatment, and then proceed to
correct this. We recall, from Volume 1, that for a system consisting of
closed-shell atoms or ions, such as a pair of helium atoms, the Hartree-
Fock method is fairly accurate. On the other hand, for a covalently
bonded system, like the H2 molecule or a metal, or a covalent crystal such
as diamond, we know that the Hartree-Fock single-determinant solution
reduces to the wrong behavior at large internuclear distance, which means
that configuration interaction, or other equivalent methods of handling
correlation, are much more essential than with the ionic crystals. We
have mentioned the method of alternant molecular orbitals for a metallic
case such as an alkali metal. For a covalent crystal such as diamond,
we must expect to use an equivalent of the Hurley, Lennard-Jones, and
Pople treatment1 of covalent bonds, which we have discussed extensively
in Volume 1 in its application to molecules. There is a well-known treat-
ment of the diamond crystal by Schmid, 2 using essentially this method,
which is capable of good results. ]\fore recent work by Coulson, Redei,
and Stocker 3 has repeated and extended this work of Schmid, and has
shown that it forms a proper starting point for the cohesive energy of a
covalent crystal. We have taken up this approach in Volume 2, Sec. 10-4
and Appendix 8.
The other type of problem which we meet deals with the excited states
of a crystal. There are many different types of problem all of which
require these excited states. The first and most obvious one is that of
optical excitation. If we go from the ground state to an excited state
by absorption of radiation, we need the energy differences between the
two states. But many other uses of the excited states are encountered.
For instance, in the study of specific heat of solids, we must distribute
different systems through their various possible excited states, according
to the Boltzmann factors exp - energy/kT, where the energy is the
excitation energy from the ground state. By making suitable averages
1 A. C. Hurley, J. E. Lennard-Jones, and J. A. Pople, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),

A220 :446 (1953). See references to extended valence bond method in Volume 1,
including Sec. 10-5 and Appendix 14.
2 L. A. Schmid, Phys. Rev., 92 :1373 (1953).
3 C. A. Coulson, L. B. Redei, and D. Stocker, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A270 :357,
373, 383, 397 (1962).

over these excited states, one finds the internal energy, free energy, and
other thermodynamic quantities involved in the thermal properties of
the substance. Again, magnetic problems involve these excited states,
particularly those having magnetic excitations, so that their energies
are affected by the presence of an external magnetic field. These and
other phenomena depending on the excitation are so important that in
fact many more problems involve the excited states than the ground
state.
We need not only the states with electronic excitation, but also those
with excitation of the vibrational motion of the nuclear system. These
vibrations come in, of course, in considering the lattice specific heat.
They come in also in almost all other types of phenomena. For instance,
as we have seen in Chap. 1, the problem of electrical conductivity brings
in the vibrational motion in an absolutely essential way: the scattering
of the electron waves by lattice vibrations is the main mechanism of
electrical resistance. Again, in optical absorption, we can excite the
lattice vibrations, and their quanta of energy or phonons, along with
excitation of the electrons. In almost all these cases, it is the coupling
between the electronic and the nuclear motion that is essential. This
coupling is neglected in the Born-Oppenheimer approximation. It arises
from the Rmall terms in the Hamiltonian involving both nuclear and
electronic coordinates, which are neglected in the derivation of the Born-
Oppenheimer approximation; they are given in Volume 1, Appendix 2.
These couplings are essential not only in many solid-state problems, but
also in molecular problems involving the interaction of electronic and
nuclear vibrational states, interactions usually denoted by the name
vibronic.
The excited electronic states of a crystal are sometimes simple, but
sometimes very complex. This complexity is seen in such cases as the
optical properties of a crystal containing rare earth ions. Here the 4f
electrons of the ions are so well protected by the remainder of the atom
that their interactions, resulting in the spectrum of the ions, are
much as in isolated ions, and there is a far-reaching similarity between
the spectra of these ions in crystals, and of the free ions. We meet con-
nections here with the multiplet theory of atoms, as handled in "Quantum
Theory of Atomic Structure." There are modifications, however, on
account of the crystalline environment, resulting in the behavior known
by the name of ligand field phenomena.
Here we see only a few of the many types of problems depending on the
excited st.ateR of a crystal. These are so much more extensive than those
which can be handled by the one-electron approximation that they will
occupy us for the larger part of the remaining volume in this series. The
reader of the present volume, then, cannot expect more at this point than
a mention of these problems, an orientation toward the way we shall handle

them, and an indication of the relatively restricted range of phenomena
which can be treated without serious attention to the many-body aspect of
the problem. Naturally, as with the central-field model of the atom, one
must understand the one-electron approach before seriously taking up the
many-body approach, and that is why we have treated this one-electron
problem in Volume 2 and the present volume. We may regard this whole
treatment as forming in a sense a parallel to "Quantum Theory of Atomic
Structure," chap. 8, whose title is The Central-field Model for Atomic
Structure. The remaining volume will give the equivalent of the treat-
ment of multiplets and other atomic problems in the remaining chapters
of that work.
We recall that in spite of the very inadequate nature of the one-electron
approach, nevertheless it is capable in the atomic case of giving a sur-
prisingly adequate account of the behavior of an atom, through the use of
Koopmans' theorem, or more broadly through the interpretation of the
one-electron energies as excitation or ionization energies of the various
electrons of the atom. That is, these one-electron energies approximate
rather accurately the energy difference between the ground state and an
excited state of an atom. Similarly the one-electron theory of a crystal
uses one-electron energies to approximate the excitation energies of the
electrons of the crystal. In the next section we shall analyze some of the
cases where this can be done, and shall then consider the question: What
one-electron problem do we wish to solve, in order to get the best agree-
ment between the one-electron energies and the excitation energies?
Should we use the self-consistent-field method, or perhaps a modification
of it?
11-2. One-electron Energies and Electronic Excitation. The most
characteristic use of one-electron energies to describe electronic excitation
in the case of crystals is found in the application of the Fermi statistics.
There it is assumed that we have a gas of noninteracting particles obeying
the Pauli exclusion principle, but in an arbitrary external field, so that
their energy levels can have any arbitrary arrangement. This includes
the case of a periodic potential, such as we have been considering, with
the characteristic arrangement of the energy levels in energy bands. If
we take the Fermi statistics literally, we must assume that the energy of
the crystal as a whole is the sum of one-electron energies. Now of course
we are perfectly aware of the fact that the total energy of a Hartree-Fock
system is not equal to the sum of the one-electron energies. There are
other terms, arising from interactions between pairs of electrons, which
come into the expression for total energy, and make a profound modifica-
tion. Hence we cannot assume that the Fermi statistics, which underlies
the whole modern theory of semiconductors and metals, follows in any
straightforward way from the fundamental postulates of the many-elec-

tron theory. This serious gap in the logical foundation of the theory has
been overlooked by many of the workers in the solid-state field.
Nevertheless the method works very well, and for this reason we must
expect that for the small excitation energies which we are ordinarily con-
cerned with, the excitation energy can really be expressed as a sum of
one-electron terms to a much better approximation than we should sup-
pose at first sight. For instance, in a semiconductor, at a relatively low
temperature, comparatively few electrons will be excited from the valence
to the conduction band. These excited electrons on the average will be
fairly far apart. Hence to a good approximation we may treat them as
being independent. It is only when two or more excited electrons happen
to be close together, or two or more holes, or when an excited electron is
close to a hole, that the interactions of the excited electrons and holes
become important. These cases must be considered specially; but apart
from them, it should be a good approximation that the excitation energy
should be the sum of excitation energies of the various excited electrons,
even though it is not even approximately true that the total energy of the
crystal should equal the sum of the one-electron energies of all the electrons
in it.
In individual, simplified cases we can show that it is approximately
true that the excitation energy can be written as the sum of one-electron
energies. In Volume.I, Appendix 13, we discuss the problem of a ring
of six hydrogen atoms, as a very simplified model of a one-dimensional
crystal. This problem is simple enough so that one can make a good
approximation to a complete treatment, by configuration interaction, of
the multiplets arising from the various possible excitations of the electrons.
In the ground state, the six electrons are arranged in the three lowest
energy levels, on a molecular-orbital scheme, corresponding to having the
lowest ,;tates in an energy band occupied, the upper ones empty. How-
ever, we consider all possible types of excitation in which the six electrons
remain in the same energy band, which would be capable of holding 12
electrons. There are a great many multiplets arising from these excita-
tions, but each one can be described in terms of the quantum numbers
(equivalent to the k values in an energy-band problem) of the occupied
molecular orbitals or energy-band functions. A complete configuration
interaction treatment of all these multiplets was carried out by Mattheiss,
and is described in the Appendix mentioned above.
In that Appendix, in particular in Sec. A13-2, we give a one-electron
approximation to the results. That is, we assign an energy to each of the
energy-band states, and compare the sum of these energies for the occupied
states, with the weighted average of the various multiplets arising when
these states are occupied, as found from the configuration-interaction
treatment. The result, discussed in that section, and shown graphically

for the lower excited levels in Fig. A13-2, is that one can get a surprisingly
good approximation to this weighted mean energy, from the sum of one-
electron energies. As is pointed out in the discussion in that Appendix,
one cannot prove in any rigorous way that we should get this agreement.
It depends on what seem to be chance agreements between various
exchange integrals, and these cannot be predicted a priori. Nevertheless,
the agreement is just the sort which would be required to treat this problem
of six hydrogen atoms by the Fermi statistics.
The reason why this problem was included in detail in Volume 1 is that
it is the only case of which the author is aware in which it has been pos-
sible to carry through by many-electron methods (in that case, by a
fairly extensive configuration interaction) a type of problem similar to
that in solid-state theory, to which the Fermi statistics is applied. One
could treat slightly longer chains of atoms, or could simulate very small
two- or perhaps even three-dimensional crystals, but the number of
multiplets which must be discussed very rapidly increases to astronomical
proportions as the number of atoms is increased. Hence it is very likely
that we shall not be able to do significantly better, in justifying the use of
one-electron energies to discuss crystal problems, than to use this case of
Hi;.
We shall consequently assume as an empirical fact that the Fermi
statistics, and the one-electron picture, work well for the discussion of
many properties of semiconductors and metals, and that this implies that
at least the lower excited states of the true many-electron problem can be
approximated fairly adequately as sums of one-electron energies. We
next ask: What one-electron energies are we to use? Are they to be
determined by Koopmans' theorem? We soon find that this is not the
case. In the case of H 6 , the one-electron energies which give good agree-
ment with the many-electron energy levels are not the one-electron energies
of the Hartree-Fock solution for the ground state of the H6 chain.
Rather, we use an excited state of the electrons for the determination of
the one-electron energies.
We recall that, since there are six atoms in the ring, there are six states
in the energy band; these are described in Appendix 13 quoted above, as
being given by quantum numbers m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, 3. The lowest are
0, ± 1, which are occupied in the ground state of the problem, leaving
±2, 3 empty. However, for finding one-electron energies which are
suitable for determining the excited states by adding them, we have used
a configuratio11 in which one election is in each of 1.he six states, but rtll
with the same spin. This leads to a single detcrminantal function, the
only one corresponding to having six parallel electron spins. The one-elec-
tron energies found from this configuration have the property that they
are fairly smoothly distributed in energy. In Appendix 13, Table A13-4,

the one-electron energies are given as follows:
m =0 - 2.882690 Rydbergs
m = ±1 -1.738612
m = ±2 0.378952
m =3 3.808346 (11-1)
The differences of energy are 1.144078, 2.117564, 3.429394 Rydbergs,

showing a regular progression. On the other hand, if we had used the
ground state, the two occupied levels, with m = 0, ± 1 would have been
closer together, with a larger gap between these and the empty levels,
and the additivity would no longer have worked out. This phenomenon
is of fundamental importance, and we discuss it in the next section.
11-3. One-electron Energies in the Hartree-Fock Problem. In the
Hartree-Fock method, an electron moves in the field of the nuclei, all
electrons (including itself) diminished by the field of the exchange or
Fermi hole, a charge distribution which moves around with the electron
in question, and whose total amount is one electronic charge if we are con-
sidering an occupied orbital, but zero if we are considering an excited
orbital. It is this difference between the fi~ld acting on an occupied and
an excited orbital which is the significant matter in the present discussion.
The energy of an electron is naturally diminished if it is not repelled by an
electronic charge located in the Fermi hole. Consequently there is a
depression of the occupied orbitals with respect to the excited ones. This
tends to push the occupied and unoccupied levels apart from each other,
resulting in a deficiency of levels in the neighborhood of the Fermi energy.
This phenomenon is observed in the calculations of the one-electron
energy levels of molecules. In Volume 1, Sec. 6-2, in discussing the one-
electron energy levels of diatomic molecules, we have pointed out cases of
the situation. As we go from one molecule to another with heavier nuclei,
certain energy levels which were excited in the lighter molecule become
occupied in the heavier one. At this point, as we observed in Fig. 6-1 in
that chapter, the energy level suddenly falls by a considerable amount.
An equivalent effect is found in the free-electron model of a metal. In
Eq. (10-7) we have given the exchange potential acting on an electron in
the Fermi distribution. This is proportional to F(71) 1 a function of the
momentum, which goes from unity at the bottom of the Fermi distribu-
tion, to ½ at the top, and to zero as we go up into the excited states.
Thus, when we take account of the fact that the exchange energy is
negative, we see that the levels at the bottom of the distribution are
depressed by a maximum amount, which decreases as we go up toward
the excited states. This results in a diminution of the density of states in
the neighborhood of the Fermi level, where the slope of the curve of F(71)
becomes vertical. In Fig. 11-1 we show the density of states for free
electrons with this exchange correction, as derived by Raimes. 1 This
density, instead of being proportional to the square root of the energy, as
would be the situation for free electrons without exchange according to
Eq. (1-13), dips down to zero at the Fermi level.
This is clearly contrary to experiment. We have pointed out in Eq.
(1-14) that the thermal energy of the electrons is proportional to the
density of states at the Fermi level. If we had the density of states given
in Fig. 11-1, the heat capacity should be far less than for the free-electron
gas without exchange. The latter model, however, leads to values of
Energy
Frn. 11-1. Density of states in free-electron gas. [From Raimes, Repts. Progr. in
Phys., 20:1 (1957).) Upper curve, Sommerfeld theory. Lowercurve, Hartree-Fock
theory, assuming an exchange energy as given in Eq. (10-7), depending on the
momentum. Experimentally, the Sommerfeld model is much closer to the truth than
the Hartree-Fock.
electronic specific heat in general agreement with experiment. Hence

we conclude that it cannot be in accordance with experiment to write the
total energy of an electronically excited state of the crystal as a sum of
one-electron energies of the type of those leading to Fig. 11-1. We must
use something much more like the energy levels of an electron gas in an
ordinary periodic potential, ignoring exchange, or at least ignoring the
dependence of exchange on the k vector.
A great deal of effort has gone into explaining this apparent paradox
connected with the free-electron theory of electrons in metals. We shall
come to some of these explanations in a later section. It is the impression
of the present author, however, that we do not need to look for any deep
and profound explanation. As we have just been pointing out, it is not
expected· to be true that the energy of an excited state of the electron
gas can be written as the sum of the one-electron energies found from the
Hartree-Fock solution. We have pointed out that in the case of H6,
1 S. Raimes, Rept. Progr. Phys., 20 :1 (1957).
we must use a set of one-electron energies determined from a state which

is far from the ground state, in order to get empirical agreement between
the sum of one-electron energies and the energy of the excited state of
the many-electron system. In particular, the one-electron energies
which we used in the preceding section came from a configuration of the
electrons in which each of the states of the energy band was occupied
with a single electron. In this case, we do not have the distinction
between the exchange correction for the upper and lower energy levels
of the energy band; all these energy levels are equally occupied. Hence
we do not have this dip in density of states at the Fermi level.
The thing to be avoided, then, in setting up one-electron energies for
use with the Fermi statistics, is an exchange which varies from one part
of the energy band to another. In other words, this k-dependent
exchange which is characteristic of the Hartree-Fock method is what
makes the one-electron energies found by that method inappropriate for
use with Fermi statistics. It will in fact be in much closer agreement
with experiment if we discard this apparent refinement found in the
Hartree-Fock method, and instead use a simple exchange correction which
depends only on position, rather than on k as well.
This is probably the explanation of the considerable success which has
been found by using a Schrodinger equation in which the Hartree-Fock
exchange correction is replaced by a weighted average exchange, or the
simpler approximation of a correction depending on the cube root of the
electronic density. This method, which has been discussed in Sec. 10-2,
is described in "Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure," vol. 2, appendix
22. It amounts to using instead of the exchange term in the Hartree-
Fock equation'. Eq. (10-6), the average exchange potential of Eq. (10-7),
in which F(r,) is replaced by its average value %- This simplified
Hartree-Fock equation has been used by Herman and Skillman 1 in com-
puting the wave functions and energy levels of the neutral atoms. Liber-
man, Waber, and Cromer 2 have used it for finding relativistic wave func-
tions and energy levels. The calculations made by these writers give
one-electron energies which show remarkable correlation with the
observed x-ray energy levels, throughout the entire periodic system.
One gets the impression that as far as isolated atoms are concerned, the
method is as good as the Hartree-Fock method, and possibly better, for
one-electron energies. In addition to this, practically all energy-band
calculation,; which have been made have used this simplified exchange
potential, and it is quite remarkable how good the agreement has been
between the various features of the energy bands as calculated and as
1 F. Herman and S. Skillman,'"Atomic Structure Calculations," Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1963.

2 D. Liberman, J. T. Waber, and D. T. Cromer, Phys. Rev., 137 :A27 (1965).
observed by various types of experiment, as we have described in the

earlier chapters of this volume. Far from being apologetic about the
use of an exchange potential which is not k-dependent, it seems likely
that it is just this procedure which has been responsible for the success
of the calculations.
The arguments which we have been giving, however, are qualitative,
and perhaps they will have to remain so. In other words, it does not
seem easy to give a purely a priori prescription as to how to set up a
potential such that the solutions of Schrodinger's equation in this poten-
tial will give the best one-electron energies for use in a Fermi statistical
discussion of a crystal. We can, however, give a general description of
the problem which will convince us that the potential should be appreci-
ably different from the Hartree-Fock potential, and this discussion will
be given in the next section.
11-4. Potential Function for One-electron Schrodinger Problem. In
the early days of wave mechanics, there was a considerable amount of
discussion concerning the best potential to use for such a problem as the
motion of the valence electron in an alkali atom. It had been found
even before the development of wave mechanics that it was possible to
set up a potential in which the energy levels of a quantized electron agreed
quite well with the energy levels of the alkali atom. In wave mechanics
the same thing proved to be true. The well-known potential of Prokof-
jew1 for sodium was determined, not by any method of the self-consistent
field, but purely empirically, so that the electronic energy levels in it
would agree with experiment.
When such potentials were set up, one feature was found to be present
which is not met in the Hartree-Fock solution. This was the polarization
of the atomic core by the valence electron. If the valence electron in,
say, a sodium atom, is some distance from the atomic core, consisting
of the nucleus and the 10 electrons of the Na+ ion, it will produce an
electric field at the Na+ ion, which will polarize it, tending to push the
electronic shells away from the valence electron. This in turn will pro-
duce a- dipole acting on the valence electron: the negative charge cloud
has had its center of mass move away from the valence electron, so that
it will not repel the valence electron as much as the nucleus attracts it.
We can easily see how the net attraction depends on the distance of the
valence electron from the nucleus. The field of the valence electron will
be proportional to 1/r2 • This will produc~ a dipole moment proportional
to it. A dipole produces a potential at a distant point proportional to
1/r2, and sinr.e the dipole moment itself is proportional to 1/r2, this gives
an attractive potential at the position of the valence electron proportional
to 1/r4 • This polarization effect is not included in the Hartree-Fock
1 W. Prokofjew, Z. Physik, 68:255 (1929).
calculation. It was discussed, from the point of view of an improvement

on the Hartree-Fock method, by Douglas. 1
The reason why the polarization effect is missing in a Hartree-Fock
calculation is that it is essentially a correlation effect. It is an effort on
the part of the inner, core electrons to get out of the way of the valence
electron. If the valence electron penetrates into the core, as it will some-
times do in sodium, then the effort of the inner electrons to get out of
its way will show itself in well-known ways. The other electrons of the
same spin as the valence electron will move outside a Fermi hole which
will surround the valence electron, while those of the opposite spin will
tend to move away on account of the correlation effect. In other words,
though the polarization produces an effect on the potential proportional
to l/r 4 at large distances, this joins onto perfectly familiar effects at
smaller distances. But these are results of correlation, which is dis-
regarded in the Hartree-Fock method.
Another similar example of a term in the potential which is missing
in the Hartree-Fock scheme is found in the familiar problem of the image
force at the surface of a metal. In elementary electrostatics one investi-
gates the potential of a charge, such as an electron, at a distance from
the plane surface of a perfect conductor. One knows that the surface
of the conductor must be an equipotential. Then it is a simple problem
in electrostatics to show that the electric field outside the conductor is
identical with what would be produced by the external electron, and a
so-called electric image, a hypothetical charge of the opposite sign, as
far inside the conductor as the electron is outside. These two charges
will make the surface of the conductor into an equipotential. Actually,
of course, there is no charge in the interior of the conductor; the charge
which produces the exterior field of the image is really located on the
surface of the conductor, its magnitude being given by the discontinuity
of the normal component of the electric field at the surface. This surface
charge must be positive, if the external charge is a negative electron. It
is in fact produced by a motion of the electrons of the conductor away
from the region of the metallic surface below the external electron, if
we wish to examine it in a detailed way. In other words, it is a polariza-
tion effect, not different in principle from the polarization of the atomic
core by the valence electron which we discussed before. It is no small
or hypothetical effect. The energy associated with this image force is
largely responsible for the contact difference of potential at the surface
of the conductor, and no calculation of the behavior of the surface of the
metal is possible without taking it into account,. And yet, like the
other polarization effects, it is entirely excluded from the Hartree-Fock
calculation.
1 A. S. Douglas, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 62 :687 (1956).
These examples should convince the reader that if we wish to find a

potential such that the energy levels, and wave functions, of a single
electron in this potential will simulate the behavior of an electron in an
actual atom or metal as well as possible, one must use a potential which
is appreciably different from the Hartree-Fock potential, and which takes
account of polarization. Let us bring up still another example, this time
from a semiconductor. Often, as discussed in Sec. 2-5 and Appendix 2,
one needs to consider an impurity atom in a semiconductor, such as an
arsenic atom in a germanium crystal. The arsenic has a nuclear charge
one unit greater than that of germanium. Hence we could describe the
impurity simply by putting an extra positive charge, of magnitude equal
to an electronic charge, on the nucleus of the impurity atom. This will
produce an external field at points throughout the germanium crystal,
which will result in perturbed wave functions, of a type which has been
studied a great deal. However, it is known experimentally that ger-
manium has quite a high dielectric constant, and from electrostatics we
know that the electric field in a dielectric is inversely proportional to the
dielectric constant. Hence for the field in which we are to find the wave
functions of the electrons around the impurity atom we should take the
field of a positive charge in a medium of high dielectric constant, and a
calculation made in this way gives a description of the impurity energy
levels which agrees well with experiment. But this dielectric effect, like
all polarization effects, is excluded from the Hartree-Fock problem, which
therefore gives a quite wrong answer for this impurity problem.
It is not hard to set up a prescription for finding a potential which
behaves properly in all the cases we have described. If we wish to find
the potential acting on an electron in a quantum-mechanical system, let
us assume that we know the complete, exact wave function, which of
course will include all these polarization effects which are excluded from
the Hartree-Fock approximation. We assume that one electron is at the
position in space which we are interested in. When we have fixed the
position of this one electron, the wave function will then give the proba-
bility of finding other electrons at any arbitrary points of space. We
compute from the wave function the density of other electrons at each
point of space. If the wave function is y,(x 1 · · · XN ), where x1 · · · XN
stand for the coordinates (and spin) of the N electrons, and if we wish to
assume that the first electron is at x 1 , and wish to find the density of other
electrons at the position x 2 , this will be proportional to Jy,*y, dxa dx4 · · ·
dxN, where we are integrating over the positions of all other electrons
3 · · · N. On account of the aui,it-;yrnrnetry of the ·wave function, we
shall find the same answer whether we integrate over dxa · · · dxN, or
over any other set of N - 2 electronic coordinates. The quantity above
will give the probability of finding electron 2 at x 2 , if electron 1 is at x1.
Since there are in fact N - 1 electrons aside from the first, the total
charge density at position 2 will be proportional to
(N - l}fiJ,*iJ, dxa · · · dxN (11-2)
This charge density of other electrons will be bound to show the various
polarization effects which we have been discussing in preceding para-
graphs, since we are assuming that iJ, is the true wave function of the
problem. Let us then find the potential, at point x1, arising from the
nuclei, and this electronic charge density, which depends parametrically
on x 1• It will give a potential which will depend on the position of the
first electron only, not on its momentum or k vector, and hence will not
lead to the paradoxical k dependence which we found arising from the
Hartree-Fock potential. Furthermore, it will take account of the polariza-
tion effects which we have been describing above.
It seems as if the potential set up in this way would be much more
satisfactory than the Hartree-Fock potential for obtaining one-electron
wave functions and energies for discussion of the problem of a solid by the
Fermi statistics. This potential was suggested some time ago by the
present author 1 as a rather ideal type of self-consistent-field potential.
A similar idea had, as a matter of fact, been used much earlier 2 in a dis-
cussion of the helium atom, before the self-consistent-field method had
been proposed. One electron was assumed to be held at a given distance
from the nucleus, and the motion of the other electron was investigated,
in the field of this fixed electron and of the nucleus. This problem can be
solved exactly, by the same methods used for the H-; problem. The result
was an energy depending on the position of the first electron, which then
was used as a potential for a central-field problem. The energy of the
ground state of this one-electron central-field problem formed a fairly
good approximation to the negative of the ionization potential of one of
the electrons in the ground state of the helium atom.
A similar argument was used by Wigner, 3 in his discussion of correlation
in a metal. He assumed the electrons of one spin to be held fixed, and
those of the opposite spin to move among them, being repelled by them.
It was by a development of this picture that he arrived at the high-density
limit of the expression for correlation energy which we quoted in Eq.
(10-29).
The self-consistent potential which we have described in this section is
not very different from the Hartree-Fock potential, and the orbitals
2 J. C. Slater, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S., 13:423 (1927).
3 E. Wigner and F. Seitz, Phys. Rev., 46 :509 (1934). E. Wigner, Phys. Rev.,
46 :1002 (1934).
derived from it will not be very different either. Lowdin 1 has discussed
the resulting orbitals. He has shown that they are similar to the orbitals
which he has named the natural spin-orbitals. These natural· spin-
orbitals· are defined as follows: We start with an arbitrary complete set
of orthonormal one-electron spin-orbitals, U;(x 1 • • • XN), for an N-elec-
tron system, where the x's include spin as well as coordinates. We form
all possible determinantal functions from these spin-orbitals, by choosing
any N of them to be occupied by the electrons. The true wave function
can be written exactly as a linear combination of this infinite number of
determinantal functions. From this wave function i/1 we set up the -
so-called first-order density matrix,
(11-3)
giving the density of particle 1. It is easy to show that this quantity can
be written as
(11-4)
where the C,; form a set of matrix components, which depend on the par-
ticular set of u/s which we have used. If a unitary transformation of the
u/s is made, the C,/s undergo a similarity transformation. This unitary
transformation can be made in such a way that C,; is transformed to a
diagonal form. When this is done, the resulting spin-orbitals are called
the natural spin-orbitals.
Low din, in the references given above, has demonstrated a number of
properties of the natural spin-orbitals. In the first place, he considers the
expansion of the wave function i/1 as a series of determinantal functions
made from the u/s. Ordinarily, this function will consist mostly of one
determinantal function, plus small coefficients times others. He has
shown that the resulting series converges more rapidly if the natural spin-
orbitals are used, than with any other spin-orbitals. This is not just the
same criterion as the Hartree-Fock criterion, which demands that the
energy of a single determinantal function should be lower than for any
determinant formed from other spin-orbitals. It is natural, then, that it
results in slightly different spin-orbitals. A great deal of study has been
made of natural spin-orbitals 2 in various simple cases, and it has been
found that they are very similar to the Hartree-Fock spin-orbitals, but
not identical.
Lowdin next has investigated the conditions which the natural spin-
orbitals must satisfy, similar to the Hartree-Fock equations. He has
shown that they do not satisfy precisely a Schrodinger equation for
1 P. 0. Lowdin, Phys. Rev., 97 :1474, 1490, 1509 (1955); Svensk Kem. Tidskr.,
67 :369, 370 (1955).

2 For example, P. 0. Lowdin and H. Shull, Phys. Rev., 101 :1730 (1956).
particles moving in a field which is a function of position only. However,

if one asks for the potential depending on position only, whose wave func-
tions would approximate the natural spin-orbitals as well as possible, he
shows that the resulting potential is that which we have described earlier
in this section, in the discussion of Eq. (11-2). Thus the potential, and
spin-orbitals, which we are recommending form very good approximations
to the natural spin-orbitals and to the Schrodinger problem of which they
are solutions. The spin-orbitals, as we have seen in our earlier discussion,
will differ from Hartree-Fock spin-orbitals in that they take account of
polarization and related effects. And while a single determinantal func-
tion formed from the N spin-orbitals of lowest energy will not have quite
the lowest possible energy, and therefore is not quite identical with the
Hartree-Fock determinantal function, nevertheless it has the property
that it forms the first term of the most rapidly convergent expansion of the
true wave function in terms of determinantal functions, or, as we can
state it, it is the first term in the most rapidly convergent configuration
interaction which we can set up to describe the true wave function.
The self-consistent potential which we have been describing in this
section seems certainly more appropriate for discussing crystalline prob-
lems than the Hartree-Fock potential. It has the drawback, however,
that its definition demands that we know the complete wave function,
including polarization effects, before we can set it up. In other words,
we have no straightforward way to compute it. For this reason it is
likely that any use of the method made in the near future will rely on
partly intuitive approximations. One will start with a potential like
the Hartree-Fock potential modified by using the exchange correction
proportional to the one-third-power of the charge density. One will then
use experimental or calculated values of polarizabilities, dielectric con-
stants, and such quantities, to estimate the polarization corrections. In
this way one can build up an approximation to the required potential,
which one can then use for solving Schrodinger's equation for the energy-
band problem. As for the polarizability and dielectric constant, these
problems are taken up in detail in Appendix 5.
It should be pointed out before we go further that the choice of a
potential for the self-consistent-field problem is not completely crucial.
It will ordinarily be assumed that calculations are to be carried further
than a one-electron approximation, either by configuration interaction or
by some other method. The one-electron problem leading to one-electron
energies and to spin-orbitals will then form merely a first approximation,
and the spin-orbitals will be used in constructing many-electron functions
which will be used in getting a good approximation to the many-electron
problem. These many-electron functions will ordinarily be built up from
determinantal functions made from the spin-orbitals, by configuration
interaction. The spin-orbitals merely form basis functions, and if the

configuration interaction is carried far enough, the final result will be the
same, independent of the precise nature of the spin-orbitals. The choice
of the best spin-orbitals is determined only by the desire for fast con-
vergence of the problem, the desire to get as much as possible out of the
spin-orbitals themselves, without further configuration interaction.
From this point of view, either the Hartree-Fock spin-orbitals, or the
spin-orbitals found from the method outlined in the present section, will
be a good starting point, but as we have been emphasizing, the one-elec-
tron energies associated with the spin-orbitals just described will have
more direct application to the problem of the Fermi statistics than those
coming from the Hartree-Fock method, and as Lowdin has shown, they
will lead to the fastest possible convergence for the configuration inter-
action problem.
11-6. Multiplet Structure in Solids. So far we have been disregarding
multiplet structure, though we have mentioned that in such a problem
as a crystal containing 4/ electrons there will be a multiplet problem
much like that found in isolated atoms. To a considerable extent the
same thing is true with crystals containing 3d or 4d electrons in partially
filled shells of transition atoms, though here the interaction with neighbor-
ing atoms is more important than for the rare earths. These examples
of multiplet structure are by no means all the ones one encounters, how-
ever. In the case of H 6 , which we have been discussing previously, an
elaborate set of multiplets is found, arising from the interaction of spins
on various atoms of the six-membered ring. These multiplets are taken
up in detail in Volume 1, Appendix 13, which we have cited. In fact,
we can see very simply just the sort of situation which we meet. We
have stated that the lowest state of the H 6 molecule comes when the six
ele'ctrons are found in the molecular-orbital states with m = 0, ± 1, two
electrons with opposite spins being in each of these states. This results
in a singlet state. However, if one of these electrons is removed to
another molecular-orbital state, for instance if an electron is removed
from th.e state with m = 1 to that with m = 2, we shall have two elec-
trons with unpaired spins, which then can combine into a singlet or a
triplet state. The analogous situation would be found in any case where
an electron is removed from a doubly filled energy level to a previously
empty level, so that we shall encounter it constantly in the excited states
of an energy-band problem.
We shall postpone until the next volume the treatment of these multi-
plet problems. However, it is worthwhile here taking a preliminary look
at the methods used in solving them. Let us consider the case of a
crystal containing rare-earth ions, rather far apart. The energy bands
arising from the atomic 4/ electrons would be very narrow. This can be
seen most directly from the tight-binding calculation, in which the 4f

atomic orbitals in different rare-earth ions will overlap very little, and
hence will result in very little broadening of the band. However, the
interaction of two 4f electrons in the same ion will be large, and will
result in producing a set of multiplets for an individual ion, whose energies
will spread over a range of energies large compared with the width of the
energy band. It seems clear, then, that in this case, the calculation
should proceed by first treating the energy levels of a single ion, and then
by handling the interaction of different ions as a small perturbation.
This is quite different from starting by setting up the energy bands, thus
taking into account the interaction of orbitals in different atoms, and
leading to molecular-orbital-type wave functions extending through the
whole crystal, and then starting to discuss the interaction of the electrons
in a single atom.
We are at liberty to start with the energy-band calculation if we choose,
but we wish as rapidly as possible to get to concentrated orbitals on the
various atoms. In other words, if we start with energy-band functions,
we make linear combinations of them to lead to Wannier functions. If
we are dealing, as we are, in a rare-earth ion, with a problem with a num-
ber of degenerate 4f states of different m value, we have a situation
analogous to that which we have discussed in Volume 2, Sec. 7-5, in the
two-dimensional case where we had the two degenerate p states. We
know, as in that case, that we must define the Wannier functions in
such a way that each of them will have the symmetry of one of the wave
functions of an isolated atom, for instance, the symmetry of a state with
a particular value of m. If we do this, the W annier functions will be
very close to atomic orbitals, but they will be orthogonalized. They
can also contain contributions from neighboring atoms. Thus, in many
of the cases we are considering, a rare earth or transition-element ion
is surrounded by six ions such as oxygen ions, and the W annier functions
would be composed mostly of transition-element orbitals, but with some
contribution from the oxygen orbitals.
When we have set up these W annier functions, we can then proceed
with a calculation of the multiplet structure of the individual ions, pro-
ceeding much as in the case of an isolated ion. Only when this has been
done, and we have set up wave functions on each ion corresponding to a
given ionic state, do we need to consider the nondiagonal matrix elements
of the Hamiltonian between two different excited wave functions of the
system. One of these will correspond to all the ions being in their ground
state except one, which is ill an excited state. Another will correspond
to the same sort of situation, except that it is a different atom which is
excited. In general we shall find nondiagonal matrix elements between
two such excited states, but they will be very small. When we take
account of them, the single excited energy level which we should find
with only one ion excited will be broadened into a band of energies, called
an exciton band. One can show that a system in one of the energy levels
of one of these bands will correspond to a transfer of the excitation
through the crystal, moving slowly from one atom to another. It will
travel more slowly, the narrower the original energy band for the 4f
electrons.
When one has a situation such as this, an additional feature is likely
to come in, which will make the drifting of the excitation through the
crystal much slower than one would otherwise think. The electronic
structure of an excited ion will be somewhat different from that of an
ion in its ground state, and it will presumably exert somewhat different
forces on the surrounding ions. Hence if a single ion were excited, there
would be forces on the surrounding ions tending to make them move
away from or toward the excited ion. In other words, their equilibrium
positions will have been modified. If now this excitation is to move
through the crystal, it will have to carry with it a motion of the nuclei
as well as the electrons. This will slow down the motion so much that
the excitation may well be stabilized essentially on one ion.
Situations similar to this are even more likely when we have ionization
rather than excitation of an ion. If an electron is removed from one
ion, and is lodged on another, we have· one ion with an extra positive
charge, another with an extra negative charge. It will require the expen-
diture of Coulomb energy to pull these opposite charges apart, so that
the two ions will tend to remain on nearby ionic sites. The· charges
present will make considerable modifications in the forces on other
neighboring atoms; and will cause them to move around, again stabilizing
the ions in their positions, since moving the ionization from one site to
another would require actual nuclear motion. From consideration of
such cases we arrive at the notion of the polaron, a localized configuration
of ions of the general type we have described.
These cases, and many more, illustrate the complication which arises
when We wish to describe the multiplet structure of excited states in
detail. Similar situations come up in magnetic problems. If we have
several electrons missing from the 3d shell of a transition element such
as iron or cobalt, we know that the isolated ion would tend to have its
electron spins arranged so as to give the maximum multiplicity, as given
by Hund's rule. The energy separation between the different multiplets
is in this case of the same order of magnitude as the width of the energy
bands of the 3d electrons. In this case, then, it is not clear whether to
set up W annier functions first, solve the multiplet problem for the indi-
vidual ions, and then take account of their interactions, or to proceed
in the opposite order, first setting up the energy bands for the single-
electron problem, and then taking their interaction into account. It is

on account of the approximate equality of these two effects, the inter-
action of W annier functions on different atomic sites, as found from the
Fourier resolution of the energy bands, according to Volume 2, Eq. (6-33),
and the interaction of W annier functions on the same atom, resulting
in the multiplet structure, that the problem of ferromagnetism is so
complicated.
The illustrations we have given are all of problems which will be taken
up in the next volume of this series, and they show the complications
which arise when we must consider the multiplet structure, after solving
the one-electron energy-band problem. The only case which is a straight-
forward one for use of the one-electron method is that in which multiplet
structure is unimportant. Fortunately this is the case in many impor-
tant problems, both of metals and of semiconductors. To have the
necessary conditions for the validity of the one-electron method, we wish
first to have wide energy bands, so that there is a large interaction between
W annier functions on different atoms, and next we do not wish to have
the interaction of Wannier functions on the same atom as an important
feature of the problem. In conductivity in an ordinary semiconductor,
such as germanium, we have this situation. The energy bands are quite
wide, several electron volts. Furthermore, if we have an electron and a
hole or vacancy in the crystal, these will rapidly move out of each other's
way, so that the interaction of the two on the same atomic site, which
is what would lead to multiplet structure, is of no importance. It is in
such problems that we can safely use one-electron methods.
We have found in Chap. 2 that the width of the energy band deter-
mines the velocity with which an electron in the band will move; the
velocity will be proportional to the derivative of the energy with respect
to the magnitude of the k vector, which is greater, the wider the band.
In the cases to which the one-electron method is applicable, the electron
velocity will be so great that an electron will travel over many atomic
distances in the time which would be taken for the nuclei to move from
their equilibrium positions, so that we can disregard the coupling with
the nuclear motion, except as this tends to scatter the electron waves.
On the other hand, in a case of very narrow bands, such as we have men-
tioned as arising from the 4f electrons in a crystal containing rare-earth
ions, the velocity of an electron in a pure energy-band state would be so
small that the nuclei would have time to move, as described in an earlier
paragraph, and by their motion they would Rtabilize the excitation in a
definite ion. Hence here the description of the situation is completely
different from the ordinary energy-band picture. The excitation in such
a case can travel from one ion to another, but it tends to do it only when
the excited ion and a neighboring one, as a result of thermal agitation,
find themselves unusually close to each other. In such a collision, the

excitation can be transferred from the one ion to the other in the process.
The probability of such thermal transfer of energy depends on a Boltz-
mann factor, exp - energy /kT, where the energy in question is an activa-
tion energy, the height of an effective potential barrier which must be
surmounted for the energy to travel from the one ion to the other.
The discussion which we have given will convince the reader that there
are many problems to which the energy-band method is not well adapted.
Even in these cases, we can start the calculation, as we have indicated,
by finding the energy bands, but next we compute the Wannier functions
for the narrow bands in question, and proceed from there as if these were
atomic orbitals. All problems of these types will be put off until the
next volume. They include problems of excitons and polarons, ligand
field problems, magnetic problems, and many others. Some writers,
particularly in the earlier Soviet literature, have been so impressed with
the importance of these cases that they have minimized the value of the
energy-band approach. We do not feel that this is a proper point of
view. There are many important problems of semiconductors and metals
for which the energy-band method, even in a very simple one-electron
form, is a very close approach to what is found experimentally. And
even in the other cases, as we have mentioned, it forms a valid step in
the calculation. Consequently we present no apologies for having
devoted as much time as we have to a presentation of the one-electron
energy-band theory. But the reader must remember that it is only a
first approximation, and that there are a great many important problems
to which it is not adapted. In the next section we shall mention a num-
ber of the more powerful methods which have been suggested in recent
years for handling the many-electron problem. Detailed discussion of
these methods will be postponed until the next volume of this series.
11-6. Various Forms of Many-electron Theory. We have mentioned
in Sec. 5-3 that Bohm and Pines 1 in a series of papers, and since then a
number of other workers, 2 have introduced ideas into the many-electron
problem which have made striking progress in one's ability to describe
correlation effects. The idea of Bohm and Pines was to introduce the
phenomenon of plasma oscillations into the theory. If one has a free-
electron gas moving in a uniform positive charge distribution of such
density that the whole thing is electrically neutral, then one can ask what
happens if a disturbance, say a sinusoidal wave, is introduced into the gas.
1 D. Bohm and D. Pines, Phys. Re1,., 80 :903 (1950); 82 :625 (195·]). D. Bohrn,
Phys. Rev., 84 :836 (1951). D. Pines and D. Bohm, Phys. Rev., 86 :338 (195'.2). D.
Bohm and D. Pines, Phys. Rev., 92 :609 (1953). D. Pines, Phys. Rev., 92 :626 (1953).
Other papers by these writers in the Bibliography.
2 See list of papers in Sec. 11-7.
276 QUANTUM THEORY OF MOLECULES AND SOLIDS [Chap. 11
We have shown in Sec. 5-2, by entirely classical means, that the electric
field arising from a sinusoidal perturbation of density like a sound wave
leads to a restoring force proportional to the density perturbation, and
hence it results in a sinusoidal oscillation of charge. The resulting fre-
quency, the plasma frequency, depends on the density of electronic charge.
It lies in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum if the electrons are as dense
as in a metal, but in the infrared for a semiconductor. Bohm and Pines
have assumed that these oscillations, in the quantum case, should be
quantized, so that the plasma can absorb quanta, now called plasmons,
whose energy is h times the plasma frequency. As we have mentioned in
Sec. 5-2, a great deal of experimental evidence has built up that electrons
traveling through a metal can in fact lose energy inelastically to these
plasmons, and measurements of the energy loss check with the computed
plasma frequency.
It seems plausible, then, to describe the motion of the electrons in terms
of the resulting density waves. One can set up density waves of different
wave vectors, and can show that the energy of the plasmons, as a function
of wave vector, is not strictly constant, but depends on k. If we had
such density waves with all wave vectors in a Brillouin zone, their
amplitudes would form coordinates which could describe the electronic
positions, and we could describe the state of the electron gas in terms of the
amplitudes of the waves, rather than in terms of ordinary electron coor-
dinates. It proves, however, more useful to use density waves only with
quite long wavelengths, and to describe the electronic coordinates in the
usual way. Thus we are led to more coordinates for description of the
electrons than one needs, and the theory devotes considerable discussion
to this apparent difficulty.
We have mentioned that the plasma frequencies for a metal are in the
ultraviolet. Hence at ordinary temperatures the plasmons will not be
excited. Under these circumstances, Bohm and Pines have shown that
the electrons will have their behavior modified. They do not appear to
interact according to the Coulomb law, but rather with a screened Coulomb
potential, like (exp -ar)/r, where a is a constant such that the potential
falls off exponentially in a distance comparable with an interatomic dis-
tance. When one replaces the Coulomb law with this type of law, in a cal-
culation of the exchange interaction, it proves to be the case that the large
dependence of exchange energy on k, which we have pointed out in Sec.
11-3, as a difficulty with the Hartree-Fock method, almost disappears.
The treatment given by Bohm .and Pines plays the role of an approxi-
mate treatment of correlation, and what they find is that the correlation
correction largely cancels the k dependence of the energy.
Various other lines of approach have been used in connection with the
correlation problem. Some of the nuclear theorists, notably Brueckner 1

and various others, have been carrying out a theory of nuclear structure,
in which they have started with essentially a Hartree-Fock calculation,
but then have carried the problem through successively more and more
stages of approximation, leading in principle to a method of handling cor-
relation. There has been a good deal of effort to adapt this discussion to
the self-consistent problem of the atom and the crystal. This has been
difficult, because the methods of Brueckner are directly adapted to the
case of electrons in a uniformly charged positive distribution, making the
whole problem electrically neutral, which we have referred to several times.
They arrive at expressions for correlation energy, which have the same
difficulty as that of Wigner which we mentioned in the preceding chapter,
as failing to behave properly in the limit of large internuclear distance,
when really the electrons will tend to concentrate around the nuclei. It
is not certain, however, that this difficulty is a fundamental one in the
treatment of Brueckner et al. Kelly 2 has recently set up the method in a
form adaptable to an isolated atom, and has applied it to the calculation
of the correlation energy of the beryllium atom, obtaining results by
numerical integration which are as accurate as any which we have for this
atom by configuration interaction or other methods. Thus it does not
seem at all impossible that we may have here a scheme for handling cor-
relation energy which may supplement the existing methods of treating
atoms, molecules, and crystals, and may in time lead to results of suitable
accuracy for the total energy of these systems.
A slightly different type of approach has been used by Roth and Pratt,
and Kohn and Luttinger, 3 in treating the problem of the dielectric
behavior of a crystal. They have used methods similar to those of the
high-energy physicists in their treatment of field theory, leading to a
renormalization phenomenon, which can be interpreted in terms of a
dielectric constant of the crystal. Some form of this theory will certainly
be necessary if one is to get an adequate description of dielectric effects.
These field-theory methods of Brueckner and the others all start with
unperturbed wave functions for the electrons, and proceed to study
higher and higher-order perturbed solutions. Instead of running into
the problem of ordinary perturbation theory, that after first- or second-
order perturbation, there are so many types of perturbed terms that it is
1 See papers by K. A. Brueckner, R. J. Eden, M. Gell-Mann, J. Goldstone, N. M.
Hugenholtz, T. D. Lee, P. C. Martin, R. K. Nesbet, L. S. Rodberg, K. Sawada, W.

Tobocman, L. Van Hove in Bibliography.
2 H. P. Kell_y, Phys. Rev., 131 :684 (1963). H. P. Kelly and A. M. 8e~sler, Phys.
Rev., 132:2091 (Hl63). H.P. Kelly, Phys. Rev., 134: Al450 (1964); 136: B896 (1964).
3 L. M. Roth and G. W. Pratt, Jr., Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:47, 50 (1959). W. Kohn
and J. M. Luttinger, Phys. Rev., 118 :41 (1960).
,-.,e
278 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [Chap. 11 ',,

hard to consider them all, they use methods based on Feynman or
Goldstone diagrams, which have been worked out for field theory for sum-
ming the results of all orders of perturbations. This is a result of various
powerful theorems in the field of infinite-order perturbations, which
have been worked out fairly recently. We have noted that the case of
Brueckner, in which the electrons are assumed to be in a field-free space,
is that in which the unperturbed functions, in terms of which the expan-
sions are made, are plane waves. We know from our experience that a
plane-wave expansion is impractical for a problem in solids. But the
more recent treatments start with solutions of the periodic-potential
problem as their basis functions. This leads us to the hope that eventually
it will be possible to carry through the type of one-electron discussion
which we are taking up in the present and preceding volumes, and then
use the wave functions of this problem as the basis functions for a per-
turbation calculation, which, by use of the methods to be discussed in the
next volume, will be of adequate accuracy to handle the many-electron
problem adequately.
11-7. Bibliography on Many-electron Theory. There is a large litera-
ture of papers on solid-state theory in which the many-electron aspect is
emphasized. Some of these papers proceed from the Bohm-Pines point of
view, an outcome of the theory of plasma oscillations; others are out-
growths of the Brueckner approach, based on field theory. Still others
are derived from the dielectric approach to many-body theory, or from
investigation of correlation methods. Papers in the Bibliography at the
end of this volume dealing with these problems are by the following
authors:
R. E. Aamodt (1965), Y. Abe (1962), E. N. Adams (1955-1957), W. H.

Adams (1962-1963), S. L. Adler (1962), V. N. Ageev (1960), A. J.
Akhiezer (1956), L. C. Allen (1963), A. B. Almazov (1960-1963), V.
Ambegaokar (1959-1961), T. Arai (1964), G. A. Baker, Jr. (1964),
E. B. Barrett (1964), F. Bassani (1962), K. H. Benneman (1964), F. Berz
(1956), M. S. Bhatia (1964), C. Bloch (1959), F. Bloch (1930), D. Bohm
(1949-1964), V. L. Bonch-Bruevich (1956-1961), R. Brout (1956-1961),
A. A. Broyles (1957), K. A. Brueckner (1954-1958), J. Callaway (1959),
G. Carmi {1964), W. J. Carr, Jr. (1961-1964), P. C. Clemmow (1956), M.
H. Cohen (1962-1964), R. A. Coldwell-Horsfall (1959), A. Coumes (1960),
G.D. Dang (1963), E. Daniel (1960), M. de Leener (1963), P.A. M. Dirac
(1930), G. Dresselhaus (1955), D. F. DuBois {1959), R. J. Eden (1955),
S. F. Edwards (1958), H. Ehrenreich (1959), H. Endo (1963), S. Engels-
berg (1962-1963), F. Englert (1959-1960), L. Eyges (1963), L. M. Falicov
(1960-1961), D. S. Falk (1960), E. L. Feinberg (1958), R. A. Ferrell
(1956-1962), I. Z. Fisher (1957), J.C. Fisher (1962), J. G. Fletcher (1958).
D. R. Fredkin (1965), H. Frohlich (1956), J. Fukuda (1964), Z. Galasiewicz

(1956-1957), T. Gaskell (1961-1962), M. Gell-Mann (1957), M. Sh.
Giterman (1957), M. L. Glasser (1964), A. J. Glick (1960), L. Gold (1958),
L. Goldstein (1929-1930), J. Goldstone (1957-1959), P. Gombas (1954-
1961), T. B. Grimley (1964), E. Groschwitz (1956), A. V. Gurevich (1957),
G. l. Guseva (1959), H. Haken (1954), M. J. Harrison (1962), S. Hayakawa
(1956), P. Hohenberg (1964), D. Hone (1960), J.C. Hubbard (1954-1964),
N. M. Hugenholtz (1957-1959), Y. H. Ichikawa (1957-1958), L. Jansen
(1962), H. Jensen (1937), W. Jones (1962), H. J. Juretschke (1953), B. B.
Kadomtsev (1957), H. Kanazawa (1955-1960), E. 0. Kane (1958-1963),
M. Karplus (1957), H. P. Kelly (1963-1964), N. R. Kestner (1962-1963),
D. A. Kirzhnits (1958), A. Klein (1958-1959), Yu. L. Klimontovich
(1957), L. Ya. Kobelev (1958), W. Kohn (1957-1965), R. de L. Kronig
(1952), T. I. Kucher (1956), C. G. Kuper (1956), M.A. Lampert (1956),
L. D. Landau (1956-1958), I. G. Lang (1960-1961), A. J. Layzer (1963),
L. B. Leder (1956), T. D. Lee (1957), H. B. Levine (1960), J. Lindhard
(1954), H. J. Lipkin (1959), P. 0. Lowdin (1962), J. M. Luttinger (1960-
1961), R. McWeeny (1961-1963), W. Macke (1950-1955), N. H. March
(1962), P. C. Martin (1959), L. Marton (1955-1956), K. S. Masterson, Jr.
(1964), R. K. Nesbet (1958), T. Nishiyama (1955-1959), P. Nozieres
(1957-1959), S. Olszewski (1961), Y. Osaka (1963), W. E. Parry (1964),
S. I. Pekar (1948), .J. C. Phillips (1965), E. R. Pike (1963-1964), D. Pines
(1952-1961), G. Placzek (1954), J. S. Plaskett (1954), C. J. Powell (1961),
G. W. Pratt, Jr. (1960-1963), J. J. Quinn (1958-1963), S. Raimes (1957),
J. R. Reitz (1954), R.H. Ritchie (1957-1959), J.E. Robinson (1962), L. S.
Rodberg (1957), L. M. Roth (1959), T. Sato (1957), G. Sauermann (1961-
1962), K. Sawada (1957), W. Schtitzer (1956), V. P. Silin (1957-1959),
S. D. Silverstein (1962-1963), 0. Sinanoglu (1962-1963), T. H. Skyrme
(1957), J. C. Slater (1951-1953, 1963), J. Sledzik (1958-1961), I. I.
Sobelman (1958), A. V. Sokolov (1955), I. V. Stasyuk (1961), E. A. Stern
(1960-1961), E. J. Sternglass (1956), H. Stolz (1961), P. A. Sturrock
(1957), H. Buhl (1961-1963), R. A. Suris (1961), L. Szasz (1959-1963),
M. Tanaka (1963), D. ter Haar (1957-1961), W. Tobocman (1957),
S. Tomonaga (1950), R.H. Tredgold (1954-1957), S. V. Tyablikov (1951),
S. Ueda (1961), T. Usui (1960), J. G. Valatin (1958), L. van Hove (1954-
1959), N. G. van Kampen (1957), H. D. Vasileff (1957), A. Voloshinskii
(1958), H. Volz (1951), S. V. Vonsovskii (1955-1961), M. Watabe (1963),
P. A. Wolff (1953-1963), E. J. Woll, Jr. (1962), H. Yoshizumi (1959),
W. H. Young (1960-1963).
Appendix 1
The Motion of Wave Packets in a
Periodic Potential
Al-1. The Average Velocity of a Wave Packet. We assume that we

have a single electron moving in a periodic potential, and therefore satis-
fying Schri:idinger's equation
( - :~ v 2 + V) u = Eu (Al-1)
where V is the periodic potential, satisfying the condition
V(r + R.) = V(r) (Al-2)
where R; is one of the translations in the lattice. We know that we have

solutions of Eq. (Al-1) in the form of a plane wave times a periodic func-
tion, as in Volume 2, Eq. (1-5), which we write in the form
Un(k,r) = exp (ik • r)wn(k,r) (Al-3)
for the nth energy band, where wn(k,r) satisfies a condition like Eq.
(Al-2), showing that it is also a periodic function repeating in each unit
cell. We shall assume that the wave of Eq. (Al-3), having the reduced
wave vector k, has the energy En(k), corresponding to the nth band.
We now wish to find the average value of the velocity operator for the
wave function in question, and show that it is given by the equation
(Al-4)
where the operator Vk means differentiating with respect to the quantities

kx, kv, k,.
To carry out. this proof, we shall use a method given by Jones and
Zener, 1 which proceeds in a straightforward and general manner. "\Ve
1 H. Jones and C. Zener, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A144 :101 (1934). H. Jones,
"Handbuch der Physik," vol. 19, Springer-Verlag OHG, Berlin, 1956, pp. 231-234.
281
..
-,
.·.1.
·1
282 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [App. 1 I
substitute the wave function of Eq. (Al-3) into Schrodinger's equation,

Eq. (Al-1), and find that wn(k,r) must satisfy the differential equation
2 2
v' 2wn(k,r) 2m [ En(k)
+ 2i'k · v'wn(k,r) + 1,1 - t;,2mk - V ] wn(k,r) = 0
(Al-5)
We also find that
f u!(k,r)v'un(k,r) dv = i'k + f w!(k,r)v'wn(k,r) dv (Al-6)
where the integration is over the volume over which the wave function
is normalized. Now we operate on Eq. (Al-5) with the operator v'k,
which involves differentiations with respect to k., k11 , k., so that it differ-
entiates wn(k,r), En(k), k, and k 2. We multiply the result by w!(k,r),
and find
w:(k,r) { v' 2 + 2i'k · v' + !7 [ En(k) - li,;!2

- V ]} Vkwn(k,r)
+ 2iw:(k,r)Vwn(k,r)
+ [!7 VkEn(k) - 2k] w:(k,r)wn(k,r) = 0 (Al-7)
In this equation we must be careful to distinguish between V, which

differentiates with respect to x, y, and z, and Vk, which differentiates
with respect to k,, ky, k.. We then integrate over the volume.
The first expression, since it is made up of a Hermitian operator, can
be rewritten in the form
JVkwn(k,r) { v' 2 + 2i'k · V + !7 [En(k)
- li. 2k 2
2m
- v]} *w*(k r) dv
n '
(Al-8)
Since this integral contains the complex conjugate of the expression of

Eq. (Al-5), which is zero, the integral vanishes. Thus from Eq. (Al-7)
we have
Jw:(k,r)v'wn(k,r) dv = i_;;: v'kEn(k) - i'k (Al-9)
or, using Eq. (Al-6),
Ju:(k,r)v'un(k,r) dv = ~7': v'kEn(k) (Al-10)
We integrate the left side by parts, or take advantage of the fact that
iv' is a Hermitian operator, and transform this equation into
;1 J [v'un(k,r)u:(k,r) - u:(k,r)v'un(k,r)] dv = ¾VkEn(k) (Al-11)

Sec. Al-2] THE MOTION OF WAVE PACKETS IN A PERIODIC POTENTIAL 283
The expression on the left is the average velocity (see for instance J. C.
Slater, "Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure," vol. 1, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1960, p. 105). Hence we have proved Eq. (Al-4), as
we proposed to do. Our proof, in the form in which we have given it,
holds only in the absence of a magnetic field, since we have not included
a vector potential term either in Schrodinger's equation or in the velocity
operator.
We have found the average velocity for a Bloch wave of the form given
in Eq. (Al-3). We can, however, superpose many such Bloch waves,
corresponding to neighboring k values, and to the same energy band, and
build up a wave packet. The average velocity of this wave packet can
be found as a weighted mean of those associated with the various Bloch
waves in it, since we can easily prove that there are no nondiagonal
matrix elements of the velocity between waves of different k values.
Since all the Bloch waves have nearly the same velocity, this value will
be found for the wave packet as well. This then leads to the value of
Eq. (Al-4) as the average velocity of a wave packet formed from Bloch
waves whose wave vectors are all close to the value k.
Al-2. Acceleration of a Wave Packet in an External Applied Field.
In the preceding section we have found the velocity of a wave packet
in a periodic potential, without applied electric or magnetic fields. The
situation will be a steady state, corresponding to a constant energy, con-
stant wave vector, and constant velocity, as for a freely moving particle
in classical mechanics. Now, however, we shall inquire regarding the
effect of an external applied field, both electric and magnetic. We shall
assume that the field is small, so that it can be treated as a perturbation,
and shall handle the magnetic field in a simplified fashion which leads to
the correct first-order effect, though it cannot be justified in higher
approximations; a proper treatment of an applied magnetic field involves
what is called change of gauge, a difficult feature of the theory of the
vector potential and of Schrodinger's equation, which we shall not take
up in detail in the present volume. The simplified method which we
shall use is based on ideas introduced originally by Wannier.
For the present purpose let us expand the wave function as a linear
combination of W annier functions, all from the same band. We recall
from Volume 2, Eq. (6-21), that a solution of Schrodinger's equation of
the form of a single wave of definite wave vector can be written as a
Bloch sum of W annier functions,
(Al-12)
We wish to make a linear combination of a number of un(k,r)'s, with
neighboring values of k, which will be fairly concentrated in space. The
concentration cannot be very great, as we point out in the text, without
284 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [App. 1
spreading over too great a region in k space. We can now express the
linear combination of functions of type (Al-12) as a linear combination
of an's, of the form
i'(r,t) = 2:(R;)ir(R;,t)an(r - R;) (Al-13)
Here we have used a time-dependent wave function, since we are irrter-
ested in the motion of the wave packet. The amplitude function i'(R;,t)
will behave like exp (ik • R;) exp [-iE,.(k)t/li], a plane wave of wave
vector k and energy E,.(k), over the region where the wave packet is
located, but will fall off rapidly outside the wave packet; that is, the
space-dependent part will be like exp (ik · R;) times a modulating func-
tion, which is large only inside the wave packet. Since the packet is
supposed to include many atomic sites, the value of k will be fairly well
defined, according to the uncertainty principle, and consequently E,.(k)
may be chosen as the energy of the wave function corresponding to an
average value of k.
We shall now substitute the wave function of Eq. (Al-13) into a per-
turbed Schrodinger equation, including not only the Hamiltonian opera-
tor (H o)op appearing in Eq. (Al-1), expressing the periodic potential
problem, but also a perturbed term (H 1)op, which we shall write later,
and which will include terms arising from external electric and magnetic
fields acting on the wave packet. Schrodinger's equation
(Ho+ H1)opi' = iii air/at
then becomes
l (R;)i'(R;,t)(H o + H 1)opa11 (r - R;)
= iii ,l (R;) air~~;,t) an(r - R;) (Al-14)
Let us now multiply on the left by the conjugate of one of the W annier
functions associated with the nth band, which we are using to construct
the wave packet, namely, a:(r - R;), and integrate over the volume.
We have
l (R;)i'(R;,t) Ja!(r - R;)(Ho + H 1)opa 11 (r - R;) dv

= iii ?i'(R;,t) (Al-15)
at
where on the right side we have used the orthogonality property of the
an's. We must now consider the integrals on the left, and we start with
that involving (H o)op•
From volume 2, Eq. (6-31), we know that
f a:(r - R;)(Ho)opa,.(r - R;) dv = Bn(R; - R;) (Al-16)
Sec. Al-2] THE MOTION OF WAVE P.ACKETS IN A PERIODIC POTENTIAL 285
where 8n(Ri - R;) is one of the Fourier components of the expansion of

E,.(k), 'the energy in the nth energy band, as a function of k, in the k
space, as given in Volume 2, Eq. (6-33), which is
E,.(k) = ~(R.)8,.(R,) exp (-ik • R,) (Al-17)
We shall now use an ingenious method due to W annier to rewrite the
summation ~(R;)-.Jl(R;,t)Jan(r - Ri)(H 0) Pa:(r - R;) dv in a different and
0
interesting form.
The idea behind this method is to take Eq. (Al-17), in which the right
side is expressed as a function of k; to rewrite this in terms of a crystal
momentum p, equal to kh, and then to replace this crystal momentum by
the operator -iliV, which amounts to replacing k by the operator -iV;
and to investigate the effect of this operator on an arbitrary function.
That is, we are interested in the effect of the operator exp ( - R. · V) on an
arbitrary function. It is simpler to take a one-dimensional case, where
the operator is exp ( - X,a /ax); the extension to three dimensions proceeds
simply. If we have exp (-X.a/ax)f(x), we may expand the exponential
. in power series, and find
2
a) f(x) = ( 1 - X, ox
exp ( - X. ax a + 21! X! axa 2 - • • •) f(x)
= f(x - X,) (Al-18)
By using three-dimensional power series, and the three-dimensional form
of Taylor's theorem, we prove in a similar way that
exp (-R, • V)f(r) = f(r - R,) (Al-19)
We now form the operator [En(k)]op, in the way just described, and let
it operate on -.JF(Ri,t). We have
[En(k)]op-.Jl(Ri,t) = 1:(R,)8n(R,) exp (-R. · V)-.JF(Ri,t)
= 1:(R.)8n(R,)-.JF(R; - R,,t)
= ~(R;)8n(R. - R;)-.JF(R;,t)
= ~(R;)-.Jl(R;,t)Ja: (r - Ri)(H 0) 0pa,.(r - R;) dv (Al-20)
where in the summation we have replaced R, by R; - R;. We see, then,
that in the absence of perturbations, or the case H 1 = 0, we could rewrite
Eq. (Al-15) in the form
[E ,. (k)] op -.JF(R-,, t) = 'I,'Ii a-.JF(R;,t)
at (Al-21)
This is like a Schrodinger equation for a wave function -.JF(R,t), where this
function is now regarded as a continuous function of the quantity Ri,
regarded as a variable, and where the operator [En(k)]op is to be con-
sidered as the Hamiltonian operator.
286 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS (App. 1
As the author has pointed out, 1 this Schrodinger equation is that

associated with a classical Hamiltonian
(p) '\'
En h = '-' (R.)Sn(R.) exp (-ip •
Ii R,) (Al-22)
which is found by rewriting the wave vector k in terms of the equivalent

crystal momentum p, and writing the energy in the nth energy band as a
function of this momentum. We know, however, that the center of
gravity of a wave packet moves according to the classical Hamilton
equations. 2 For the unperturbed case, we then may use the Hamilton
equation dq/dt = oH/op, to find the components of velocity of the wave
packet. We have
dx
V =-=-=----
aH I oEn(k) (Al-23)
"' dt ap., Ii ak.,
which is the x component of Eq. (Al-4). In other words, from this
classical Hamiltonian we get a very simple proof of the theorem regarding
the velocity of the wave packet proved in Sec. Al-I.
Next we consider the perturbation term in the Hamiltonian of Eq.
(Al-14). This will result in a change of the average momentum, or
average wave vector, of the wave packet with time, as we can see from
the other Hamilton equation applied to the same problem. This equa-'
tion has an x component which is dp.,/dt = -aH/ax. The unperturbed
Hamiltonian, of Eq. (Al-22), has no dependence on the coordinates, so
that it results in no time dependence of p, or of k. However, if we have
an additional term in the Hamiltonian arising from H 1 , this can depend
on the coordinates, and hence can result in a change of the wave vector
of the wave packet with time.
The simplest case is that in which H 1 is a function of the coordinates
only (thus excluding magnetic effects, in which the Hamiltonian depends
on the momentum or the velocity), and varies so slowly with position that
it can be considered constant over a wave packet. This will be the case
if H1 arises from an ordinary applied electric field, whose variation with
position has macroscopic dimensions, large compared with a wave packet,
which will be of microscopic size, though still large on an atomic scale.
Then in the integral f a!(r - Ri)(H 1)opa,,(r - R;) dv, we may take the
approximately constant value of (H 1)op out of the integral. On account
of the orthogonality of the Wannier functions, the integral will vaBish
unless Ri = R;, and in case that condition is satisfied, the integral will be
uniiy, to be multiplied by H 1 (R.), the value of the perturbative potential
J. C. Slater, Phys. Rev., 76 :1592 (1949).
1
See for example J. C. Slater, "Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure," vol. 1,

2
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1960, appendix 3.

at the atomic site R;. In this case Eq. (Al-15) can be rewritten, using
Eq. (Al-22), in the form
[En(-iv') + H1(R;)]'1i(R;,t) = iii a\Jr~~;,t) (Al-24)
in which En(-iv') represents the energy in the energy band expressed as

a function of k, and in which in turn k is replaced by the operator -iv'.
This is now the Schri:idinger equation derived from the classical Hamil-
tonian En(k) + H 1 (R;), where the perturbative potential H 1 is taken to be
a function of a continuous variable R;, or a continuous variable R, which
later will take on the discrete value R;.
We may now use our theorem about the center of gravity of the wave
packet satisfying the classical Hamiltonian equations, which lead to the
result
(Al-25)
Here H I is a function of the continuous variables x, y, z, forming the center

of gravity of the wave packet. In other words, we see that in the presence
of the perturbing field, the crystal momentum corresponding to the wave
vector of the wave packet will move according to Newton's second law,
the time rate of change of the crystal momentum being equal to the
perturbed force whose x component is - aH ii ax. Of course, as pointed
out in the text, this will not imply that the wave packet will move like a
classical particle in the perturbing potential H 1, on account of the non-
classical relation of Eq. (Al-4) between crystal momentum and velocity.
The implications of this are taken up in Chap. 2.
If the energy En can be expanded in power series about the energy
minimum, and we are interested in energy levels near this minimum, we
may use an expansion like Eq. (2-11), plus higher terms which we can
neglect. In this case, Eq. (Al-24) reduces to
2
(2-
[ Eo - li2 mx ~
ax 2
+ J_ ~ + _!__
my ay m, az
2
~) 2
+H 1 (R)] '1i(R,t) = iii a\Jr~~,t) (Al-26)
or the ordinary Schri:idinger equation for a particle with the tensor form
of effective mass, in the presence of the potential H 1 . This is the approxi-
mation which is used in obtaining the hydrogenic type of wave function
around an impurity, mentioned in Sec. 2-5.
\Ve may now consider how to extend our treatment to a case involving
magnetic fields. As in the case of the electric fields, we shall assume that
the magnetic field is of the macroscopic type, varying only over macro-
scopic distances, and being practically constant over the wave packet.
We must first remind the reader of the magnetic terms entering into the
Hamiltonian, and into Schrodinger's equation. (See J. C. Slater, "Quan-
tum Theory of Atomic Structure," vol. 1, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1960, appendix 4, for a treatment of this method.) We must replace
the ordinary kinetic energy term in the Hamiltonian, p 2 /2m, by the
expression (p + eA)2/2m, where A is the vector potential, -e the charge
of the electron (so that e is a positive quantity). We shall now show that
the corresponding modification of Eq. (Al-24), for the motion of the wave
packet, is to replace En(-iv') by En(-iv' + eA/li), as we might reasonably
expect, since classically we replace p by p eA. +
The fundamental effect of the magnetic field on Schrodinger's equation,
as we have just seen, is to change the kinetic energy term. If we expand
the expression (-ihv' + eA) 2/2m, and assume a potential energy V, as in
Eq. (Al-1), the substitute for that equation becomes
( - ~ v' 2 _ ieliA · v' + e A + v) '11

2 2
= iii a-.ati, (Al-27)
2m m 2m
where we have written the time-dependent Schrodinger equation. We

thus have two terms, -ieliA • v' /m +
e 2A 2 /2m, to be added to the unper-
turbed Hamiltonian, constituting the contribution to (H 1)op arising from
the magnetic field. In considering these two terms, we must :remember
that the vector potential A, like the scalar potential, is not uniquely
determined. If we add to A any vector field whose curl is zero, it leaves
the magnetic field unchanged, since B = curl A. If this vector field
added to A is time-independent, it does not contribute to the electric
field; for we remember that the contribution of A to the electric field comes
through the expression E = - aA/ at. If it depends on time, we can add a
compensating correction to the scalar potential, to leave the electric field
invariant. It is this possibility of modifying the vector and scalar poten-
tials without changing the field which leads to the process of change of
gauge, a process of making just the changes in potentials which we have
described.
In particular, we can make a change of gauge which will instantaneously
reduce the vector potential to zero at the center of the wave packet; this
is the method used by Jones and Zener in the reference made earlier.
Then the term e2A 2/2m becomes vanishingly small, for a small wave
packet, as far as the present purposes are concerned, though this term
must be retained for dealing with some other problems, such as diamagne-
tism. The first-order term, however, involving A · v', cannot be removed
in this way, for as we shall see later it leads to terms involving the deriva-
tives of the components of Awith respect to x, y, and z, and hence to terms
in the magnetic field.
We have, then, simply the perturbative term in the Hamiltonian
- iehA · V/ m. We shall now verify, to this order of approximation, our

statement of the preceding paragraph that we can handle the modification
of Eq. (Al-24) by replacing En(-i"v) by En(-i"v + eA/h). On account
of the vanishing of the vector potential at the center of the wave packet,
we may expand this quantity in power series, and retain only the linear
term. In other words, we can write
E ( - ·v + eA) _E (- ·v) + aEn eAx + aEn eAy + aEn eA, (Al-28)

" i h n akx h
i aky h ak, h
We recognize the first term of Eq. (Al-28) as the unperturbed Hamiltonian

operator of Eq. (Al-21). We now wish to show that the remaining terms,
when operating on 'l'(R;,t), as in Eq. (Al-24), have the form given in Eq.
(Al-15) from the perturbative term -iehA · V/m in the Hamiltonian of
Eq. (Al-27). That is, we wish to show that
aEn eAx
( okx + aEn eA + aEn eA,) 'l'(R
11 )
h oky h ak, h ,,t
= I (Ri)'l'(Ri,t) Ja!(r - R,) ( - ieh! · ") an(r - Ri) dv (Al-29)
From Eq. (Al-4) we know that the expression (aEn/ak,)/h equals the
x component of the velocity Vn of the wave packet formed from the nth
energy band. Hence the expression on the left side of Eq. (Al-29) equals
(eA · Vn)'l'(R;,t) (Al-30)
We must then show that the right side has the same value. To do this,
we first use Bloch waves, of the form of Eq. (Al-12). For such a Bloch
wave we can find the average velocity by use of Eq. (Al-10). We have
[vn(k)]av = (1/h)VkEn(k) = Ju:(k,r)(-ihV /m)un(k,r) dv

= N- 11:(R;,Ri)J exp [ik · (Ri - R;)Ja:(r - R;)
( -ihV /m)an(r - Ri) dv
= 1:(R,)J exp (ik • R,)a:(r)(-ihV /m)an(r - R,) dv (Al-31)
in which we have replaced Ri - R; by R,, and have summed over one of
the two indices R; or Ri, getting N identical terms.
Next we consider the right side of Eq. (Al-29). For the interior of the
wave packet, we know that the wave function may be considered to be
built up of a superposition of Bloch waves, all with very nearly the same
wave vector. Hence the behavior of 'l'(Ri,t), as we have mentioned
earlier, is like exp (ik • Ri) times a quantity independent of R,, in the
interior of the wave packet, but falls off rapidly outside. Then we may
rewrite the quantity 'l'(Ri,t) approximately in the form
'l'(Ri,t) = exp [ik · (Ri - R;)]i'(R;,t) (Al-32)
Thus we have
i(R;)'11(R;,t)Ja!(r - Ri)(-iliV /m)a,.(r - R;) dv
= i(R;)J exp [i'k • (R; - R;)]a!(r - Ri)( -iliV /m)an(r - R.,-) dv \Jl(R;,t)
= [vn(k)]av'P'(R,,t) (Al-33)
in which we have used Eq. (Al-31). If we now take the scalar product of
this quantity with eA, and compare with Eq. (Al-29), we see that we have
proved the theorem which we wished to prove.
If, then, we have a perturbation consisting of a potential energy V1 ,
arising from an electric field [the quantity H 1 of Eq. (Al-24)], and a
vector potential A, we see that the Schrodinger equation for \Jl(R,,t) can
be written as
[ En ( -iV + e:) + V 1(R,)] \Jl(Ri,t) = iii a\Jl~~;,t) (Al-34)
which is the Schrodinger equation arising from the Hamiltonian

H = En[(p + eA)/li] + Vi (Al-35)
The wave packet, then, will move according to Newton's equations of
motion for this classical Hamiltonian. The velocity, first, is given by the
equation dx/dt = aH/ap,, = (1/li)aEn/ak,,. This is to be computed for
a value of k equal to (p + eA)/li, but as we have mentioned earlier, the
vector potential A is to be so chosen that its value at the center of gravity
of the wave packet is zero. Hence this velocity is the same one computed
in the absence of the magnetic field in Eq. (Al-4).
The other one of Hamilton's equations, giving dp,,/dt, is more compli-
cated, though our procedure in handling it is entirely analogous to the
classical case. We have
(Al-36)
We take advantage of Eq. (Al-4) for the velocity, so that if we write v,,,
v11 , v. for the components of the average velocity of the wave packet, we
have
dp,, _
dt - -e
(
V,,
aA,,
ax
+ Vy aA
ax
+ V, i)x
11 aA,)
-
av1
ax (Al-37)
Now we recall, however, that p + eA = kli, so that

dp,, _ Ii dk,, _ dA,,
dt- dt edt (Al-38)
We are assuming a magnetic field independent of time, so that aA,,/ at = 0.

Sec. Al-2] THE MOTION OF WAVE. PACKETS IN A PERIODIC POTENTIAL 291
However, there will be a term in dA,jdt, on account of the motion of the

wave packet; though at the instant when we are making the calculation
we have chosen A to be zero at the position of the wave packet, this
situation will not persist as it moves to a point of slightly different vector
potential. We have, in fact,
dAx _ aAx
dt - at
+ Vx aAx + aAx + aAx
ax Vy ay Vz az (Al-39)
We set aAx/at = 0, and substitute the result of Eq. (Al-39) into Eq.
(Al-38), and find
Ii dkx = -e [v (aAy _ aAx) _ v. (aAx _ aA•)] _ aV 1

dt y ax ay az ax ax
= -e[E + (v X B)]x (Al-40)
where we have used -cJV1/cJx = -eEx, the product of the charge -e
and the electric field Ex, and where we have used B = curl A.
We see, in other words, that the wave packet moves ink space according
to Newton's second law, in which we determine the force by ordinary
electromagnetic methods from the electric field and the magnetic field.
The velocity v appearing in Eq. (Al-40) is the velocity of the wave packet,
given in Eq. (Al-4). And we must recall that though this expression
looks like the classical equation of motion, it is really quite different, on
account of this nonclassical relation of Eq. (Al-4) between the velocity
and the wave vector k, or its related crystal momentum kh. The dif-
ferences between the behavior of the wave packet and of a classical
particle are taken up in the text.
Before we leave this discussion, we should mention its limitations. We
have explicitly limited our treatment to the case of fields which vary
only slowly with position. Another limitation, which we have not men-
tioned, is that of assuming that a wave packet which can be expanded at
an initial time in terms of Bloch functions, or Wannier functions, of the
nth band, will continue in such a form that it can be expanded in terms of
these functions. This is not in general the case; the wave functions of the
nth band do not form a complete set, and we must use the functions of all
bands in carrying out a proper expansion. However, the coefficients of
the wave functions representing the other bands increase slowly with the
time. One can show that the more slowly the fields vary with position,
the more slowly do the contributions of the other bands appear. When
they do appear, however, they indicate the probability of transitions from
one band to another, produced by the external electric or magnetic field.
These transitions exist, and have been the subject of a good deal of investi-
gation, 1 but we shall not treat them further in this volume.
1 See for instance C. Zener, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A145 :529 (1934).
Appendix 2
Wave Functions of Impurity Atoms
A2-1. Introduction. In Sec. 2-5 we have sketched the behavior of the

wave function in the neighborhood of impurity atoms. We shall go fur-
ther with this treatment in the present Appendix. The methods we use
are largely taken from various papers of the author and Koster. 1 Some
of the ideas also come from a treatment by James, 2 and similar considera-
tions are found in work by Friedel. 3 We shall base our discussion on the
methods outlined in Appendix 1, which are also discussed, by simplified
methods, in the first paper quoted in footnote 1.
We start with an extension of the useful graphical method of discussing
the solution of a periodic potential problem, with a perturbation such as
would be produced by an impurity atom, which we have used in Sec. 2-5.
This is similar to the problem discussed by James in the paper referred
to above. Such a potential, for a one-dimensional case, is shown in Fig.
A2-l. In Fig. A2-la, we show a schematic periodic potential, with its
energy bands. In Fig. A2-lb, we draw the energy bands, pushed upward
for each value of x by the amount V1 (x), or H 1 (x), the perturbative
potential of Appendix 1. We also draw a horizontal line of constant
energy E. If H 1 varies only slowly with position, we may assume that
the momentum and velocity of a wave packet are determined by the
position of E with respect to the energy bands, just as they would be in
the absence of H 1. For instance, at point A in Fig. A2-l_b, the energy E
is in the same position with respect to the energy band which the energy
E' occupies in Fig. A2-la. Thus, at this point A, in the presence of the
potential H 1, the de Broglie wavelength of the function '1t will be the
same as the de Broglie wavelength of the sinusoidal function in Fig. A2-la,
corresponding to energy E'. When E, in Fig. A2-lb, lies outside any of
the energy bands, the wavelength is imaginary, the wave function is
damped off exponentially, and the velocity of the wave packet would be
1 J. C. Slater, Phys. Rev., 76 :1592 (Hl49). G. F. Koster and J. C. Slater, Phys. Rev.,
94 :1392 (1954); 96 :1167 (1954); 96 :1208 (1954). See also A. M. Clogston, Phys. Rev.,
126 :439 (1962).
2 H. M. James, Phys. Rev., 76:1602, 1611 (1954).
3 J. Friedel, Advan. Phys., 3:446 (1954), and later papers.
292
Sec. A2-1] WAVE FUNCTIONS OF IMPURITY ATOMS 293
imaginary. When Eis inside one of the bands, the wavelength is real,
corresponding to a real velocity of the wave packet. The velocity goes
to zero when E is at the edge of the band.
A classical particle of energy E, moving according to the classical
Hamiltonian Eo(p) + H1(q), where p, q are momentum and coordinate,
and where Eo(p) is like the expression En(p//i) of Eq. (Al-22), would then
oscillate between points like B and C, Fig. A2-lb, reversing at each point
(a) lb)
Fw. A2-l. (a) Periodic potential, with energy bands (shaded); (b) Energy bands and
potential pushed upward by amount H 1 (shown in upper curve). Line of constant
energy E cuts band, at point A, at same relative height as energy E' in Fig. A2-la.
B and C, reversing point of. oscjll,.~tion of particle.
Discrete impurity level in valence band,

always occupied
Fw. A2-2. Continuous and discrete levels surrounding impurity atom in n-type
semiconductor. E,, energy of a discrete level; E 2, energy in continuum.
as its velocity becomes zero, and a quantized particle will obey a quantum
condition. Such a picture, as James has emphasized, allows us to deduce
the nature of the stationary states and wave functions in such a problem.
If, for instance, the external field represented by H 1 is constant, so that
the energy bands are tilted at a constant. angle, t.he electron ,,.-ill oscillate
back and forth in coordinate space with a very large amplitude (for a
small external field), at the same time having its position in the energy
band go from bottom to top and back again, as we have seen in Sec. 2-2.
Let us now consider the application of the method to cases actually met
in the theory of solids. First we take p- and n-type impurity atoms in a
semiconductor. Then-type is a little easier to understand, and we deal
with it first, as in the corresponding discussion of Sec. 2-5. If the atom
loses an ·electron, it has enough remaining electrons to fit properly into the
lattice, but it then carries a positive charge, which introduces a Coulomb
potential (modified as to its absolute value by the dielectric constant of
the material) into the lattice. Thus the energy bands, as modified by this
Coulomb potential, will be as shown in Fig. A2-2. In these bands, we
clearly have the possibility of discrete energy levels, of a hydrogenlike
sort, at energies such as E 1• Compensating these levels, which if they
were occupied would introduce extra charge near the impurity, we see
that with higher energies in the band, such as E2, the electrons will
effectively be repelled as they approach too close to the impurity atom,
their velocity going to zero and the electrons being turned back at the
point where the line of height E 2 emerges from the top of the energy
band. Thus these other states will provide less than the normal charge
near the impurity, so that, if all the states of a band are occupied, we shall
still have just enough charge to account for one electron per atom of each
spin in the band, including the i~purity atom. This conclusion, which
has been emphasized by Friedel Cloe. cit.), will be discussed ·more fully
later, in Sec. A2-3. In the n-type semiconductor, these modified levels
are all occupied in the lower, or valence, band. We still have one electron
per impurity atom left over, however, and this at low temperature will
go into the lowest discrete level below the upper, or conduction, band, but
at slightly higher temperatures will be excited intp one of the conduction
levels.
The p-type semiconductor is handled similarly. A p-type impurity
atom normally contains one less valence electron than the atom of the
lattice, e.g., an atom of Al or Bin a lattice of Si or Ge. If we provide such
an atom with an extra electron, to make it into a negative ion, it has the
right number of electrons to fit into the lattice. Then the modified energy
bands will be as in Fig. A2-3, clearly giving discrete levels lying above the
bands, with compensating diminished electron density in those wave func-
tions lying at the bottom of the band. In the neutral crystal, there must
be one electron less per impurity atom than the number necessary to fill
the complete valence-electron band, so that at low temperatures this
electron will be missing from the discrete level lying above the band; but
at higher temperatures it will often be missing from one of the continuous
levels lying in the band, leading therefore to hole conduction.
The case of excited energy levels in crystals, which has often been
discussed (see for instance Wannier 1), is more involved, but similar to
1 G. H. Wannier, Phys. Rev., 52:191 (1937).
. Sec. A2-1} WAVE FUNCTIONS OF IMPURITY ATOMS 295
these cases of impurities. It is, perhaps, easiest to understand in the

case where a tightly bound, or x-ray, electron is excited to the conduction
band. If an atom of the crystal has lost one of its inner electrons, it acts
approximately, as far as its valence electrons are concerned, like an atom
with a nuclear charge greater by one unit; the missing electron can act
like an additional valence electron. Thus the atom temporarily plays
the role of an n-type impurity atom, and will set up discrete energy levels
as in Fig. A2-2. When the corresponding emission spectrum is observed,
resulting from an electron in the valence-electron band falling down into
the empty x-ray level, there is the possibility that the electron may come
from one of the levels in the continuum of the valence-electron band, but
also the possibility that it may come from one of the discrete levels lying
below the valence-electron band, resulting therefore in a longer wave
::A..-- Discrete impurity level above valence bond,

unoccupied at o•K
x, oO( } Valence bond (occupied)
"'
I
Fm. A2-3. Continuous and discrete levels surrounding impurity atom in p-type
semiconductor.
radiation than we should otherwise find. Such tails are observed in the
soft x-ray emission spectra.
The real optical case of excitation, where an electron is removed from
the valence band to a conduction band, is more complicated, in that both ·
electron and hole are readily mobile. We may then best describe it
essentially as Wannier did (Zoe. cit.), and as FrenkeP had done earlier.
Considering it classically, the electron in the conduction band attracts
the hole in the valence band, and since each has a comparable effective
mass, they each execute hydrogenlike orbits about their center of mass,
resulting in discrete states. These discrete states lie below the continuous
states; that is, the electron effectively is at the bottom of the conduction
band, like the discrete states in an n-type semiconductor as in Fig. A2-2,
while the r,ositive hole is at the top of the valence band, like the discrete
states in a p-type semiconductor shown in Fig. A2-3. The electron and
hole together form a stable structure, however, which, because of the
1 J. Frenkel, Phys. Rev., 37 :17, 1276 (1931); Physik Z. Sowjetunion, 9 :158 (1936).
296 INSULATION,_SE;MICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [App.2
mobility of both electron and hole, is free to wander through the crystal,
forming what is called an exciton. Being a neutral structure, it carries
no current. Less energy is required to set up an exciton than to raise an
electron from the valence band to the conduction band, leaving both
electron and hole dissociated from each other and free to move, so that
the wavelength for absorption to the exciton level, which does not result
in photoconductivity, is longer than the limit of photoconductivity. It
is well known that such exciton levels exist, for instance, in the alkali
halides.1 There will be further, more detailed discussion of the theory
of excitons in the next volume of this work.
A2-2. Statistical Treatment of Perturbed Periodic Lattices. A study
of the stationary states of the electrons in the perturbed lattice, such as
we have been sketching in the preceding section, is really only half the
problem; we wish, as well, to ask which levels will be occupied, which ones
empty. In thermal equilibrium, which is the only case we shall consider,
we must then supplement our theory by use of the Fermi-Dirac statistics:
the average number of electrons in a state of total energy E, with a given
spin, is given by the Fermi function F(E), defined in Eq. (1-8). From
this fact, supplemented by the knowledge of the wave functions 'Yn, of
Appendix 1, we can find the average charge density at each point of the
lattice. It is by no means necessarily true that this charge density will
automatically come out zero; hence we have space charge, and from this
space charge we can compute an electrostatic potential by Poisson's equa-
tion. We can then apply a self-consistent condition, in essentially the
sense of Hartree: we can demand that the potential energy of an electron
in this potential be the same quantity H 1 (q) which is responsible for
perturbing the energy bands.
To set up our self-consistent condition, we must first find the net charge
density as a function of position arising from our assumed energy bands
with the assumed Fermi level. We shall find this as we did in Sec. 2-5
for the case of the unperturbed periodic potential. In this potential, let
the number of energy levels per unit volume, in the energy range dE, be
(dN /dE) dE; this can be found, as is well known, from the volume of
momentumspacelyingbetweensurfacesE 0 (p) = EandEo(p) = E + dE,
since states are distributed in momentum space with uniform density in
the periodic case. In forbidden bands of energy, dN /dE is, of course,
equal to zero. Let N O be the number of electrons per unit volume neces-
sary to render the crystal electrically neutral. Then the excess number of
electrons per unit volume, with an arbitrary value of E F, is
( _J-
N EF) -
OO
00
dN I dE
exp (E - EF)/kT + 1 dE
_ T
Ao (A2-1)
1 See for instance J.C. Slater and W. Shockley, Phys. Rev., 50:705 (1936).
Ordinarily, as in Sec. 2-5, we determine EF by the condition that N(EF)

must be zero, or the lattice uncharged. Our present problem, however,
is different: we wish to investigate the volume charge in the lattice,
resulting from N(EF) being not zero, but, instead, a slowly varying func-
tion of position. If we have such a volume charge, then the potential in
the lattice will differ from its periodic value by a slowly varying function
determined from the volume charge by Poisson's equation. We let H 1 be
the potential energy of an electron in this slowly varying potential, as
before. Since the charge density is -N(EF)e, where e is the magnitude of
the electronic charge, Poisson's equation in mks units is
(A2-2)
where E is the permittivity of the material, or the dielectric constant times

Eo.
In the presence of the slowly varying electrostatic potential, dN /dE
will, of course, no longer be given as it was previously. We know from
the preceding section, however, that the effect of H 1 will be to push up the
energy bands with respect to their original position by an amount equal
to the local value of H 1 . It seems reasonable that the number of excess
electrons per unit volume will then be given by N(EF - H1) = N(t),
where the function N is as defined in Eq. (A2-1), and where we introduce
the abbreviation r = E F - H 1• This is an assumption somewhat like
that made in the Thomas-Fermi method, which we take up in Chap. 10,
where we assume at every point of space that the statistical distributiqn
of electron energies is what would be found for free electrons moving in a
constant potential equal to the local value of the actual potential. Our
method differs from the Thomas-Fermi method in three respects: we are
handling our kinetic energy by the energy-band method, so that it is
given by Eo(p) instead of the usual expression; we are dealing with a
modulating function 'Yn(q), instead of with the actual wave function '1'( q);
and we are handling our statistics in a form appropriate to an arbitrary
temper(l,ture, rather than for the absolute zero of temperature as is done
in the ordinary Thomas-Fermi method.
When we make the assumption above, we can write Poisson's equation
in the following form:
(A2-3)
where we have used the fact that E F must be constant over all space, to
satisfy the condition for thermal equilibrium in the Fermi statistics, so
that its Laplacian is zero. In Eq. (A2-3), supplemented by Eq. (A2-1)
for the function N, we have the general formulation of the problem of
setting up the electrostatic potential within a solid in thermal equilibrium.
This equation has been used and solved in special cases by many writers.
298 INSULATION, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [App. 2
It has misentially been used by Schottky 1 in an extensive series of papers,

and is similarly used by Mott and Gurney. 2 Fan 3 has carried out studies
of the contact between metals and between a metal and a semiconductor,
using the same method.
The nature of the solution of Eq-. (A2-3) depends on the form of the
function N(t). In Fig. A2-4 we show this function for two familiar cases:
the metal and the intrinsic semiconductor. In the first case, N increases
very rapidly as t departs from the value appropriate for no charge, and
over a considerable range it can be treated as proportional to t - t 0 ,
where to is the value associated with no charge. In the semiconductor,
N({) however, N increases very slowly with t - to,
behaving approximately as a hyperbolic sine,
although when t becomes so large, negatively
or positively, that the Fermi level penetrates
t either the lower valence band or the upper
conduction band, N begins to get very large,
negatively or· positively as the case may be.
This second curve, as we see, is identical with
N({) Fig. 2-3. If N(t) can be approximated as
Top of a(t - t 0), where a is a constant, as it can
volence
bond over a considerable range in these two cases,
then Eq. (A2-3) takes on the mathematical
form of the wave equation, and solutions can
be set up by familiar method,s. Thus, if we
are dealing with a one-dimensional problem,
Frn. A2-4. N (n as function
we have solutions
of r. Above, metal; below, t - to = exp (±x/X) where X = (e/ae 2)~2
intrinsic semiconductor.
(A2-4)
and where x is the coordinate in the direction in which the potential is
changing. As shown by Fan (Zoe. cit.) this quantity X for a metal is
very small-of the order of magnitude of an Angstrom: On the other
hand, for an intrinsic semiconductor it becomes large, and in the limit of
zero temperature for this case it becomes infinite. For a three-dimensional
problem of spherical symmetry, we similarly have
t _ t O = exp ( ± rIX) (A2-5)
r
where r is the distance from the center, and Xis as given above,
1W. Schottky, Z. Physik, 118:539 (1941), and other references quoted in this paper.
2N. F. Mott and R. W. Gurney, "Electronic Processes in Ionic Crystals," Oxford
University Press, New York, 1940, chap. V.
3 H. Y. Fan, Phys. Rev., 62 :388 (1942).
Sec. A2-2) WAVE FUNCTIONS OF IMPURITY ATOMS 299
We can now examine several applications of these simple results. First

we consider the metal, and the one-dimensional problem; this is met in
investigating the surface charge at the free surface of a metal in an external
electric field. Clearly, we can adjust boundary conditions so that the
electric field at the surface resulting from the gradient of H 1 has any
desired value, and yet the resulting potential will penetrate into the metal
only to a distance of the order of a single atomic layer, with the related
charge density confined to this same small depth. This allows us, in
other words, to assume an arbitrary surface charge on the surface layer of
atoms of a metal, of suitable amount to match any external boundary
conditions. Similarly, if two metals are close to each other and connected
electrically, so that they must bear surface charges enough to produce the
difference of potential equal to their difference of work function, these
surface charges will be formed according to this same method. As the
metals are brought into contact, the double layer between them is formed
from surface charges of the same variety at the surfaces of each. This
description of the double layer has been worked out in detail by Fan
(Zoe. cit.).
Another example relating to the metal comes from the spherically
symmetrical problem. If we had an impurity atom in a metal, of the
type which we have in a semiconductor, and which we discussed in Sec.
2-5, it would produce a local singularity in the potential. The solution
which we should have to use would then be of the form of Eq. (A2-5),
exp (-r/X)
t .= to+ constant----''---'---'------'--
r
(A2-6)
showing a singularity at r = 0, but decreasing exponentially to zero in a

distance of atomic dimensions. In other words, the conduction electrons
would shield the impurity atom so completely that it would not produce
appreciable perturbation of potential beyond its nearest-neighbor atoms.
This, of course, is a well-known result.
In an intrinsic semiconductor, we may consider these same two prob-
lems, remembering that here X is very large. This means that in such a
material, which is practically an insulator, we can accumulate a practically
negligible volume charge in the interior, so that if the whole material
(including the surface layers) behaves in the same way, we cannot have a
thin surface layer of charge as we can in a metal. Instead, if we have such
an insulator in an external electric field normal to the surface, the field
penetrates the surface, the normal component of D being continuous as
in the usual theory of dielectrics. To account for surface charges which
unquestionably can build up on the surface of a dielectric, as, for instance,
by bombarding with electrons, which have no chance to leak off, we must
introduce surface states, capable of holding extra charge; we shall omit
discussion of these surface states in this volume. In the interior of an

intrinsic semiconductor, we may use the spherical solution of our equation
to discuss an impurity atom; and we find, with our large X, that the field
is essentially an inverse-square field, the effect of the dielectric being seen
only in the dielectric constant. Thus we have correctly drawn our per-
turbed energy bands around impurity atoms, in Figs. A2-2 and A2-3, a.s
though the potential varied inversely as the distance from the impurity
center, without the type of shielding found in the metal.
A2-3. Difference-equation Method for Impurity Wave Functions. In
the preceding section, we have seen that the potential surrounding an
impurity atom in a metal is a screened Coulomb potential of the type given
in Eq. (A2-6), with an exponential decrease so rapid that it is hardly felt
beyond the nearest-neighbor atoms. On the other hand, in a semicon-
ductor, the exponential in Eq. (A2-6) decreases so slowly that it can be
practically disregarded, and we have an ordinary Coulomb potential. For
the latter case, as we pointed out in Sec. 2-5, it is reasonable to use the
effective mass approximation, and to derive a wave function "IJ!,. similar to a
hydrogen wave function, though with energy levels much more closely
spaced, and with a much greater spatial extension of the wave function.
On account of this large size of the wave function, the approximations
which we made in the preceding section, concerning the slow variation of
H 1 from atom to atom, are fairly well justified.
In a metal, however, it is clear that this approximation is not at all
justified, and there can even be cases with semiconductors where the
parameters are such that the wave function falls off within a few atom
distances, and where also we cannot make our approximations. In such
a case, quite a different method of treatment is more appropriate, based
directly on Eq. (Al-15), rather than on Wannier's modification of it,
as set up in Eq. (Al-26). This method, leading to the direct solution of
difference equations for "IJ!,., is discussed in the papers of Koster and Slater
mentioned above. We may start with Eq. (Al-15), use Eq. (Al-16), and
set up Schrodinger's equation for a stationary state of energy E. Then
if we set
w,.(R,t) = exp (-iEt/li)U,.(R) (A2-7)
we find
:r(R,-)[S,.(R. - R;) + V,.(R,,R;)]U,.(R;) = EU11 (R,) (A2-8)
where V,.(Ri,R;) = fa!(r - Ri)(H1)a,.(r - R;) dv (A2-9)
It is the difference equations, Eq. (A2-8), which are discussed in the papers
referred to. A more general form is in fact considered. vVe have noted,
at the end of Appendix 1, that a rigorous expansion of the perturbed wave
function cannot be made in terms of only the W annier functions of a
single band. If we replace the time-independent form of Eq. (Al-13) by
Sec. A2-3] WAVE FUNCTIONS Of IMPURITY ATOMS 301
the more general form
w(r) = ~(n,R;)U,.(R;)a,.(r - R;) (A2-10)

where we are now carrying out a general sum over all Wannier functions
in all energy bands, a complete set of basis functions, then in place of
Eq. (A2-8) we find
~(m,R;)[6,.(R; - R;)5nm + V,.m(R;,R;)]Um(R;) = EU,.(R;) (A2-11)

where V,.m(R;,R;) = f a!(r - R;)H 1am(r - R;) dv (A2-12)
which obviously reduces to Eq. (A2-8) in case we disregard the Wannier
functions of all bands but one.
In order to familiarize ourselves with the effect of a perturbation approxi-
mately localized on a single atom, as in the case of a metailic impurity,
we shall solve a simple one-dimensional case, which shows many of the
features of the complete problem. We consider a one-dimensional crystal
of equally spaced atoms, and restrict ourselves to a single band describable
in terms of a W annier function which has reflection symmetry with respect
to a plane passing through the atom about which the Wannier function is
located. In this case, Eq. (A2-8) can be written in the form
~(q)]6(p - q) + V(p,q)]U(q) = EU(p) (A2-13)
The index p denotes the pth atom in the chain. The simplest case of an
impurity in a linear chain is the case where the W annier functions only
have nearest-neighbor interactions and the impurity only extends over
one lattice site. The first of these restrictions means that 6(p) = 0 for
p > 1. The second of these assumptions means that V(p,q) is zero unless
both p and q are equal to zero. In this case, our difference equations
(A2-13) can be rewritten
6(0) U(p) + 6(l)[U(p + I) + U(p - l)]
= EU(p) p~I
6(0) U(Q) + 6(1)[ U(l) + U(- I)]
= [E - V(0)]U(0) p = 0 . (A2-14)
The usual way to solve the general equations in Eq. (A2-14) (the first
set) is to make the assumption that U(p) = b±v. If we substitute this
into the first of Eqs. (A2-14) we see that this is indeed a solution provided
that
6(0) + 6(l)(b + 1/b) = E (A2-15)
= exp ikR, where R is the lattice spacing, the condition of Eq.
If we let b
(A2-15) becomes
6(0) + 26(1) cos kR = E (A2-16)
We note that in this relation k may be either real or complex. In fact,

we can at once say that if E is such that IE - 8(0) l/28(1) > 1 then k
must be pure imaginary, while if the inequality is in the other direction,
k is real. We recognize the latter case as the states lying in the band.
These are of course the states for which the coefficients of the W annier
functions are all of unit absolute value, or the propagating states. The
states where k is pure imaginary are those for which the coefficients of
the Wannier function increase exponentially for either large positive or
negative values of p.
We must now solve the second of Eqs. (A2-14). Let us set up periodic
boundary conditions such that U(p + 2N) = U(p), and start by discuss-
ing the case where the energy falls within the band (k real). We notice at
once because of the symmetry of the problem that our solutions must be
either symmetric or antisymmetric about the central atom. In the first
case U(p) = U(-p); in the second, U(p) = - U(-p). For the anti-
symmetric state, the wave function
has a node at the origin and there-
fore our perturbed problem just
reduces to the unperturbed problem.
---,,---1--\--+--\-+--"~----\--+--\-!~'--J/? This can most easily be seen by
putting the condition of antisym-
metry into the difference equations
and noticing that the effect of the
perturbation disappears completely
Frn. A2-5. Function - tan (kRN) sin from the equation. For this case we
(kR), for N = 6. take as the solution U(p) = sinkRp,
which satisfies the boundary condi-
tions provided that kRN = n1r. Thi'3 solution sin kRp is of course a
linear combination of the two solutions bP and b-P. We see that there
are N - I antisymmetric solutions.
The most convenient form in which to take the solution of the symmetric
states is in the form cos kR(p - N) for p between zero and 2N. This
form of the solution automatically satisfies the boundary condition at
p = N. The energy is given at once by Eq. (A2-16). Substituting this
form of the solution in Eq. (A2-14) for p = 0 we arrive at the condition
- tan (kRN) sin (kR) = V(0)/28(1) (A2-17)
In arriving at this condition, we have made use of the fact that E is
given by Eq. (A2-16). There are N solutions of this symmetric type.
We can solve Eq. (A2-17) graphically by plotting the left side as a func-
tion of k, and finding the k's for which this equals V(0)/28(1). A plot
of this function for N = 6 as a function of kR is given in Fig. A2-5. We
see that the axis of abscissas cuts this curve in seven places. For the
other horizontal lines, where there-are only six intersections, the missing
state is a state for an imaginary value of k. This state gives a total of
N + 1 symmetric states and N - 1 antisymmetric states, giving in total
the required 2N states. We shall now go on to study in detail the state
corresponding to the imaginary value of k.
If k is imaginary, then let us denote ik by -y. This is the case where E
is such that it lies outside the band. In this case, our solution to the
difference equation is given by exp ( ± -ypR). The coefficients of our
Wannier functions are thus seen to increase exponentially in one direction.
We could proceed as before, setting up a bound state which satisfies our
periodic boundary conditions, but for large N it can be easily shown that
proceeding in this manner gives the same result as demanding that our
wave function go to zero for p infinite. If this is the case then the solution
to the first of Eqs. (A2-14) for positive pis taken as U(p) U(-p) = exp
(--yRp), from which
E = 8(0) + 28(1) cosh (-yR) (A2-18)
In order to satisfy the second of Eqs. (A2-14), we must satisfy sinh
(-yR) = V(0)/28(1). This determines a value of 'Y corresponding to a
given value of V(O). With this value of 'Y, the energy is given by Eq.
(A2-18). We can, of course, substitute for the cosh in terms of the sinh
and get the relation that
E = 8(0) + 28(1){1 + [V(0)/28(1)]21~' (A2-19)
This shows that for small values of the perturbing potential the bound
state leaves the band quadratically in V(O).
In all the preceding discussion, we have tacitly assumed that the sign
of the perturbation is the same as the sign of the nearest-neighbor inter-
action. This means that the bound state pushes out of the band at the
point where E = 8(0) + 28(1). If the signs of the perturbing potential
and the nearest-neighbor interaction are different then the bound state
will push out of the band at the point where E = 8(0) - 28(1). In
this case, it can easily be seen that the solution of the difference equation
is given by (-l)P exp (--yRp). The energy of the bound state is then
given by Eq. (A2-19) where the plus sign outside of the square root is
replaced by a minus sign.
We have now accounted for our 2N states. We have one bound state,
N - 1 antisymmetric states in the band, and N symmetric states in the
band. In Fig. A2-6 we plot the energies of these stat.es for the case N = 6
as a function of the perturLing pote11tial. We have also included for
comparison the energies of the antisymmetric states which are not affected
by the perturbation. The interesting thing to notice is the way in which
each of the energy levels within the band is displaced by the perturbation,
only far enough to approach the midpoint between neighboring anti-

symmetric states, with the exception of the limiting state which becomes
detached from the band, and forms the separate impurity state which
we have discussed earlier. The case which we have shown is that of
positive 8(1), in which case it is the top of the band where the separate
level appears for positive V(O). We have shown the case for a small N
value; but if N is very large, it is clear that the displacements of all levels
but the one which becomes detached from the band will be negligible.
We have seen that a single energy level pushes away from the energy
band under the action of the perturbation V(O), and that its wave func-
tion falls off exponentially as we go away from the perturbing atom. As
Symmetric
-~~~~~~;;;;::::::::!::::::::::~~~~~~~~
=
= ...,---Symmetric
/Antisymmetric
-Antisymmetric
: ========~-t--===========-Symmetric -Antisymmetric
==========--+--==========-Symmetric
==========--::±=:::::=====5~=:::::Antisymmetric
Symmetric
Symmetric Antisymmetric
Fw. A2-6. Energy of perturbed energy levels, as a function of perturbative energy.
V(O) becomes very large compared with the band width, the exponential
fall-off becomes very rapid, though it is smaU for small V(0). At this
point we can give an elementary check of the procedure of earlier sections,
in which the difference equation was replaced by a differential equation.
We start with the energy expression of Eq. (A2-16) and replace k in it
by the operator - i d/dx. We then use this operator to set up a differen-
tial equation, following Eq. (Al-24). In this case, this leads to
8(0)'1'( )
x
+ 28(1) ('¥ + 2! R2
__!__ d 2-It
dx 2
+ 4!
__!__ R4 d '¥ + .. ·)
4
dx 4
+ V(x)-It(x) = E-It(x) (A2-20)
where V(x) is the perturbative potential, which is zero except when x is
zero, so that except when :v is zero we can omit the term in V. The
simplified Schrodinger equation corresponding to Eq. (Al-26) is obtained
by omitting everything beyond the second derivative in Eq. (A2-20).
Now we can, in this simple case, solve either the approximate or the exact
problem by assuming \JI' = exp (--yx), the only difference being in the
relation which we find between 'Y and E. If we substitute this expression
in Eq. (A2-20), we find a solution of the exact equation if
E = 8(0) + 28(1)(1 + (-yR)2/2! + (-yR) /4! + · ·)

4
= 8(0) + 28(1) cosh -yR (A2-21)
in agreement with Eq. (A2-18). If on the contrary we neglect fourth

and higher derivatives, we have E = 8(0) + 28(1)[1 + (-yR) 2 /2), which
is a satisfactory approximation only if (-yR) 2 is small in comparison with
unity. This is the case in which the wave function exp ( --yx) falls off
by only a small amount in the distance R, which agrees with the condition
for the applicability of the second-order differential equation in the last
section. If the perturbation is greater, so that the wave function falls
off more rapidly, and the extra level is farther from the band, the second-
order differential equation is inapplicable, and we must use the difference
equation, or the differential equation of infinite order, which is of course
rigorously equivalent to it.
Before leaving this simple example it is informing to look at the states
within the band in a somewhat different manner. For the symmetric
states in the band, we can take a solution of the form
U(p) = U(-p) = cos (kRp - a)
for positive p. (We are no longer using periodic boundary conditions

here.) If we do this, once again the energy is given by Eq. (A2-16), and
Eq. (A2-14) gives a condition on a,
tan a = - V(0)/[28(1) sin kR] (A2-22)
This is instructive because it shows us that in the band there is a perturbed

state corresponding to every energy in the band. The perturbation only
has the-effect of determining the phase factor a. We could of course do
scattering theory in the band which would be closely related to this phase
angle a. We can also notice that as V(O) becomes infinite the phase
angle approaches 1r /2. In this case, the symmetric state in the band
approaches zero at the perturbed site. This means that whereas the
perturbed states in the band avoid the impurity site the bound state
which pulls out of the band becomes concentrated about the impurity
site, as ,vas pointed out in Sec. A2-1. ,ve can see that thi:s must be so
in a very fundamental manner.
Let us consider the case of periodic boundary conditions. We are
building up wave functions as linear combinations of the 2N Wannier
functions on the atoms of the fundamental period. These W annier

functions are an orthonormal set of functions, as are the final linear com-
binations, so that the U(p)'s, which are the transformation coefficients
from one set of functions to the other, form a unitary matrix. This is a
matrix with 2N rows and columns: we have 2N energy levels, and 2N p's.
If we now form the sum of the quantities U*(p) U(p), for a given p value,
summed over the 2N energy levels, we know on account of the unitary
property that this sum must be unity. Let us carry out this sum for
p = 0 corresponding to the impurity atom. For the separated state,
with large perturbative potential V(O), we know that the wave function
will fall off as exp (-"(Rp), where 'Y is very large, so that the coefficients
U(p) will be very small for p ~ 0. Since the wave function must be
normalized, we must have the sum of U*(p) U(p) over p, for a given
energy level, equal to unity, which means that since the contributions
to the sum for p ~ 0 are very small, the term for p = 0 must be very
nearly equal to unity. We now return to our statement that the sum
of U*(p) U(p) over all levels, for a fixed p, must equal unity. For p = 0,
we have just seen that the contributions from all other levels must be
very small, showing that with a large perturbation, the wave functions
of the states in the band avoid the perturbing atom almost completely.
The general type of proof used here is important, for it can be used in
more complicated cases, where we cannot get explicit solutions.
In the simple example which we have taken up, we see some of the
main features of the direct solution of the difference equations. In the
papers by Koster and Slater quoted above (Zoe. cit.) the problem is carried
a good deal further; the reader is referred to the papers for the details.
In the first place, our simple case is simple largely because the perturbing
potential V is different from zero only on one atomic site. The more
general case is considered where the perturbation is different from zero
on a small number of atomic sites. In this case, it is shown that the
solution of the difference equations can be reduced to a secular problem
in which the number of rows and columns equals the number of atomic
sites on which the perturbative potential is different from zero. This
reduction is carried out by a sort of Green's function method, in which
one sets up a solution corresponding to a single perturbative site, much
like the function we have been taking up in our simple example, and then
makes a linear combination of such functions corresponding to the various
sites at which there is a perturbative potential, determining the coeffi-
cients of the various functions by a secular equation.
By the use of this method, one can discuss problems of considerable
complexity, and carry them through to exact answers. In particular,
one can handle three-dimensional problems, not only in which the per-
turbative potential is on a single atomic site, but in which there is a
Sec. A2-3) WAVE FUNCTIONS OF IMPURITY ATOMS 307
perturbation on a number of neighboring sites, thus approaching the

situation actually found in an impurity in a metal. One finds then that
the perturbation must attain a certain critical size before a perturbed
state breaks away from the continuum. As the magnitude of the pertur-
bation increases, one meets a first critical value for which there is an
s-like discrete state, with energy separated by a finite amount from the
continuum. For further increase of the perturbation, a p-like state
breaks away, and so on. In other words, instead of having an infinite
set of discrete states, as with a hydrogenlike problem met with the
Coulomb potential, one has only a finite number of discrete states, similar
to what one finds in the problem of a square-well perturbative potential
in ordinary quantum mechanics, that is, a problem in which the potential
is constant outside a sphere, but another, lower constant value within
the sphere. In the papers quoted, it is shown that there is a quite close
resemblance between this square-well perturbation and the problem
actually met with an impurity atom in a metal.
We have only sketched these general methods of handling impurity
states, but in the next volume we shall find extensions of them useful in
such cases as magnetic impurities in a metal. Similar methods have also
been used in the problem of lattice vibrations, in the case of a lattice
containing one or more impurity atoms. Localized modes of vibration
are then possible, in which the main oscillation is of the impurity atom
or atoms themselves, the disturbances falling off exponentially as one
goes away from the impurity atom. Such treatments have been given by
Mon troll and Potts, 1 and by other writers mentioned in the Bibliography.
A further application of the methods discussed in the present Appendix
is to problems of the scattering of waves in a periodic medium containing
an impurity atom. This problem has been treated by Koster, 2 by
methods following directly from the Green's function procedure men-
tioned above. In the case of scattering of electron waves, the results
have direct application to the electrical resistance arising from impurity
atoms, the residual resistance mentioned in Chap. 1. In the case of scat-
tering pf waves of mechanical vibration, one meets the effect of impurity
atoms in producing thermal resistance, or in decreasing the thermal con-
ductivity of a substance. In this connection it is interesting to note
that two different atoms of elements of the same atomic number, but
different atomic weight, will behave quite differently in a problem of
mechanical vibrations, so that a metal which is a mixture of isotopes
will have a higher thermal resistance, or lower thermal conductivity,
than a metal composed of a single atomic species. This effect is observed
experimentally, and gives a striking large-scale effect of isotope mixtures.
1 E. W. Montroll and R. B. Potts, Phys. Rev., 100 :525 (1955); 102 :72 (1956).
2 G. F. Koster, Phys. Rev., 96 :1436 (1954).
Appendix 3
Free Electrons in a Magnetic Field
in Cylindrical Coordinates
Our problem is to solve Eq. (3-15), the radial equation for an electron
moving in a magnetic field, in cylindrical coordinates. We introduce a
new variable in place of r, by the equation
eB
w = 1rr 2 - (A3-1)
h
where as we see the quantity w equals the area 1rr 2 of a circle of radius r,
divided by the fundamental area h/eB which we encountered in Sec. 3-2.
We also introduce a dimensionless quantity W in place of the energy,
by the equation
E _ efijB _ k;fi 2 = W efiB = W fiw (A3-2)
2m 2m 2m 2
where w is the cyclotron frequency. When we convert Eq. (3-15) into a
form involving these new variables, it becomes
d 2R + l dR _ j 2 R + WR _ R _ o (A3-3)
dw 2 w dw 4w 2 2w 4
Fock then shows that we can solve this equation by setting
R = wil2e-w/2 F (w) (A3-4)
where F is to be determined. When we substitute this expression into
Eq. (A3-3), we find that F must satisfy the equation
w d2 F + (j +l - w) dF +W - .i - 1 F = 0 (A3-5)
dw 2 dw 2
This equation for F can be solved in terms of Laguerre polynomials.

If Lq is a Laguerre polynomial, then one can show that it satisfies the
differential equation
dP+2 dP+l dP
x dxv+ 2 Lq + (p + 1 - x) dxv+i Lq + (q - p) dxv Lq = 0 (A3-6)
308
[App._3 FREE ELECTRONS IN A MAGNETIC FIELD 309
This equation is proved, for instance, in J. C. Slater, "Quantum Theory

of Atomic Structure," vol. 1, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1960, eq. (A15-9). Hence we see that we can replace p in Eq. (A3-6)
by j, q by n + j, and we have
X::2(:;; Ln+;) + (j +1- x) :X (:;; Ln+i) + n ::j Ln+i = 0 (A3-7)
which has the same form as Eq. (A3-5). We have a solution of Eq.
(A3-5), then, if we set
di
F = -d
X'
. Ln+; W = 2n +j + 1
E = (n + + !) eJiB + k;Ji2
j
2 m 2m
(A3-8)
The energy which we have found agrees with the value of Eq. (3-8),
since n + j must be an integer, which we now see is identical with the
quantum number n found by the other method. We have a different
form for the wave functions, however; though by general principles we
know that one of the wave functions corresponding to a given value of
n + j must be capable of being expressed as a linear combination of the
functions for the same quantum number determined by Landau's method.
This linear combination, however, may be very involved, and our present
method obviates the need of finding it.
Let ua consider the wave functions. The quantity F can be rewritten
in the form
(A3-9)
according to eq. (A15-7) in the reference cited earlier. This function,

according to eqs. (A15-3) and (A15-4) of the same reference, can be
written as the polynomial
L~+;(w) = Bo + B1w + · · · + Bnwn (A3-10)

where B. = -B 4 (n + 1 - s)
•- 1 + 2s -
(j l)(j + 2s + I) - (j - l)(j + I)
(A3-ll)
Bn = (-l)i+l (n + j)!
n!
When we combine this with Eq. (A3-1) for w, we have the complete
solution of the problem. This solution, unnormalized, is given in
Eq. (3-16).
Appendix 4
Ewald's Method for Crystalline Fields,
Face-centered Cubic Lattice
In this Appendix we shall consider specifically the application of

Ewald's method to the face-centered cubic lattice, which we need for
the sodium chloride structure. A detailed calculation of the potential <f,
throughout the unit cell for this particular case has been carried through
by the author and P. De Cicco. We take a to be the side of the cubic
cell, as in the discussion of Sec. 9-3. Calculations have been made for a
grid of points, in which x/a, y/a, z/a are separated by intervals of 0.05
unit. This would result in (20) 3 = 8,000 points in the cubic cell of side a,
but since the Wigner-Seitz cell has one-fourth this volume, there are
2,000 points lying in the Wigner-Seitz cell. On account of symmetry,
there are many equivalent points with common values of the potential,
which of course will have the complete symmetry of the r1 irreducible
representation of the cubic point group. A general point will be one
of 48 points with identical potential, while a point of special symmetry
will have fewer equivalent points. In Table A4-l we give the values
of the potential <f,, calculated from Eq. (9-26), at these lattice points.
For each value of x/a, y/a, z/a, we give the value of a<f,; the potential is
proportional to 1/a, so that a<f, is dimensionless. In Table A4-l we give
the weight of each of the points, that is, the number of equivalent points
having the same potential. The sum of these weights equals 2,000, as
the reader can verify by direct count. The calculations on which Table
A4-1 is based were made for three values of e, namely ea = 3, 5, and 7,
and the agreement of the values for these three E's verifies the correctness
of the method, and the accuracy of the calculations. Errors in the
tabulated values should be a few units in the last decimal.
We can display some of the results of Table A4-1 graphically. Thus,
in Fig. A4-1, we give the potential as a function of the distance from the
origin, along the three directions 001, 011, and 111. Each of thePe rurves
is continued to the cell surface. The potential energy of an electron in
the lattice is of course the negative of the value given in Fig. A4-1, rising
to a potential barrier as we go from one Wigner-Seitz cell to the next.
310
[App. 4 EWALD'S METHOD FOR CRYSTALLINE FIELDS 311
Table A-4-1
Values of a</>, from Eq. (9-26), computed for grid of points x/a, y/a, z/a as tabulated.
This includes the entire Wigner-Seitz cell. In parentheses after each set of values
x/a, y/a, z/a is the weight of the corresponding point, as discussed in the text. The
function a(</>1 + </>2) represents the analytic approximation of Eqs. (A4-l) to (A4-4),
and the last column gives the error of this analytic approximation.
y z
-X a
-
a
Weight a<f, a(<f,1 + </>2) a(<f, - </>1 - </>2)
a
0 0 0 (1) 0.000000
0 0 0.05 (6) 15.436032 15.436048 -0.000016
0 0 0.10 (6) 5.498136 5.498154 -0.000018
0 0 0.15 (6) 2.266206 2.266254 -0.000048
0 0 0.20 (6) 0.736704 0. 736810 -0.000106
0 0 0.25 (6) -0.095932 -0.095702 -0.000230
0 0 0.30 (6) -0.572664 -0.571965 -0.000699
0 0 0.35 (6) -0.845511 -0.845349 -0.000162
0 0 0.40 (6) -0.995141 -0.995494 0.000353
0 0 0.45 (6) -1.068118 -1.068456 0.000338
0 0 0.50 (1) -1.089730 -1.084727 -0.005003
0 0.05 0.05 (12) 9.599216 9.599224 -0.000008
0 0.05 0.10 (24) 4.463929 4.463873 0.000056
0 0.05 0.15 (24) 1.946518 1. 946551 -0.000033
0 0.05 0.20 (24) 0.611266 0.611356 -0.000090
0 0.05 0.25 (24) -0.147777 -0.147556 -0.000221
0 0.05 0.30 (24) -0.589770 -0.589408 -0.000362
0 0.05 0.35 (24) -0.843503 -0.843178 -0.000325
0 0.05 0.40 (24) -0.981810 -0. 982107 0.000297
0 0.05 0.45 (12) -1.048532 -1.049702 0.001170
0 0.10 0.10 (12) 2.654861 2.654861 0.000000
0 0.10 0.15 (24) 1.236070 1.236326 -0.000256
0 0.10 0.20 (24) 0.304542 0.304543 -0.000001
0 0.10 0.25 (24) -0.277616 -0.277473 -0.000143
0 0.10 0.30 (24) -0.628521 -0.628026 -0.000495
0 0.10 0.35 (24) -0.828892 -0.827908 -0.000984
0 0.10 0.40 (12) -0.934037 -0.932950 -0.001087
0 0.15 0.15 (12) 0.514120 0.513989 0.000131
0 0.15 0.20 (24) -0.047181 -0.047464 0.000283
0 0.15 0.25 (24) -0.427399 -0.427275 -0.000124
0 0.15 0.30 (24) -0.657413 -0.657145 -0.000268
0 0.15 0.35 (12) -0.778107 -0. 775919 -0.002188
0 0.20 0.20 (12) -0.342942 -0.343846 0.000904
0 0.20 0.25 (24) -0.540852 -0.542156 0.001304
0 0.20 0.30 (12) -0.639001 -0.640972 0.001971
0 0.25 0.25 (6) -0.582520 -0.587592 0.005072
0.05 0.05 0.05 (8) 7.025240 7.025248 -0.000008
0.05 0.05 0.10 (24) 3.706142 3.706154 -0.000012
0.05 0.05 0.15 (24) 1.674425 1.674449 -0.000024
0.05 0.05 0.20 (24) 0.497997 0.498069 -0.000072
0.05 0.05 0.25 (2J) -0.196045 -0.195815 -0.000230
0.05 0.05 0.30 (24) -0.606233 -0.605832 -0.000401
0.05 0.05 0.35 (24) -0.842198 -0.841850 -0.000348
Table A4-1 (Continued)
X y z
-
a a
-
a
Weight acp a(r/>1 + r/>2) a(cp - r/>1 - r/>2)
0.05 0.05 0.40 (24) -0.969944 -0.970283 0.000339

0.05 0.05 0.45 (8) -1.030835 -1.033521 0.002686
0.05 0.10 0.10 (24) 2.272009 2.272013 -0.000004
0.05 0.10 0.15 (48) 1.055994 1.055989 0.000005
0.05 0.10 0.20 (48) 0.218844 0.218877 -0.000033
0.05 0.10 0.25 (48) -0.317299 -0.317102 -0.000197
0.05 0.10 0.30 (48) -0.643709 -0.643175 -0.000534
0.05 0.10 0.35 (48) -0.829971 -0.829152 -0.000819
0.05 0.10 0.40 (24) -0.926735 -0.926646 -0.000089
0.05 0.15 0.15 (24) 0.409301 0.409221 0.000080
0.05 0.15 0.20 (48) -0.104895 -0.105064 0.000169
0.05 0.15 0.25 (48) -0.457838 -0.457515 -0.000323
0.05 0. 15 0.30 (48) -0.672251 -0.671769 -0.000482
0.05 0.15 0.35 (24) -0.784066 -0. 782032 -0.002034
0.05 0.20 0.20 (24) -0.379814 -0.380428 0.000614
0.05 0.20 0.25 (48) -0.564752 -0.565455 0.000703
0.05 0.20 0.30 (24) -0.656169 -0.657104 0.000935
0.05 0.25 0.25 (12) -0.604117 -0.607568 0.003451
0.10 0.10 0.10 (8) 1.443225 1.443233 -0.000008
0.10 0.10 0.15 (24) 0.626578 0.626595 -0.000017
0.10 0.10 0.20 (24) 0.003675 0.003705 -0.000080
0.10 0.10 0.25 (24) -0.417788 -0.417495 -0.000293
0.10 0.10 0.30 (24) -0.678921 -0.678247 -0.000674
0.10 0.10 0.35 (24) -0.825460 -0.824738 -0.000722
0.10 0.10 0.40 (8) -0 .897493 -0.898937 0.001444
0.10 0.15 0.15 (24) 0.148005 0.148029 -0.000024
0.10 0.15 0.20 (48) -0.252639 -0.252580 -0.000059
0.10 0.15 0.25 (48) -0.535680 -0.534955 -0.000725
0.10 0.15 0.30 (48) -0. 707916 -0.707010 -0.000906
0.10 0.15 0.35 (24) -0. 794372 -0.792774 -0.001598
0.10 0.20 0.20 (24) -0.475302 -0.475336 0.000034
0.10 0.20 0.25 (48) -0.626380 -0. 625851 -0.000529
0.10 0.20 0.30 (24) -0.699253 -0.698208 -0.001045
0.10 0.25 0.25 (12) -0.659998 -0.660204 0.000206
0.15 0.15 0.15 (8) -0.161552 -0.161446 -0.000106
0.15 0.15 0.20 (24) -0.433478 -0.433274 -0.000204
0.15 0, 15 0.25 (24) -0.628390 -0.627397 -0.000993
0. 15 0. 15 0.30 (24) -0. 741821 -0. 740593 -0.001228
0.15 0.15 0.35 (8) -0. 788974 -0. 787554 -0.001420
0.15 0.20 0.20 (24) -0.593485 -0.593133 -0.000352
0.15 0.20 0.25 (48) -0.700739 -0. 700112 -0.000627
0.15 0.20 0.30 (24) -0. 746847 -0. 745058 -0.001789
0.15 0.25 0.25 (12) -0. 727780 -0. 726480 -0. 001300
0.20 0.20 0.20 (8) -0.696687 -0.G9G.590 -0.000097
0.20 0.20 0.25 (24) -0. 759487 -0. 759533 0.000046
0.20 0.20 0.30 (8) -0. 773590 -0. 773062 -0.000528
0.20 0.25 0.25 (12) -0. 781607 -0. 782646 0.001039
0.25 0.25 0.25 (2) -0.801935 -0.808259 0.006324
[App.4 EWALD'S METHOD FOR CRYSTALLINE FIELDS 313
We notice from the figure that the barrier is lowest along the 011 direction,
toward the nearest neighboring lattice point, higher along 111, and highest
along 001, toward the second-nearest neighbors. ·
Near the origin, from Fig. A4-1, the potential goes infinite, or the
potential energy of an electron goes to minus infinity. This of course
is on account of the unit positive point charge at the lattice point. It
seems reasonable that we should be able to give an analytic expression
for the energy, at least in this neigh-
borhood. In fact, if we consider
the problem a little more carefully,
we see that an analytic expression
for <J, can be given everywhere within
the Wigner-Seitz cell.
The potential cJ, within this cell is
a solution of Poisson's equation, o<f,
V2<J, = - 4irp, as we have noted
earlier. The charge density consists 0
of a ·unit point charge at the origin,
and a uniform negative charge,
which must be -1/0 = -4/a 3, so
that the negative charge within the
-1
Wigner-Seitz cell, whose volume is
n = a 3/ 4, may equal a unit negative
charge. But within the Wigner-
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Seitz cell, and in fact within a sphere r/o
extending out to the nearest neigh-
FIG. A4-l. Behavior of potential
boring lattice point, which comes at around origin, Ewald problem for face-
centered cubic lattice, along 001, 011,
r/a = 1/y2 = 0.707
and 111 directions.
the charge distribution is spherically
symmetrical. Hence one can solve Poisson's equation in spherical coor-
dinates. We find in this way a particular solution of the differential
equation,
1 81r
<J,1 = - + -
3a 3 r 2 + constant (A4-1)
r
as the reader can verify at once by finding the Laplacian of the expres-
sion cf>; it proves to be 41r(4/a 3), or the negative of the volume charge
density, times 411", as Poisson's equation demands. The term 1/r of course
is the potential of the point charge at the oriµ:in, a singularity.
We now know by the theory of inhomogeneous differential equations
that the general solution of Poisson's equation must equal the particular
solution given in Eq. (A4-1), plus a general solution of the homogeneous
equation V2<J, = 0, or Laplace's equation. Since by symmetry we must
have a function having the r 1 symmetry, we must build up cubic har-

monic solutions of Laplace's equations, polynomials in x, y, z having this
type of symmetry. The first three terms of the resulting expansion are
given in Eq. (A4-2):
<1>2 (z
= !a {A4 ar 44 4+ m 4 + n 4 - ~)
5
+ A 6::[l 6 + m 6 + n6 - !~ (l 4 + m 4 + n 4) + ~~]
+ As asrs [ zs + ms+ ns - 28
15 (l6 + m6 + n6) + 14
13 (l4 + m4 + n4)
7]
- 39
+ · · ·} (A4-2)
Here l, m, n are the direction cosines, x/r, y/r, z/r, respectively, r being
the distance from the origin.
One finds that a fairly adequate fit to the function of Table A4-1 can
be given by using only the terms given in Eqs. (A4-1) and (A4-2), the
expression for the total potential being qi 1 + q>2. We find that the con-
stant in Eq. (A4-1) is given by writing it in the form
<1>1 =!+ 8
3 a71'3 r 2 - 4.584850 (A4-3)
r
The constants A 4 , A 6 , As have been determined by least squares, choosing
them so as to minimize the sum of the square;; of the deviations between
the correct values of qi and the approximations 4> 1 + <1>2. They are found
to be
A4 = -18.687
A 6 = -1,002.05 (A4-4)
A 8 = 2,326.1
With these values, the deviations between <1>1 + <1>2 and the correct q>
are in most cases less than one unit in the third decimal place. The few
larger deviations come around the surface of the Wigner-Seitz cell, where
the terms in higher power of r, which we are omitting, would be most
important. There are deviations of approximately ±0.005 at the points
x/a, y/a, z/a = 0, 0, 0.50 and 0, 0.25, 0.25, where in the first case the
value of a(4> 1 + <1>2) is -1.084727 compared with aqi = -1.089730, and in
the second case a(qi 1 + qi 2) is -0.587592 compared with aqi = -0.582520.
These are the largest discrepancies. They could of course be removed
by using more terms of the series of Eq. (A4-2). If \Ye try to use fewer
terms than the three included in Eq. (A4-2), we cannot get a satisfactory
fit. '
The point x/a = y/a = 0, z/a = 0.50, is a point of complete cubic
[App. 4 EWALD'S METHOD .FOR CRYSTALLINE FIELDS 315
symmetry, like the origin .. It is the point at which a negative ion would
be located in the sodium chloride structure, if a positive ion were placed
at the origin. We can then find an expansion of the type given by Eqs.
(A4-1) and (A4-3) about this point as well as about the origin, except
that the term 1/r from Eq. (A4-1) (where r is now the distance from the
point about which we are expanding) will be missing, since there is no
point charge here in the Ewald problem. When we try to carry out this
expansion, however, we find that the convergence is much poorer than
about the origin. The coefficients
A4, A 6, As are very much larger
than in Eq. (A4-4), and in fact the
expansion of f/,2 with only three
terms is quite inadequate except for
points quite close to r = 0. The
reason is the smaller region over
which the charge density is spheri- u¢
cally symmetrical: as r approaches
a/2, we approach the origin, at 0
which there is a singularity on ac-
count of the point charge located
there, and a series expansion must
diverge. We can see this situation
-1
graphically from Fig. A4-2, in which
we show the potential in the neigh-
borhood of the point 0, 0, 0.50, in the 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
three directions 001, 011, 111 pro- r/u
ceeding from that point. We see
FIG. A4-2. Behavior of potential
that the three curves diverge from around point 0, 0, 0.50, in face-centered
each other at much smaller values of cubic lattice, along lines proceeding
r than in Fig. A4-1, showing the from this point in the 001, 011, and 111
much larger value of the nonspheri- directions.
cal potential in this case.
The Ewald method was first worked out in connection with Madelung's
problem in the theory of ionic crystals. As mentioned above, in a crystal
of the sodium chloride structure, we should have a positive ion at each
lattice point of the face-centered cubic lattice, and a negative ion at each
point 0, 0, 0.50. If these ions were regarded as point charges, we should
get the potential at any point within the crystal by superposing the solu-
tion of Table A4-1, and another potential shifted along so that its singu-
larity would come at 0, 0, 0.50, and given the negative sign. In this case
the two uniform charge densities would cancel, and we should be left
with the potential merely of the positive and negative point charges.
In studying this problem, Madelung, in the reference cited earlier;
asked the question: What is the potential in the neighborhood of a posi-

tive ion in the crystal? We can easily derive this value from the preced-
ing analysis. We have seen in Eq. (A4-3) that the potential near the
origin, with the single lattice of positive charges, is the expression cf, 1•
This will hold up to terms in r 4 and higher, which are found in cf, 2 of
Eq. (A4-2). On the other hand, if we add the potential of the lattice
of negative point charges, we see from Table A4-1 that the value of that
potential, at the origin, is the negative of the entry in Table A4-l for the
point 0, 0, 0.50, which is -1.089730. We have seen that the potential
in this neighborhood can be expanded in the form cf,1 (lacking the term
in 1/r) + cf,2. In fact, the potential of the lattice of negative charges
at the points 0, 0, 0.50 will have a potential which can be expanded about
the origin as
'Pa = - f: 3 r2 + 1.089730 + terms in r 4 • • • (A4-5)
Hence the potential near a positive ion in the NaCl structure will be
cf,1 + cf,a = !r - 4.584850 + 1.089730 + terms in r + 4
1
= - - 3.495120
r
+ terms m. r + · · ·
4
(A4-6)
The Madelung constant in this case is then found to be 3.495120, which

agrees within the error of the present calculation with the more accurate
value 3.495129 quoted in Sec. 9-3.
Now let us turn to the calculation leading to Eq. (4-45), giving the
Lorentz correction. In Eq. (4-37) we gave the Hertz vector arising from
dipoles of magnitude M at the points of a Bravais lattice. We were
interested in the summation of all terms of this equation except the con-
stant term, in the limiting case of long wavelength, where w/c and kr + i'k;
were very small in magnitude compared with any of the vectors Kh of
the reciprocal lattice. If we call this quantity Z', we find from Eq. (4-37)
that it is given by
Z' = '\' (Kh ~ O) M exp i[wt - (k, + ik;) · r] exp ( -iKh • r) (A 4_7)
f.; Eon 1Khl 2
in which we have neglected w/c, kr, and ki in the denominator of Eq.
(4-37). This summation is very closely related to that of Eq. (9-17),
which we have evaluated in Sec. 9-4 and in the present Appendix. We
may take the factor
(M/ Eon) exp i [wt - (kr + iki) . r]

out of the summation of Eq. (A4-7). If we indicate the quantity of
App. 4] EWALD'S METHOD FOR CRYSTALLINE FIELDS 317
Eq. (9-17) by <f,, as in that equation, we then have
Z' = 4M exp i[wt - (kr

1l"Eo
+ i"k;) • r]<f, (A4-8)
But in Eq. (A4-3) we have shown that <f,, up to terms in r4, is given by <f,1.
For present purposes we need only the first two terms of this expression,
and find
Z' = 4M exp i[wt - (k,

1l"Eo
+ i'k;) • r] (.!.r + 3S1ra r + constant)
3
2 (A4-9)
The first term of Eq. (A4-9), in 1/r, is the one giving the Hertz vector
arising from the dipole at the origin, and the remaining terms give the
Hertz vector arising from more distant dipoles. The quantity which
we wish to evaluate in Eq. (4-45) excludes the dipole at the origin, so
that it is derived from the term in r 2 in Eq. (A4-9).
Let us now evaluate the electric field arising from this second term.
When we remember that for the face-centered cubic lattice, for which
these calculations are made, we have g = a 3 /4, we can write the required
term as
Z" = 6: 11 exp i[wt - (kr + i'k;) • r]r 2 (A4-10)
This represents a Hertz vector in the z direction, so that Z" is the z com-
ponent of the vector. To find the electric field, we use Eq. (4-23), which
can be rewritten as
1 i:J2Z"
E" = curl curl Z" + 'i/ 2Z" - - - - 2 c2 at
= grad div Z" - -c21 a z"2
-- (A4-11)
at 2
We can readily show that the time derivative term and the space deriva-
tive terms arising from differentiating the exponential in Eq. (A4-10)
are small compared with the leading term, which comes by differentiating
the r 2 term, by powers of r/X, where X is the wavelength of the light.
Since we are dealing with values of r very small compared with the wave-
length, we can disregard these terms. Then we have
div Z" = 6M .[
Eofl exp t wt -
(k r + t"k)i • r ] az
a(r2)
= 3Mn exp i[wt - (kr

• EQ"
+ i'k;) · r]z (A4-12)
grad div Z" = E" = 3: 11 exp i[wt - (kr + ik;) • r]

in agreement with Eq. (4-45), as was to be shown.
Appendix 5
Polarization and Van der Waals
Attraction
A5-1. Introduction. The interactions between atoms or ions which

we considered in relation to the problem of molecular formation in Vol-
ume 1, and which we take up in Chaps. 9 and 10 of the present volume
in relation to the cohesive properties of solids, depend on the electrostatic
interaction of ions, or on the overlapping of the charge clouds of the two
atoms. An atom in an S state is spherically symmetrical, and if it is
uncharged, its electrostatic field is zero at points outside the electronic
charge. Hence in such a problem as H 2 , formed from two atoms in S
states, the treatment of interactions of the uncharged atoms depends on
overlapping. Whether we calculate by the Reitler-London method, or
by simple configuration interactions, we have found attractions and
repulsions containing exponentially decreasing functions of the inter-
nuclear distance R, the exponential arising from the charge density itself.
But there are a number of types of interaction which fall off more slowly
with distance, which we shall consider in the present Appendix, and
which we are likely to miss in a more conventional treatment. The
Van der Waals attraction is one of these; we shall see later that the inter-
action energy arising from it falls off as 1/R 6 at large R. The effects
we speak of all are of an electrostatic origin, and most of them depend
on the polarization induced in atoms by other atoms or ions or molecules.
Hence it is necessary to treat not only the interatomic forces, but also
polarization, or more broadly the effect of an external electric field on
an atom.
Most of the treatment we shall give can be applied equally simply to
more complicated cases than the ones which we shall handle in detail.
Thus, we can give the outline of general treatments of polarizability, its
related phenomenon of the dielectric constant, and of Van der Waals
attraction. When it comes to specific applications, however, we shall
limit ourselves to two cases which have been treated in great detail: the
interactions between hydrogen atoms and between helium atoms. Since
we have considered these problems in Volume 1, and have not discovered
318
Sec. AS-1] POLARIZATION AND VAN DER WAALS ATTRACTION 319
evidence of the Van der Waals attraction in our treatment, it is evident

that there must be something omitted from our calculations. Our first
task will be to consider in a simple and descriptive way what this omitted
feature is; it will prove to be polarization, which must be handled by
second-order perturbations or its equivalent.
It is obvious that two oppositely charged ions will attract each other,
with an energy inversely proportional to R. This is the interaction
found in ionic molecules and crystals, such as the alkali halides. But
it is also true that an ion will attract any neutral atom or molecule, as a
consequence of polarization, and this is the first case which we shall con-
sider. It is the analogue, on an atomic scale, of the familiar way in
which a charged object will attract light uncharged objects such as pith
balls. The mechanism is the following: If we have an ion of charge Ze,
at a distance R from an uncharged object, there will be an electric field
of magnitude Ze/41reoR 2 produced by the charge at the position of the
other object. If this object is polarizable, as all real objects are, it will
acquire an electric dipole moment as a result of the presence of the field.
This dipole moment will have a strength of a times the field, where a is
by definition the polarizability. Thus its induced dipole moment will
be a:Ze/(41rE 0R 2). The dipole will in turn produce an electric field at the
position of the ion. The magnitude of this field will equal the dipole
moment times 2/41rEoR 3, so that the field will be of magnitude 2aZe/
(41re 0) 2R 6 , with an electrical potential of magnitude a:Ze/2(41re 0) 2R 4 •
This will be of such sign as to indicate attraction between the ion and
the polarized object. Thus, if the ion is positively charged, the negative
end of the induced dipole will point toward it, so that the positively
charged ion will be more strongly attracted by this negative end of the
dipole than it will be repelled by the positive end, and it will be attracted.
The energy of attraction will then be
Attraction between ion and polarized dipole
aZ 2e2 (A5-1)
2(41reo) 2 R 4
In a molecule formed from a positive and a negative ion, then, there
will be attractive terms of the form of Eq. (A5-1) in addition to the pri-
mary Coulomb attraction between the ions, proportional to 1/R. Each
ion will polarize the other one, so that we shall add two terms similar
to that of Eq. (A5-l), one for each polarizable ion.
Next let us consider an uncharged molecule possessing a permanent
dipole moment, and its effect in polarizing another object. The molecule
could be such as an NaCl molecule, which can be considered to be made
up of an Na+ and a CI- ion, to a first rough approximation. If its dipole
moment equals µ., it will produce an electric field at a point at distance R
of magnitude 2µ/ 41TEoR 3 times a function of the angle between the axis
of the dipole and the internuclear direction. This field will polarize the
polarizable object, producing a dipole moment proportional to 2aµ/4?TEoR 3 •
This induced dipole will produce an electric field at the position of the
first dipole proportional to 4aµ/(41TEo) 2 R 6• There will be an energy of
interaction between the first dipole and this field, equal to the product
of the dipole moment of the first dipole, the strength of the field, and the
cosine of the angle between the direction of the dipole and that of the
field. Thus, aside from functions of angles, the energy will be propor-
tional to 4aµ 2/(41TEo) 2R 6• It is now a problem of slight complexity to
average over different orientations, and find the average potential energy,
but it proves to be an attraction, as before, equal to a simple numerical
constant times -4aµ 2 /(4?TEo) 2R 6 •
A single atom in an S state has no dipole moment, and therefore cannot
act on another atom according to the law we have just described. How-
ever, this only applies to its average dipole moment, the average over the
wave function of the sum of the quantities ex, ey, ez for all electrons in
the atom. Instantaneously-that is, when each electron is in a given
point of space-there will be a nonvanishing dipole moment, which can
polarize the other atom, just as we have described. This polarization
produces a field which reacts back on the original instantaneous dipole,
producing the potential energy proportional to -4aµ 2/(4?TEo) 2R6, as we
found above. It is this quantity which w_e must then average over the
wave function. We are now averaging µ 2, proportional to x 2 or y 2 or z2,
and necessarily leading to a nonvanishing average value, since the
integrand is always positive. Hence we are led to a nonvanishing
attraction in this case too,
.
A ttract10n 4a(µ 2 )av
= - constant (411"Eo)2R 6 (A5-2)
This type of attraction must hold for any pair of atoms, and it is the
ordinary Van der Waals attraction.
This is only the first term in a series of inverse powers of R. The
atom will have not only an instantaneous dipole moment, but an instan-
taneous quadrupole, and so on with higher multipoles. Each of these
will produce a field at the position of the neighboring atom, will polarize
it, and the resulting dipole will react back on the multipole. In this
way we find additional terms in R- 8 , • • • , which are important at some-
what smaller distances than those at which the attraction of Eq. (A5-2)
begins to be appreciable. This type of inverse power-series expansion
only holds when the charge distributions are not overlapping, or at
distances greater than thos.e for which our calculations in Volume I were
carried out. One must use other methods of mathematical treatment
for smaller distances. It is not in any sense true that as R goes to zero
Sec. A5-2] POLARIZATION AND VAN DER WAALS ATTRACTION 321
the Van der Waals attraction becomes infinite, as Eq. (A5-2) would sug-
gest. It rather turns out to be the case that the Van der Waals attrac-
tion between two helium atoms, for instance, leads to a potential mini-
mum at large values of R, the repulsion which we have discussed in
Volume 1, Sec. 6-4, then takes over, and by the time the repulsion becomes
large, the Van der Waals attraction effect has become negligible compared
with the repulsion, and the calculations of the type carried out in Volume
1 become correct for these smaller values of R.
We can see from this qualitative discussion that an understanding of
the Van der Waals attraction requires an understanding of the polariza-
bility of atoms. Consequently we shall treat that problem first, and we
shall find that the procedures which we use to discuss it can be extended
without trouble to treat the Van der Waals attraction as well. There
are two quite different methods which have been used for treating both
these problems: a method based on perturbation theory, and one based
on variation methods. We shall discuss both of them, starting with that
based on perturbation theory. This method is good for gaining a general
understanding of the problem, while the variation method is better for
numerical calculations. For the ls state of hydrogen, we can in addition
get an exact solution of the problem of polarizability, which we shall
derive, and which forms a valuable guide in setting up the variation
solution.
A6-2. The Perturbation Method for Polarizability. Let us assume an
atom in an external electric field E, along the z direction. The nucleus
will be at the origin, and we assume that we have solved exactly the
problem of Schrodinger's equation for the isolated atom. The Hamil-
tonian will consist of the kinetic energy of all electrons, their potential
energies in the field of the nucleus, their mutual Coulomb repulsions, and
their potential energies in the external field. All the terms except the
last are present for the isolated atom, and may be combined in an expres-
sion (H 0) P. The potential energy in the external field will be called
0
(H 1)op• We can write down the formula for it very simply. The poten-
tial energy of an electron whose coordinate is z, in the external field, is
eEz, where the charge on the electron is -e, and the electrostatic poten-
tial is - Ez. Hence the perturbing term in the Hamiltonian is
(H 1)op = "'Z-(i)eEz; (A5-3)
where the sum is over all electrons. We can express this in terms of the
dipole moment of the atom. By definition, this is a vector quantity,
whose x, y, and z components are
(llfx)op = -e"'Z-(i)x;
(M,,)op = -e"'Z-(i)y; (A5-4)
(M,)op = -e"'Z-(i)z;
so that the dipole moment is the sum of the products of the charges of
the electrons times their displacements. Then we have
(H 1}op = -E(M,}op = -E • (M}op (A5-5}
where E is the vector field, (M)op the vector dipole moment.

If we could solve Schrodinger's equation exactly in the presence of
the external field, we should find that there would be an average induced
dipole moment, proportional to E for small electric fields, but no longer
proportional for large fields. If we expanded the dipole moment in power
series in E, the polarizability is defined as the coefficient a in the expan-
sion giving the average dipole moment as aE + higher terms. We
should find that the average energy had a term in E2, given by - aE 2/2
and higher terms. For the small fields that one ordinarily meets, the
terms in E in the expansion of the dipole moment, and in E 2 for the
energy, are as far as we have to carry these series. But we know that
if we proceed by perturbation methods, it is very easy to set up the
expression for the second-order perturbation, which gives the energy
correctly to terms in the square of the perturbation, and the perturbed
wave function correctly to terms linear in the perturbation. This is
just what we need in the present case. In other words, second-order
perturbation methods, if we can carry them through rigorously, will give
the results needed to find the polarizability of the atom. Higher-order
perturbation methods would only be needed if we required higher terms
in the power-series expansions.
Let us then formally set up the second-order perturbation-theory
treatment of our problem. We ordinarily are interested in finding the
polarizability of an atom in its ground state, and the only case we shall
treat is the simple one in which this ground state is an S state; this suffices
for the cases of hydrogen and helium, as well as for any inert gas atom
in its ground state, and the methods apply also to molecules with closed
shells of electrons.
We remember that the first step in applying perturbation theory is to
find the matrix elements of the Hamiltonian with respect to the unper-
turbed functions. Let the solutions of the unperturbed Schrodinger
equation
(H 0)opU~ = E~u~
be u~, associated with quantum numbers which we symbolize by n, and
having an unperturbed energy E~. Let the ground state correspond to
n = I. Then we need the matrix elements of the operator of Eq. (A.5-."))
between this ground state and all possible excited states. Obviously
the matrix element between the ground state and the nth state will be
Ht.= -E(M.hn (A5-6)
where (M.)i,. is the matrix element of the z component of dipole moment

between the ground state and the nth state. These matrix elements
are the same ones which are concerned in finding optical transition prob-
abilities between the ground state and the nth state, and according to the
selection rules for optical transitions, they will be zero for any transition
which is forbidden. In our present case, on account of the selection rule
for the azimuthal quantum number L, the elements will be different from
zero only for transitions from the ground state, which we assume is an S
state, to excited P states.
One feature concerning the matrix elements is familiar from the cal-
culations made in studying optical transitions: the diagonal matrix ele-
ments of (M.)op are zero, so that there is no first-order term in the average
energy, depending on the external field; the first nonvanishing term is
the second-order'term. Also, since we are assuming that our unperturbed
functions are exact solutions of the problem of the isolated atom, there
are no nondiagonal matrix elements of H 0 , which is why we have used
only the operator (H 1) P in finding the nondiagonal elements in Eq. (A5-6).
0
Now let us use the familiar methods of second-order perturbation

theory to find the energy and average dipole moment. The energy will be
Energy= E~ + \'
~
(n) ~~~~:
1 n
E + 2 (A5-7)
The perturbed wave function will be
u = u~ + \'~ (n) ~fl1f~" 1; ~

n
(-E) + (A5-8)
If we find the average value of the dipole moment operator (A5-3) over
the wave function of Eq. (A5-8), the nonvanishing contributions of the
first power in E will come from the cross terms between u~ and u~ in
Eq. (A5-8). Hence we shall have
(A5-9)
Since this must be equal to aE, we have
= 2 \' ( ) l(M,h.. 12 (A5-10)

a ~nEo-Eo
" 1
where in the last expression we have interchanged the order of E~ and E~,
since by hypothesis E~ is the energy of the ground state, and hence is
less than E~. From Eq. (A5-10), we· then see that the term in the energy
of Eq. (A5-7) proportional to E 2 is -aE2/2, as we stated earlier that it
should be.
324 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS [App.5
We now see that if we know the energies E! of the excited states, and
the matrix elements (M,hn of the electric dipole moment between the
ground state and all excited states, we can evaluate t~e polarizability
rigorously in terms of a summation. This can be done for the hydrogen
atom, for which the matrix elements are known; but in the next section
we shall demonstrate a much simpler method of solution in that case.
In carrying out the summation, one must remember that the excited
states include not merely the discrete levels, but also a continuum, and
that the part of the summation referring to the continuum must be con-
verted to an integration. The calculations which have been made by
this method have merely summed numerically, and used numerical
approximations for the integration over the continuum; it does not appear
to be possible to convert the sum into a closed analytic form, or otherwise
simplify the process. Hence, though this is a straightforward procedure
for finding polarizability, it is not particularly well suited for numerical
calculations.
There is, however, one point of view which makes this perturbation
treatment very significant, and that is its relation to dispersion theory.
The well-known Kramers-Heisenberg dispersion theory (see for instance
J.C. Slater, "Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure," vol. 1, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1960, sec. 6-9) yields an expression for the induced dipole
moment of an atom, not only in the presence of a static applied electric
field, but also for a field varying sinusoidally with the time. If the fre-
quency of the external field is v, one finds that the polarizability is
a = 2 "\' (n) l(M,hnl 2hPn1 (AS-11)

~ (hvn1) 2 - (hv) 2
where h11n1 = l!J~ - E~, and the formula is set up on the assumption that
the atom is in its ground state. This expression reduces to that of
Eq. (AS-10) for zero applied frequency, but as the frequency increases
the polarizability changes, becoming infinite when " equals each absorp-
tion frequency vn 1 of the atom. This is the phenomenon of anomalous
dispersion. In an actual case, there will be absorption, which is riot
included in the derivation •Of Eq. (A5-11), and this will have the effect
of keeping the polarizability finite near the absorption lines, but of
introducing real absorption.
We see, then, that each term of the expression of Eq. (A5-10) for the
polarizability has a physical significance, in that it represents the limiting
value of polarizability, at zero frequency, arising from one of the absorp-
tion lines in the spectrum. We also have an important theorem, the
Kuhn-Thomas sum rule, discussed in the reference above, which gives
us considerable information about the magnitudes of the matrix elements
(M,)i,.. This theorem is better stated if we rewrite Eq. (A5-ll) in the
Sec. AS-2} POLARIZATION AND VAN D.ER WAALS ATTRACTION 325
form
(A5-12)
where (A5-13)
and where -e, mare the charge and mass of the electron. The quanti-
ties f n1 are called the oscillator strengths. They are dimensionless, and
their importance is that one can prove that
!-(n)fn1 = N (A5-14)
where N is the total number of electrons in the atom. Thus, for hydro-
gen, N = I. One can rewrite Eq. (A5-12), by using the easily proved
relation that
e2h2
41r 2m = 4(41rEo)a& Ry 2 (A5-15)
where ao is the Bohr radius, Ry is the Rydberg, in the form
a = l (n) 4 (41rEo)a~ (hvni/Ry/~ (hv/Ry) 2 (A5-16)
In other words, if the frequencies are measured in terms of the Rydberg

frequency, a comes out as a dimensionless constant times (41rEo)a~, or
in the Gaussian system, where 4n 0 is set equal to unity, to a dimension-
less constant times a~.
For the hydrogen atom, the f n 1's are known, and we can carry through
the summation of Eq. (A5-16) completely. The transitions from the
ground state, ls, are allowed only to the p states, and we can let n stand
for the principal quantum number of this p state. Then the polariza-
bility of the hydrogen atom at zero frequency, from Eq. (A5-16), is
a= 4(41rEo)a& I
n=2
(l !;;n 2) 2 + contribution from continuum (A5-17)
The fn 1's for discrete states have been calculated by Sugiura. 1 He

finds that
2s ns(n - 1)2n-4
fn1 = 3 (n + 1)2nH (A5-18)
For the continuum, Sugiura gives a formula for the integrated value of
the f's for transitions from the ground state to excited states whose
energies lie between E and E + dE (where E = 0 for the series limit).
A somewhat simpler and almost as accurate formula is given by Eisen-
schitz and London, 2 whose formula states that the integrated value of
1 Y. Sugiura, J. Phys. Radium, 8:113 (1927).
2 R. Eisenschitz and F. London, z. Physik, 60 :491 (1930).
the f's in the range dE is dE times the expression

df _ 27 1 _4
dE - 3 (1 + E) 4 e (l + '½E) (A5-19)
We can now use these values to compute the value of the expression
of Eq. (A5-17) for hydrogen. In Table A5-1 we give the values of f,.1
as computed from Sugiura's expression of Eq. (A5-18), the values divided
by (1 - 1/n2) 2, and the summations. We also give the summations for
the continuous spectrum, computed from Eq. (A5-19). We give the
summations of the f's, to check the sum rule, as well as of the quantities
f/(1 - 1/n2) 2 and f /(1 +
E) 2 required for the computation of the polar-
izability. The integrations over the continuum, carried out by use of
Eq. (A5-19), are elementary.
We see from Table A5-1 that the summation in Eq. (A5-17) is approxi-
mately 1.125, leading to a polarizability for hydrogen in its ground state
Table A5-1. Calculation of Polarizability of Hydrogen from Oscillator Strengths
fn1
n fn1
(1 - 1/n 2) 2
2 0.4162 0.7399
3 0.0791 0.0990
4 0.0290 0.0330
5 0.0139 0.0150
6 0.0078 0.0082
7 0.0048 0.0050
8 0.0032 0.0033
9 0.0022 0.0022
10-oo 0.0079 0.0079
Continuum 0.4342 0.2084
- -
Sum 0.9983 1.1219
Note: The departures of the sums from 1.0000 and 1.1250, respectively, arise partly
because not enough decimals are carried for the discr~te states, partly because Eq.
(A5-19) for the continuum is only an approximation.
of approximately 4.50(471'Eo)a~. We shall prove in the next section,

where we get an exact solution of the problem, that this value is exactly
correct. We notice that we could in principle define an average energy
difference between the ground state and an average excited state, using
the f .. 1's as weighting factors for weighing the values 1/(hv1,./Ry) 2 •
That is, we could define
1 f f.. 1 ("' df/dE (A5-20)
(hv/Ry)!v Lt (1 - l/n2) 2
n=2
+ Jo (1 + E) 2 dE
Sec. A5-3] POLARIZATION AND VAN . DER WAALS ATTRACTION 327
If we did so, we should find
(1.125)-}¼ = 0.9428 (A5-21)
In other words, the polarizability of hydrogen is the same that we should

have if it contained only one absorption line, of frequency 0.9428 Rydberg
unit of frequency, and of unit oscillator strength. We shall find that
it is of considerable value in getting qualitative estimates of not only
polarizabilities but also of Van der Waals forces to replace the actual
spectrum of absorption frequencies by averages in this way.
A6-3. Exact Value of Polarizability for Hydrogen. We have stated
that for the hydrogen atom in its ground state, we can find the polariza-
bility exactly. In this section we shall show how this is to be done. 1
We first notice from Eq. (A5-8) that the perturbed wave function must
be the sum of the unperturbed function, and a linear combination of all
excited wave functions u~ which have nondiagonal matrix elements of
the dipole moment with the ground state. We have seen that if the
ground state is an S state, this means that we have only P wave functions
in this summation. Each of these depends on angle in the same way.
One finds, in fact, that it is only the P wave functions with ML = 0
which have nonvanishing matrix components of (M.)op, and these depend
on the angles through the function cos 8. Hence we see that the second
term in Eq. (A5-8), in the present case, must depend on angles in this
way, and since the only further functional dependence must be on r, this
whole function must have the form of cos 8 times a function of r. Our
problem, then, is to evaluate this function of r, and fortunately it has a
simple form which can be derived exactly, furnishing an exact value for
the summation of Eq. (A5-8).
We shall carry out our calculation, not merely for hydrogen, but for
an ion with atomic number Z, containing only one electron. Then the
unperturbed ls function u~ equals vza;; e-z,_ It seems reasonable to
assume that the function of r we are looking for to represent the second
term in Eq. (A5-8) will also contain this exponential as a factor, since
it surely will fall off rapidly as r increases. Let us then write the second
term of Eq. (A5-8) in the form vza;; e-Z,v(r) cos 8, where v(r) is to be
determined. We wish the function
fzi
u = '\j--:; e-Zr[l + v(r) cos 8] (A5-22)
to form a solution of Schrodinger's equation for the perturbed problem,

1 See I. Waller, Z. Physik, 38 :635 (1926), who solved the problem in parabolic
coordinates.
correct to the first order of small quantities, or to terms proportional to

the external field.
Let us now write down this Schrodinger equation. We choose the z
axis to be the axis of our spherical coordinates. We then have
( - 1i.2v2
-2m - --Ze
41rEor
+ eEr cos 8
2 )
u = ( -Z2Ry + e)u (A5-23)
where the first two terms on the left represent the Hamiltonian operator
for the unperturbed atom, eEr cos 8 is the perturbing Hamiltonian,
according to Eq. (A5-3), and we have set the eigenvalue on the right side
equal to -Z2 Rydbergs, the value for the unperturbed problem, plus a
correction term e. We shall now express the energy in Rydbergs, and
the distances in atomic units. We shall express the field E in units such
that eEao = Rydbergs, or the unit of E is Rydbergs/eao. In these units,
Eq. (A5-23) is transformed into
(-v 2 - 2; + Er cos o) u = (-Z2 + e)u (A5-24)
where now e is expressed in Rydbergs. It is Eq. (A5-24) which we wish

to solve by the function of Eq. (A5-22), which is already expressed in
atomic units.
We now substitute the expression of Eq. (A5-22) into Eq. (A5-24).
We express the Laplacian in spherical coordinates, carry out the differen-
tiations, eliminate the terms which cancel, and find that
(H)opU = ( -V2 - 2; + Er cos o) u

d 2v2 +
= -Vu+ [ - dr (2z - ~)r dvdr + 2+ Er]
v
r2
fz3
'\}-:;-
e~Zr cos 8
+ Erv / ; e-Z• cos 2 8 (A5-25)
The first term -Vu cancels the first term on the right of Eq. (A5-24).
We now recall that we are trying to get only the terms in v linear in the
applied field E, and we recall from Eq. (A5-7) that the first term in the
energy depending on E will be proportional to E 2 • Then the bracket
in Eq. (A5-25), [ -d2v/dr 2 + (2Z - 2/r) dv/dr + 2v/r2 + Er], will be of
the first order of small quantities, while the expression Erv, and the energy
f, on the right side of Eq. (A5-24), will be of the second order. We may
then get a solution to the desired order of approximation by omitting
these second-order terms, and merely equating the first-order terms to
zero.
We have, then, the differential equation
- d2v + (2z - ~) dv + 2v2 + Er = 0 (A5-26)

dr 2 r dr r
One can easily verify that this equation has a solution which is a quadratic
function of r. If we try the assumption v = Ar+ Br2, we find that we
can satisfy the equation exactly by proper choice of A and B. This
leads to the result
E
v= - 2za (Zr + ½Z2r 2)
(A5-27)
u = {Ve-Zr
'\j-;- [1 - 2za }!_(Zr+ ½Z2r 2) cos e]
The function for u represents the term independent of E, and that pro-
portional to E, in an expansion of the wave function in powers of E.
From the wave function of Eq. (A5-27) we can find the induced dipole
moment, and hence the polarizability. Wewish to find the average value
of the operator (M.)op = -ez = -er cos 8, in ordinary units, or of
-z = -r cos 0 in atomic units. If we square the wave function of
Eq. (A5-27) (which is normalized up to terms in E 2), multiply by -r cos 8,
and integrate over the volume, to get the average of - r cos 8, and retain
only terms linear in E, we find
( -r cos 0)av = -;-VE!

za e- 2Zr(Zr + ½Z2r )r cos2 2 8 dv (A5-28)
We introduce spherical coordinates, and can carry through the integra-

tion at once. The result is
E [l . ("" 9 E
(-r cos 0)av = -:;;: 21r lo sm 0 cos 2 0 d0 lo e- 2 zrr 3 (Zr + ½Z2r 2) dr = 4 Z4
(A5-29)
We can now use this result to determine the polarizability, in atomic

units. The unit of dipole moment which we are using is the charge e
times the distance a 0 • The unit of electric field, as we have stated earlier,
is Rydbergs/ ea 0 • Hence the unit of polarizability is
eao (eao) 2 _ 3
(A5-30)
Rydbergs/ eao R y db ergs - 2(47l"Eo)a0
Then the polarizability which we have computed for the ground state of a
hydrogenlike ion with atomic rrnmber Z, from Eq. (AG-29), is
a = 4.5
z 4 (4 7rEo) a03 (A5-31)
This is the value which we quoted in the preceding section, with Z = 1,

as the computed value of polarizability for hydrogen.
We can also get at the polarizability by computing the second-order
energy term from the wave function of Eq. (A5-27); the average value
of the energy term involving E, over this wave function which is correct
to the first order in E, will be correct to the second order in E. The
Hamiltonian operating on the function u, from Eq. (A5-25), will contain
first a term - Z2u, which will yield merely the unperturbed energy; then
a bracket which vanishes, on account of the fact that v satisfies Eq.
(A5-26); and finally the term Erv y'V/1r e-z, cos 2 0. If we multiply this
term by the wave function, and integrate, we shall get the field-dependent
term of the energy. Since v already contains E as a factor, we get the
second-order energy if we merely use the unperturbed wave function in
this expression. Hence we find that the field-dependent energy is
E2 za Je- zr(Zr + HZ2r )r. cos
- 2za-:;;:- 0 dv = -a
E2
(A5-32)
2 2 2
2
where the polarizability is 9/4Z4 in atomic units, or the value of Eq.
(A5-31) in ordinary units. Hence our two calculations, that of polariza-
tion directly, and that of energy, are consistent with each other.
We see, then, what has been the effect of the perturbation on the wave
function. It has added to the original s-like wave function a p-like com-
ponent, which has the effect of increasing the wave function for negative
z, or where cos 0 is negative, and decreasing it for positive z. This is
what would be expected if the charge distribution were displaced by the
field, which tends to push the negative electrons in the negative z direc-
tion. We see very graphically in this way the type of modification of
the wave function produced by an external field; it is a hybridization
of the wave function.
We have seen in this section that an exact solution can be obtained
for the hydrogen polarizability. It is quite possible, however, and some-
times useful, to get variation methods to get approximations to the
answer; this method has been particularly useful in more complicated
atoms, which we shall take up in a later section. Thus, in the hydrogen
case, we found that the function v had the simple form given in Eq.
(A5-27). Suppose, however, that we had not guessed at this form.
Could we not have used approximation functions which would have led
to good approximations? The author and Kirkwood 1 have shown that
this is the case. They suggested by way of illustration that one might
try to represent the function 11 by a power of r, varying the coefficient
and the exponent to minimize the energy. The minimum comes for a
power of 1.5, and the energy determined in this way gives a polarizability
1 J. C. Slater and J. G. Kirkwood, Phys. Rev., 37 :682 (1931).
of (4.48/Z4)(41rto)a~, very close to the correct value of Eq. (A5-31). We

shall see that similar variation methods are useful in discussing the
Van der Waals force, where we do not have an exact solution.
There is one feature of the polarizability which we can deduce easily
from the results we have obtained so far: the polarizabilities of ions
increase very rapidly as their sizes increase. We can see this from the
occurrence of the factor Z 4 in the denominator of the formula for the
polarizability of hydrogenlike ions; the size of the orbit is inversely pro-
portional to Z, so that in this case the polarizability is proportional to
the fourth power of the radius. The same thing can be seen from Eq.
(A5-16), in which the polarizability is inversely proportional to the square
of the frequencies of transition from the ground state to an excited state.
These frequencies increase as the squares of the effective nuclear charge,
so that here again we see the proportionality of polarizability to the
inverse fourth power of the effective nuclear charge. This rapid depend-
ence of polarizability on size is a striking feature of the polarizabilities
of actual ions in crystals and molecules; the negatively charged ions,
which are generally much larger than the positive ions, are much more
polarizable, and the polarizability increases as the ions become more
negative, and hence become larger in dimensions.
A6-4. Perturbation Method for Van der Waals Attraction in Hydrogen.
In the two preceding sections we have seen how polarization can be
handled, by the perturbation method, by exact solution, or by variation.
We have illustrated these methods by the simplest case, that of the hydro-
gen atom. We shall come back in a later section to the problem of the
polarizability of atoms with more than one electron. Before we do this,
however, we shall start our discussion of the Van der Waals attraction,
carrying through the case of attraction between two hydrogen atoms,
which has been handled with great accuracy. Later we shall investigate
the Van der Waals attraction for heavier atoms.
The hydrogen problem has been handled by many writers; by Eisen-
schitz and London (loc. cit.) by the perturbation method; by Hasse,1
and S11\ter and Kirkwood (loc. cit.), by simple variation methods; by
Pauling and Beach 2 by more elaborate variation methods, as well as by
later writers.
First we consider the perturbation method, though we shall adopt
simpler methods of discussion than those used by Eisenschitz and London
in the paper quoted above. As we should expect from Secs. A5-l and
A5-2, the first step is to set up the perturbative term in the Hamiltonian,
representing the interaction between the two atoms. One can see readily,
as in our discussion of the Reitler-London method for hydrogen in
1 H. R. Hasse, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 27 :66 (1931).
2 L. Pauling and J. Y. Beach, Phys. Rev., 47 :686 (1935).
Volume 1, Sec. 3-3, that this perturbative Hamiltonian in atomic units is

2 2 2 2
(Hi)op = - - - -
rib r2a
+ -
r12
+ -
R
(A5-33)
We are interested in the effect of this term at distances larger than those
at which the Reitler-London method indicates any appreciable inter-
action energy, and at these large distances we can expand (Hi)op in
inverse powers of R.
Let the nucleus a be at the origin, and the nucleus b at a point located
a distance R along the positive z axis. Let Xia, Yia, Zia be the coordinates
of the first electron, with respect to nucleus a as an origin, and X2b, y 2b, z 2b
be the coordinates of the second with respect to nucleus b. The coordi-
nates in this form will be convenient in case electron 1 is near nucleus a,
and electron 2 near nucleus b. Then we have
r12 = V (X2b - + (Y2b - Yia) 2 + (z2b - Zia + R) 2
Xia) 2
= R { 1 + ~ (z2b - Zia) + ~ [(X2b - Xia) 2 + (y2b -

2 Yia) 2
+ (Z2b - Zia) 2]} ¼ (A5-34)
We can then expand l/ri2 in power series, treating (x2b - x 1a)/R, etc ..
as small quantities, and we find
1 1 1 1
-
r12·
=- - -
R R2
(z2b - Zia) - 2R3 [(X2b - Xia) 2 + (Y2b - Yia) 2
1
+ R 3 (z2b - Z1a) 2 + · (A5-35)
We can now find 1/rib by using Eq. (A5-35), but setting X2b, y 2b, Z2b
equal to zero, and can find l/r2a in the same way by setting Xia, Yia, Zia
equal to zero. When we do this, and substitute into Eq. (A5-33), we find
(A5-36)
where the further terms are in higher inverse powers of R. The terms
which we have given in Eq. (A5-36) represent the interactions of instan-
taneous dipoles in the two atoms. In Eq. (A5-36) we have used atomic
units; in ordinary units the interaction energy is
(A5-37)
where we have expressed it in terms of the components of the dipole

moments of the electrons in the two atoms.
·--
Next we must find the matrix elements of this perturbative Hamil-

tonian (H 1)op with respect to the unperturbed wave functions. If atomic
orbitals on atom a are denoted as an, those on b as bn, where n denotes
the quantum numbers (1 for the ground state), we can set up product
wave functions of Reitler-London type in the form an(l)bm(2). Prop-
erly we should use symmetric wave functions of the form an(l)b,,.(2) +
b.,.(l)an(2), but the exchange integrals in this case will be zero, for we are
assuming that the internuclear distance is so large that overlap is negli-
gible. Thus for the present purpose we may use the simple product
functions. We have a ground-state function a 1 (l)b 1 (2), and a set of
excited functions in which the quantum numbers symbolized by n and m,
for the excited states, take on all pairs of values.
The matrix element of (H 1) 0 P between the ground-state wave function,
and one of the form an(l)b,,.(2), will now be
The energy of the excited state, minus that of the ground state, will be
hvn 1 + hv,,. 1 , the sum of the excitation energies of the electrons in the
two atoms. Then we can apply second-order perturbations to find the
energy as affected by the Van der Waals attraction. The added energy,
in addition to the unperturbed energy of the two atoms, will be
Van der Waals energy = - '\' (n,m) (~1h.n~~ 1)nm,l (AS-39)

i..; Vn 1 Vml
We must now find the products (H 1)1,nm(H 1)nm,1• In carrying out the
multiplications of the expressions of Eq. (AS-38) by themselves to get
the products, we shall have terms like (M xlhn(M x1) n,1(M x2h.,,.(M x2)m, 1,
and cross terms like (Mx1)1,n(M,1)n,1(Mx2hm(Mz2)m,I• These cross terms,
however, will be zero, as we can see by the following argument: The only
transitions for which the matrix elements will be different from zero, as
we have noted earlier, will be those from the ground state, ans state, and
excited p states. But we have also noted that (M.)op will have non-
vanishing components only to a p state whose magnetic quantum number
is zero. On the-other hand, (M,,)op will have nonvanishing components
only to a p state whose magnetic quantum number is ± 1. In other
words, there are no transitions for which both components are simul-
taneously different from zero, so that the product vanishes. A similar
result can be proved for the other cross terms, by choosing the axis of
the spherical coordinates to lie along another one of
the rectangular
coordinates.
334 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS
We can now substitute from Eq. (A5-38) in Eq. (A5-39), and find, in
ordinary units,
1
Van der Waals energy =
On account of spherical symmetry, we have IM.,I~.. = IM,A~.. = IM,I~.. ,

if proper account is taken of the fact that these three matrix elements
correspond to transitions to excited states with different magnetic quan-
tum numbers. Thus we have
V an d er W aa1s energy = - ( 6) 2R 6
47rEo
l (-' )
n,m h
IM.Jj,.JM.nm
+
lint
h
11ml
(A5-41 )
If we introduce the oscillator strengths, from Eq. (A5-13), and use

Eq. (A5-15), we have
Van der Waals energy
= _ 24Ry__ '\' (nm) fndml (A5 42)
(R/ao) 6 L ' (hv,.r/Ry)(hvm1/Ry)(hv,.1 + hvm1)/Ry -
Eisenschitz and London (loc. cit.) have calculated the double sum of
Eq. (A5-42), from the values of /,. 1 given in Eqs. (AS-18) and (AS-19),
for the case of hydrogen. They divide the contributions into three parts,
cases where both n and m refer to discrete states, those where one refers
to a discrete state, and one to a continuous state, and those where both
refer to the continuum. Their results are
Contributions to 2:(n,m) of Eq. (A5-42):
Discrete-discrete 0.329
Discrete-continuum 0.184
Continuum-continuum 0.027
Sum 0.540 (AS-43)
When we introduce these values into Eq. (AS-42), we find
. 12.96 Rydbergs
Van der Waals attraction for hydrogen = - (R/ao)& (AS-44)
This result should be correct, aside from small errors arising from
carrying insufficient decimal places in the summation, and from the fact
that the expression of Eq. (A5-19) for the continuum is not exactly .
correct.
A6-6. Variation Methods for Van der Waals Attraction in Hydrogen.
Variation calculations of various sorts have been made of the Van der
Waals attraction in hydrogen. The first type of calculation was origi-
nated by Hasse (loc. cit.), and carried further by Slater and Kirkwood
(loc. cit.). The idea behind this calculation goes back to the exact treat-
ment of the polarizability of hydrogen, in Eq. (A5-27). We notice from
that equation that the perturbed wave function for a hydrogen atom in
the presence of an external field can be written as the product of the
unperturbed wave function, yZ3/re-z', and a factor which equals unity
plus a perturbation term. This perturbation term in turn can be written
as the product of the perturbative energy, Er cos 8, and a function of r.
Hasse suggested that it should be possible in more general cases to write
the perturbed wave function in this same general form, of the unper-
turbed wave function times a factor consisting of unity plus the pertur-
bative energy times a function of the radius or radii. In particular, for
the Van der Waals attraction in hydrogen, we might expect to multiply
the unperturbed wave function, which for two hydrogen atoms is (Z3/r)
exp [-Z(r 1a + r2b)], times a factor equal to unity plus the perturbative
energy of Eq. (A5-36) times a function of r 1a and r2b. Slater and Kirk-
wood showed that if one assumes this form, and substitutes into the
differential equation, one can prove that such a solution in fact exists,
though they did not set up an explicit form for the function of r1a and T2b-
However, led by the success of the variation calculation of the polariza-
bility of hydrogen, they tried the function
found a minimum of the energy for the value v = 0.325, and found that
the resulting energy corresponded to a Van der Waals attraction similar
to that of Eq. (A5-44), but with a constant -12.98. The difference
between this value and that of Eisenschitz and London is within the
numerical error of either calculation.
Pauling and Beach (loc. cit.) have carried out a much more elaborate
variation calculation, and their results are the most accurate we have
for the Van der Waals attraction in hydrogen, at large R. In the first
place, they carried their calculations to higher inverse powers of R than
we have so far considered, treating not only the dipole-dipole interactions
between the atoms, but dipole-quadrupole and quadrupole-quadrupole
interactions, or inverse sixth, eighth, and tenth powers of R. Second,
they have described the wave function in quite a different way, essentially
a configuration interaction, setting up a complete set of one-electron
functions, and expanding the perturbed wave function in terms of this
complete set. It is possible to set up a complete set of radial functions
by using a single exponential, e-zr, times an appropriate function of
angle, times a polynomial in r. For the lowest state of a given l value,
this polynomial is the single term r1 ; for the next lowest it is r 1(1 + ar),
where a is chosen to make the function orthogonal to the lowest state;
for the next it is r 1(1 + ar + br 2 ), where a and bare used to orthogonalize

to the two lower states; and so on. Such functions have more recently
been found to be very useful in the discussion of configuration interaction
in the helium atom. Since these functions form a complete set, any
function can be expanded in terms of them.
From the perturbation treatment of the Van der Waals attraction,
using the Hamiltonian of Eq. (A5-37), one can see that the perturbed
wave function can be made up of the sum of the ground-state function,
plus perturbative terms in which both electrons are excited to p states.
Such a wave function can be built up by using the p wave functions from
the complete set which we have just described. Pauling and Beach
used a number of such functions, varying their coefficients to minimize
the energy, and adding more and more terms until the result had con-
verged to a fixed answer. Their value for the coefficient in an expression
like that of Eq. (A5-44) was 12.99806, which may be taken as the best
value which we have for this number. At the same time, as we have
stated, they treated the dipole-quadrupole and quadrupole-quadrupole
interactions. For the first of these they needed perturbed terms in the
wave function in which one electron was excited to a p state, one to ad
state; and for the second, both electrons are excited to d states. When
they included these terms, they came out with an expression for the
Van der Waals attraction as follows:
Van der Waals attraction for hydrogen
12.99806 248.798 2,270.42
Rydbergs (A5-45)
(R/ao) 6 (R/ao) 8 (R/ao) 10
We must remember that this formula of Pauling and Beach, like the
other expansions in inverse powers of R, holds only at distances large
enough so that there is no appreciable overlapping between the charge
distributions of the two atoms. Hirschfelder and Linnett1 have carried
out a variation calculation arranged in such a way that it leads continu-
ously from the Van der Waals region to the region of overlapping charge.
Their method was as follows: First, they started with atomic orbitals a
and b on the two centers, with variable orbital exponents a. They set
up a product function a(l)b(2), and multiplied this by a factor such as
we have been discussing in the other variation treatments, consisting of
unity plus a term depending on the perturbative energy. This factor
was of somewhat different form from that- used by other writers, how-
ever; they used it in the form
(A5-4G)
where A and B were varied to minimize the energy for each value of
1 J_ 0. Hirschfelder and J. W. Linnett, J. Chem. Phys., 18 :130 (1950).
internuclear distance. This was less general than the variation function
of Slater and Kirkwood, who included a power of r 1ar 2b in the factors
A and B; it was more general, however, in that A and B were allowed to
vary independently, instead of having B constrained to equal -2A, as
in the ·earlier calculation. There was no attempt to expand A and B in
inverse powers of R, as in the work of Pauling and Beach.
Hirschfelder and Linnett then made a two-electron wave function of
proper symmetry from this product, in the form
a(l)b(2)[1 + A(X1aX2b + Y1aY2b) + Bz1aZ2b]
+ b(l)a(2)[1 + A(x1bX2a + Y1bY2a) + Bz11,Z2al (A5-47)
which reduces to the ordinary Reitler-London function when A and B
go to zero. Finally they added an ionic term, a(l)a(2) + b(l)b(2), with
an adjustable coefficient. They then varied A, B, the orbital exponent a,
and the coefficient of the ionic term, at each value of R. They thus
obtained a fairly good approximation to the Van der Waals interaction
at large distances (though not as accurate as that of Pauling and Beach),
and at small distances we recognize that the calculation reduces, if A
and B are set equal to zero, to that of Weinbaum, which we have taken
up in Volume 1, Sec. 4-4.
They found, as one would expect, that the parameters A and B went
to zero at infinite values of R. At large R's, B was approximately - 2A,
as would be expected from the form of the perturbative energy, but this
was not at all the case at smaller R's. However, there was no tendency
for A and B to become very large at small R, as would be suggested from
an expansion in inverse powers, such as we see in Pauling and Beach's
results. It is interesting to comp3:re their calculated values for the inter-
action energy of two hydrogen atoms with that of Pauling and Beach,
obtained from Eq. (A5-45). We give such a comparison in Table A5-2,
similar to table VII in the paper of Hirschfelder and Linnett.
Tobie A5-2
2:t
Interaction energy of two hydrogen atoms, in 1 ground state, according to Pauling
and Beach (P.B.) and Hirschfelder and Linnett (H.L.). Energy in Rydbergs, distance
in atomic units.
R 12.99806 248.798 2,270.42

- - (R/ao)'
----
(R/ao) 8
- (R/ao)IO
P.B. H.L.
ao
---
6 -0.000278 -0.000148 -0.000038 -0.000464 -0.00533
7 -0. 0001105 -0.0000432 -0.0000080 -0.0001617 -0.000293
8 -0.0000495 -0.0000149 -0.0000021 -0.0000665 -0.0000800
IO -0.0000130 -0.0000025 -0.0000002 -0.0000157 -0.0000141
12 -0.0000044 -0.0000006 -0.0000000 -0.0000050 -0.0000042
In this table, we first compute the three terms in Pauling and Beach's
series of Eq. (AS-45), to show their relative sizes at the sort of internuclear
distances concerned in Van der Waals attractions. We see that the
series converges fairly rapidly at the larger distances concerned. At
these larger distances-R/ao = 10 and beyond-the Pauling-Beach
energy lies below that of Hirschfelder and Linnett, since as we have seen
the Pauling-Beach wave function is more flexible. However, at the
smaller distances, where overlap becomes important, the Hirschfelder-
Linnett energy is lower, and by so much at R/ao = 6 that it is clear that
here the Van der Waals effect is entirely overshadowed by the exchange
effect characteristic of the Reitler-London calculation. At smaller dis-
tances than this, the very small contributions of the Van der Waals
terms can be disregarded, and this particular calculation would become
identical with that of Weinbaum, which we have discussed in Volume 1,
Chap. 4.
It would be very interesting to see a calculation of the hydrogen prob-
lem which treated the Van der Waals interaction at large distances by
the method of Pauling and Beach, which is undoubtedly very accurate
in this limit, which would reduce to the results of James and Coolidge
at smaller distances, and which would reduce to the results of Hylleraas
for the combined helium atom. There would be nothing impracticable
about such a calculation, but as far as the author knows, it has not been
carried out.
One further remark should be made about the Hirschfelder-Linnett
calculation: they also treat the repulsive 3 2":,, state of H2, and there find,
as we should expect, that the Van der Waals attraction leads to an energy
minimum at large distance, between 8 and 9a 0, before the repulsion sets
in which we have described in Volume 1, Chaps. 3 and 4. This case of
course is a more interesting one for studying the Van der Waals attraction
than the ground state, in which the only effect of the Van der Waals
force is to increase somewhat the attraction at large distances, as com-
pared with a Reitler-London calculation.
A5-6. Van der Waals Attraction in Helium. There have been numer-
ous treatments of the Van der Waals attraction between two helium
atoms, though they are not as complete as in hydrogen. Here the prob-
lem is inherently more interesting than in the ground state of hydrogen,
for here the Van der Waals attraction combines with the repulsion, of
the type which we discussed in Volume 1, Chaps. 1 to 4, to produce an
energy minimum at large distances, which is responsible for the liquefac-
tion of helium at very low temperatures. That is a celebrated problem
in the kinetic theory of gases, on account of the Bose-Einstein condensa-
tion, and formation of the phase helium II. Consequently it has been
particularly important to estimate the nature of the energy curve near
Sec. A5-6) POLARIZATION AND VAN DER WAALS ATTRACTION 339
its minimum accurately. The first treatments were by the variation

method, and it is only more recently that accurate calculations by the
perturbation method have become available. However, since those are
inherently more accurate for the largest values of R, we shall take them
up first in our discussion.
Margenau 1 made one of the first calculations of the Van der Waals
attraction in helium by the perturbation method; a later and more
accurate calculation by the same method has been made by Dalgarno
and Lynn. 2 There are no closed analytic formulas for the oscillator
strengths in helium, and calculations for various parts of the spectrum
have had to be assembled from various sources. Dalgarno and Lynn
corrected the calculated values, and adjusted them to make them agree
with the sum rule of Eq. (A5-14). Thus the values which they give in
their paper are not strictly the result of exact calculation, but have been
somewhat modified. They represent, however, the best estimate which
the writers can give of the correct values. We give the f values for the
discrete spectrum in Table A5-3. We also give the estimate of Dalgarno
and Lynn for the distribution of oscillator strength in the continuum.
The total oscillator strength for the continuum, which must be 1.599 to
give the correct sum of 2 units, comes mostly from the continuous dis-
tribution function indicated in Table A5-3, but partly also from the
double transitions, in which both electrons are excited, which are esti-
mated to make appreciable contributions to the continuum, and which
are not included in this function.
Dalgarno and Lynn have used the oscillator strengths of Table A5-3
to estimate both the polarizability of the helium atom, and the inverse
sixth-power term in the Van der Waals attraction. They estimate that
4 l (n) (h"vn~iky) 2 + contribution of continuum = 1.390 (A5_48 )

a = l.390(47rEo) 2ag
which agrees with the experimental polarizability, as determined from
the index of refraction for zero frequency, within a few tenths of a percent.
In this calculation, one uses Eq. (A5-16). They next use Eq. (A5-42)
to find the inverse sixth-power term in the Van der Waals attraction.
They estimate that
24" (nm) f n ilmi = 3 001

L ' (h11ni/Ry)(h11mi/Ry)(h11n1 + h11m1)/Ry . (A5-49)
Van d er UT 1 3.001
vv aa s energy = - (R/a-;js
R y db ergs
1 H. Margenau, Phys. Rev., 66:1000 (1939).

2 A. Dalgarno and N. Lynn, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), A70:802 (1957).
This value is not directly susceptible to experimental check, for the

experiments on the equation of state deal with the complete interatomic
energy, including both the attractive and repulsive contributions. When
the latter are estimated, however, as we shall discuss later, it seems likely
that the expression of Eq. (A5-49) is in agreement with experiment.
There is one feature of these calculations for helium which shows a
rather striking contrast to the case of hydrogen. This is the very large
Table A5-3
Oscillator strengths for transitions ls' 18--> Isnp 1p, In helium; estimates of
Dalgarno and Lynn.
n fn1
2 0.239
3 0.081
4 0.0325
5 0.0162
6 0.0093
7 0.0058
8 ·0.0039
9 0.0027
10 0.0020
11-oo 0.0088
Continuum 1.599
Distribution off in continuum: df/dE, where Eis energy in Rydbergs, at vario~s
wavelengths in Angstroms, as given by Dalgarno and Lynn. Values of E given in
table below are measured upward from series limit.
X, A E, Rydbergs df/dE
504.27 0.00 0.97

420 0.37 0.73
340 0.50 0.88
260 1. 71 0.28
180 3.27 0.11
100 7.31 0.016
20 43.8 0.00018
contribution of the continuum to the sum of oscillator strengths (1.599

out of a total of 2, from Table A5-3), compared with the case of hydrogen
(0.4342 out of a total of 1, from Table A5-1). As a result of this, we get
quite different results from those for hydrogen, if we try to define an
average value of hv/Ry, as we did in Eq. (A5-20). Since in this case the
sum of the f's is 2 instead of 1, we should define
2 f fn1 ["' df/dE 1.390

(hv/Ry)!v = L, (hv/Ry) 2
n=2
+ Jo (1 + E) 2 dE = -4-
Sec. A5-6) POLARIZATION AND VAN DER WAALS ATTRACTION 341
from Eq. (A5-48). Thus (hv) .. v = 2.40 Rydbergs, which is 1.33 times
the ionization energy of 1.80 Rydbergs. This is to be compared with the
value 0.9428 which we found in Eq. (A5-21) for hydrogen. In other
words, the center of gravity, so to speak, of the spectrum for hydrogen
lies within the range of the discrete spectrum, while in helium it lies a
considerable distance out in the continuum.
Now we shall discuss some of the variation calculations which have
been made of the polarizability and Van der Waals attraction in helium.
Hasse (lac. cit.) was one of the first to make such a calculation. He
obtained a value of -2.826/(R/ao) 6 Rydbergs for the Van der Waals
energy, to be compared with the value of -3.001/(R/a 0) 6 found by the
more accurate perturbation method quoted in Eq. (A5-49). Slater and
Kirkwood (lac. cit.) used several different variation functions, and got
as a preferred value -3.18/(R/ao)6, when expressed in Rydbergs. This
value was arrived at by a method similar to that used by the same writers
for the hydrogen case, and using an unperturbed wave function for the
helium atom deduced by the present author. 1 This ·wave function was
set up by piecing together various analytic forms in different parts of the
configuration space, and was believed to be fairly accurate, though not
as good as the wave functions deduced later by Hylleraas. The author
had calculated the repulsive interaction energy for this wave function, by
methods similar to those described in Volume 1, Chap. 6, and had obtained
numerical values which could be fairly well fitted by an exponential func-
tion, which when expressed in Rydbergs is 35.3 exp [-2.43(R/ao)]. This
repulsive interaction is very close to that calculated by Griffing and
Wehner, described in Volume 1, Sec. 6-4.
It was suggested by Slater and Kirkwood that one might approximate
the interatomic potential of two helium atoms by merely adding the
inverse sixth-power Van der Waals attraction and this exponential
repulsion, obtaining the expression
Energy = 35.3 exp ( -2.43 ao

R) 3.18
- (R/ao) 6 Rydbergs (A5-50)
It was of course realized by the writers that it is not justified theoretically

merely to add these effects, but nevertheless Eq. (A5-50), regarded as
an interpolation formula, reduces to the proper values both at very large
R's, and at much smaller R's, and therefore seemed a plausible approxi-
mation. It proved to be in surprisingly good agreement with experiment,
and has been used as the basis of calculations of the equation of state
which seem close to the truth. It is likely, as has been suggested by
various writers, that this success was a result of a cancellation of errors.
We see by comparison of Eq. (A5-50) and Eq. (A5-49) that the inverse
sixth-power term of Eq. (A5-50) is too large. On the other hand, there
are inverse eighth-, tenth-, and higher-power terms which should be
included, similar to those of Pauling and Beach for hydrogen, given in
Eq. (A5-45) and Table A5-2, which are omitted in Eq. (A5-50). Prob-
ably the error in the inverse sixth-power term compensates for the omis-
sion of these terms. And the further fact that the inverse sixth-power
term is not correct at smaller values of R is more or less hidden by the
fact that the exponential repulsion becomes so great at these smaller R's.
Various more recent calculations by the variation method have been
made, though none give completely reliable results. We shall quote only
one recent one, by Moore. 1 This writer has carried out a calculation
very similar to that of Hirschfelder and Linnett (Zoe. cit.) for hydrogen.
He has set up a wave function of the form
a(l)a(l)a(2)P(2)b(3)a(3)b(4)P(4)
X [1 + A (Xa1Xb3 + Xa1Xb4 + Xa2Xb8 + Xa2Xb4 + Ya1Yb3
+ Ya1Yb4 + Ya2Yb3 + Ya2Yb4)
+ B(za1Zb3 + Za1Zb4 + Za2Zb3 + Za2Zb4)J
+ permuted terms (A5-51)
whose similarity to the Hirschfelder-Linnett function of Eq. (A5-47) for

the hydrogen-hydrogen repulsion is obvious. He varied the parameters
A and B at different values of R, keeping the atomic orbitals a and b as
hydrogenic functions with the screening parameter equal to 2 ½ 6 • Thus,
aside from the perturbation terms proportional to A and B, his function
was identical with that of Griffing and Wehner. In Fig. A5-l we show
the energy as a function of internuclear distance found by Moore, and
for comparison, the curve of Slater and Kirkwood, from Eq. (A5-50).
We see that the latter curve gives a lower energy for large values of R, as
is natural from the fact that its inverse sixth-power term is too large; but
in general there is moderately good agreement between the two curves,
which indicates that the calculation of Moore will lead to results which are
not bad experimentally.
We may conclude this discussion of Van der Waals attractions in
helium in the same way as for hydrogen: we still lack a single treatment,
holding for all values of R, combining all the good features of the various
available methods. It would be very desirable to have a helium calcula-
tion reducing to the value of Dalgarno and Lynn at very large R's, having
the valuable feature of Moore's that it joins smoothly from this region to
the repulsive region, but then having the good features of Huzinaga's
calculation of the repulsive energy at smaller distances, discussed in
1 N. Moore, J. Chem. Phys., 33:471 (1960).
Volume 1, Sec. 6-4, and which finally reduces to a moderately accurate

calculation of the combined beryllium atom.
A5-7. General Relations between Polarizability and Van der Waals
Attraction. Calculations have not been made for the heavier atoms
with nearly the completeness of those for hydrogen and helium. There
have been,-however, a number of attempts to set up general treatments of
N-electron atoms, by means of which one can at least estimate the Van der
Waals attractions with fairly good accuracy. These attempts mostly go
back to the early work of Eisenschitz and London (Zoe. cit.), Slater and
Kirkwood (loc. cit.), London,1 Kirkwood, 2 Vinti,3 Hellmann, 4 and others.
2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

R (Angstroms)
' energy, in region of minimum arising from
Fm. A5-1. Helium-helium interaction
Van der Waals attraction. [Moore's curve, from N. Moore, J. Chem. Phys., 33:471
(1960). Slater and Kirkwood curve, from Slater and Kirkwood, Phys. Rev., 37:682
(1931).)
They are all based on the use of average excitation energies, such as we
have set up in Eqs. (A5-20) and (A5-49). The use of such averages was
first suggested by Unsold,5 in a paper in which he discussed the problem
of Ht at large internuclear distances by the perturbation method; this is
a particularly valuable case for investigation by that method, since the
results can be checked against the exact solution. They are discussed,
along with detailed treatments of the general problem of Van der Waals
attractions, in the valuable review article of Margenau. 6
1 F. London, Z. Physik Chem., B11 :222 (1930); Trans. Faraday Soc., 33 :8 (1937).
• .J. G. Kirkwood, Z. Physik, 33:.'ii (1932).

• .J. P. Vinti, Phys. Rev., 41 :813 (1932).
4 H. Hellmann, Acta Physicochim. U.R.S.S., 2 :273 (1935).
5 A. Unsold, Z. Physik, 43 :563 (1927).
• H. Margenau, Rev. Mod. Phys., 11 :1 (1939).

If we have an atom with N electrons (we shall later discuss the question
as to whether N refers to the total number of electrons, or the number in
the outer shell), we can generalize Eq. (A5-20) to the form
N
(hv/Ry)!v \' (n ) (hv/Ry)
= ~ fni 2 + contr1"b ut10n
· f rom contmuum
· (A5-52)
which gives, when we combine it with Eq. (A5-17), the result

4N(47rEo)ag
(A5-53)
a = (hv/Ry)!v
4N(47rEo)a~
and (A5-54)
a
Similarly we may rewrite Eq, (A5-10), as if there were only one term in
the summation, giving
a= 2 IM,12 (A5-55)
(hv)a.v
from which, combining with Eq. (A5-53), we have
l(M,)1 2 = ; (hv)av = 2 N(~0:~ag Ry 2 (A5-56)
Let us now take Eq. (A5-41) for the Van der Waals energy, and replace
the double sums by single terms, and the hv's by (hv)av• We then find
6 (IM,12)2
Van der Waals energy = (4no) 2R 6 2(hv)av
3 IM,12a IM 12 (A5-57)
- 2 (47rEo) 2R 6 •
12
Van der Waals energy = - (R/a
0) 6
vJ.l [
N
a
4(47rEo)ag
]½ (A5-58)
where in the derivation of the last equation we have used. Eq. (A5-54).
In Eq. (A5-57) we see an equivalent of Eq. (A5-2), which we had
derived intuitively for the Van der Waals attraction. In Eq. (A5-58) we
have a relation between the polarizability and the Van der Waals energy.
Since the polarizability is known experimentally from the dielectric
constant, this gives a method for computing the Van der Waals attraction
for heavier atoms, for which direct calculation would be difficult. Let us
check this latter equation for the two cases, hydrogen and helium, in
which we have given accurate values in the p~esent chapter. For hydro-
gen, we have a = 4.5(47rto)at from Eq. (AS-31), so that we should predict
that the Van der Waals energy would be
14.32
(A5-59)
(R/ao) 6
compared with the correct value of -13.00/(R/a 0) 6 given in Eq. (A5-45).

For helium with N = 2, we have a = l.390(4'11'"Eo)a~ from Eq. (A5-48), so
that we should predict that the Van der Waals energy would be
12 - r2 (0 3 7 )H - 3.47 (A,5-60)
(R/ao) 6 V · 4 5 - - (R/ao) 6
compared with the correct value of -3.001/(R/a 0) 6 given in Eq. (A5-49).

In both cases the agreement of Eq. (A5-58) with the correct value is
satisfactory as far as order of magnitude is concerned, but is not quantita-
tive, as would be expected from the very sketchy method used in deriv-
ing it.
Slater and Kirkwood (Zoe. cit.) derived a relation similar to that of Eq.
(A5-58), but by using the variation method, rather than making use of
the average energy difference (hv )av• Their formula was identical with
that of Eq. (A5-58), except for a different coefficient, which was
(8)(1.36) = 10.88 rather than 12. When this coefficient is used, the
agreement of the formula is greatly improved in both hydrogen and helium;
the coefficient 14.32 of Eq. (A.5-59) is reduced to almost exactly its
correct value of 13.00, and the 3.47 of Eq. (A5-60) is reduced to about
3.14, much closer to the correct value of 3.001.
One can modify these formulas to hold for the Van der Waals attrac-
tions between two unlike atoms. Thus, in Eq. (A5-41), we can let the
first factor \M.\~n refer to one type of atom, the second \M.\Im to another,
with polarizabilities a 1 and a 2 , respectively; and one can define average
energies hv 1 and hv 2 for the two cases, by Eq. (A5-54), which would then
become
(A.5-61)
In the denominator of Eq. (AS-41) we must then use h111 + h112. We

then find
3 1 a1a2
Van der Waals energy = - 2 (4no) 2R 6 (l/hvi) + (l/hv 2 ) (AS-62)
This formula is discussed, among others, by Hellmann (lac. cit.). If the

derivation of Slater and Kirkwood is regarded as valid, the numerical
coefficient in Eq. (A5-62) should be replaced by 1.36.
While the formulas of this section undoubtedly provide a rough guide
as to the general order of magnitude of the Van der Waals energy, the
very tentative nature of their derivation should be sufficient warning
against using them for any serious calculations. We can, however, con-
sider the question as to whether N in Eqs. (A5-54), (A5-58), and (A5-61)
should refer to the total number of electrons in the atom, or in the outer
shell. In the paper of Slater and Kirkwood (loc. cit.) it was definitely
stated that it should be the number in the outer shell, on the assumption
that the inner shells would not be appreciably polarized. A later paper
of Kirkwood (loc. cit.), however, suggested that it should be the total
number of electrons in the atom. It is generally considered that Kirk-
wood's argument in this paper, which was based on an application of the
variation method, was invalid, and that N should refer to the number of
outer electrons. A simple argument based on Eqs. (A5-52) and (A5-53)
will show why this should be the -case.
In the ground state of a closed-shell atom, such as for instance a neon
atom, there will be excitation energies in which an outer electron is removed
to an excited orbit, in which case the energies hv of excitation lie in the
ultraviolet; there will also be K x-ray excitation, in which the ls electron
is removed. These latter excitations will lie in the soft x-ray region, and
on account of the factor (hv/Ry) 2 in the denominator of Eq. (A5-52),
they will make almost negligible contributions to the sum. In other
words, the terms appreciable in size, in this sum, for any atom, will come
from excitation from the outer shell of electrons (in the case of neon, from
the 2s and 2p shells, which have approximately the same energy). The
sum of the fni's for these ultraviolet excitations will equal approximately
the number of outer electrons, so that it is this number which should be
used as N in Eq. (A5-52), and consequently in the other derivations of
this section.
This is only another way of stating the obvious fact that the contribu-
tion of a shell to the polarizability greatly decreases with decreasing size,
as we pointed out in our discussion of the polarizability of a hydrogenlike
atom with atomic number Z, in Sec. A5-3, where we found the polariza-
bility to go as 1/ Z4, or as the fourth power of the radius of the orbit.
There are numerous other ways of showing the same thing, as has been
pointed out in the literature by several writers.
Before we leave our discussion of polarizability and Van der Waals
energies, there are two further comments to be made. In the first place,
we have seen in Sec. A5-3 that it is possible to get an exact solution of the
problem of the polarizability of hydrogen, since the perturbed wave func-
tion is the sum of the unperturbed function, plus cos (J times a function
of r, which can be exactly determined. It can be shown that the same
sort of discussion can be carried through in a much more general case, as
has been shown by Sternheimer. 1 He has set up differential equations
1 R. M. Sternheimer, Phys. Rev., 96 :951 (1954); 107 :1565 (1957).

analogous to Eq. (A5-23), for the general case, in which the nuclear
charge Z must be replaced by a function of r, appropriate to the self-
consistent field used to describe the wave function in question. By
numerical integration of this differential equation, he has been able to
get the functions like v, of Eq. (A5-22), for many ions, and from these
functions has computed the polarizability, getting fairly good agreement
with observations.
For the polarization of orbitals other than s states, the situation is
more complicated. One can show that for an orbital with a given l value,
a constant external field will produce two perturbing terms, one cor-
responding to l + l, the other to l - l, as we should expect from the
selection rule for l. One can set up separate radial differential equations
for each of the resulting functions, and Sternheimer has solved these.
When one combines the results for a closed-shell atom, even though it
contains individual electrons which are not in s states, nevertheless the
result can be described as if we had a many-electron wave function of the
P type, or of L = 1, proportional to the field, superposed on the unper-
turbed S wave function corresponding to the closed shell.
The other general comment which we wish to make is that in Sec.
A5-1 we took up types of interatomic or intermolecular forces, arising
from the polarization of an atom by an ion or by a permanent dipole,
and its reaction back on the ion or permanent dipole producing the
polarization, which are important in the interactions between ions or
dipole molecules. The rest of our discussion has all been devoted to the
special case of the polarization by fluctuating dipoles, resulting in the
Van der Waals attraction between closed-shell atoms, and sometimes
called dispersion forces. These other types of interaction are impor-
tant in themselves, however, and their effects must be added to those
which we have been considering. They are well discussed, among other
places, in the papers of London (lac. cit.) and of l\1argenau (loc. cit.).
They have the effect that the total Van der Waals attractions are con-
siderably greater between molecules with dipole moments than in other
cases. For a discussion of this in a very qualitative way, the reader may
refer to J. C. Slater, "Introduction to Chemical Physics," McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1939, p. 408. In that reference is given a
table of a large number of gaseous molecules, arranged in order of increas-
ing molecular volume, as measured either by the Van der Waals constant
B, or by the molecular volume of the liquid. As would be expected, the
Van der Waals constant A, measuring the Van der Waals attraction,
increases regularly with increase of B, since we have seen that the
polarizability, on which it depends, increases with molecular dimensions.
There are, however, a number of molecules, such as H2O and NHa, which
stand out from the others as having abnormally large Van der Waals
attractions. They are in every case molecules with large permanent

dipole moments, contributing Van der Waals attractions in addition to
those between the closed-shell atoms constituting the molecules.
Papers by the following writers, found in the Bibliography at the end
of this volume, and most of them not already referred to in this Appendix,
have a bearing on problems of Van der Waals forces:
M. R. Aub (1957), B. M. Axilrod (1943), W. L. Bade (1957-1958),
H. B. G. Casimir (1948-1949), I. E. Dzyaloshinskii (1956-1961),
R. Eisenschitz (1930), J. Friedel (1952), J. 0. Hirschfelder (1950),
A. E. Kingston (1964), J. W. Leech (1955), A. D. McLachlan (1963),
H. Margenau (1931-1953), A. Michels (1937), Y. Midzuno (1956),
L. Pauling (1935), R. H. Penfield (1957), E. A. Power (1957), J.C. Slater
(1931), W. J. Sparnaay (1959).
Appendix 6
The Virial Theorem for Solids
We wish to prove Eq. (10-5),
Kinetic energy = - ½ potential energy + ½ pv (A6-1)
holding for a solid, where p is the pressure, v the volume. We start with
Eq. (2-37) of Volume 1 of this work, which is
(Kinetic energy)av = - ½(potential energy)av - ½2:(i)(xiFext.)av

(A6-2)
Here Xi is one of the coordinates of one of the particles of the system, and
F ext i is the component of external force applied to this coordinate. This
theorem, we remember, holds for a system in which all the internal forces
are Coulomb forces, as in an atom, molecule, or solid.
For a solid of finite volume under a hydrostatic pressure p, each unit
area of the surface is acted on by a normal force p pointing into the volume
of the solid. This force of course is actually exerted by the walls on the
various atoms which happen to be near the unit area in question. We
may then replace the summation over i, in Eq. (A6-2), by a surface
integral over the surface of the solid. An element of area da will con-
tribute to "1;(i)x,F ext, an amount equal to the scalar product of the vector
r from the origin to the element of area (arising from x.) and the external
force acting on the atoms close to this unit area, which is -pn da, where
n is the outer normal to the surface. Hence we have
"1;(i)xiFexti = J-p(r · n) da (A6-3)
where the integration is over the surface of the solid. Since the hydro-
static pressure p is assumed to be uniform, we may take it out of the
integral, leaving -pJ(r · n) da.
This integral can be evaluated by the divergence theorem. If we
regard r = ix + jy + kz as a vector function of position, we have
V • r = 3. But the volume integral of the divergence equals the surface
349
350 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS App. 6]
integral of the normal component of the function itself. That is, we have
JV • r dv = 3v = J(r · n) da (A6-4)
where v .is the volume. As a result we have, combining Eqs. (A6-3)
and (A6-4),
(A6-5)
from which, substituting in Eq. (A6-2), the desired result of Eq. (A6-1)
follows at once.
Bibliography
This Bibliography is by far the longest appearing in any volume of this series. The
primary reason is that it includes experimental as well as theoretical papers, dealing
with energy bands and the Fermi surface, and many related topics. In a great many
of the experimental papers in these fields, the theory is developed or compared with
experiment in such a way that the theorist as well as the experimenter must be
acquainted with the experimental literature. A number of topics are represented in
this Bibliography which were mentioned in the foreword to the Bibliography in
Volume 2: lattice vibrations, conductivity, optical properties, dielectric behavior,
cohesive energy, and the many-body aspects of the theory of solids. Relatively few
topics remain for the Bibliography to appear in Volume 4: among these are magnetic
properties of solids, ligand field theory, excitons, polarons, and other excitations.
This Bibliography, like that in the earlier volumes, includes not merely the papers
and books specifically referred to in the text, but a good many others besides.
In general we have not duplicated references already given in the bibliographies in
"Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure" and in Volumes 1 and 2 of the present work.
The Bibliography consists of three lists. First there is a Book List; it was felt
better to separate the books from the articles. Then we have two bibliographies of
articles, separated chronologically. Bibliography 1 consists of the older papers,
through 1946; Bibliography 2 of the newer ones, 1947 through the present. Coverage
is fairly good up into the 1960s, in some cases as late as 1965, in other cases early 1960s.
Patticularly among the experimental papers, the listing is far from complete; the really
enormous magnitude of the literature has made a complete listing quite impossible.
As in the earlier bibliographies of this series, titles in French and German (and a
few in Spanish) are ordinarily given in the original language, others in English. Cross
references are included to joint authors who are not the first-listed authors, provided
they are also authors of other works listed alphabetically in the Bibliography. Section
numbers in this book are given for locations of papers referred to in the text, so that
the Bibliography can serve as in index of references and names.
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(1939). (Sec. 1-4.)
Eckart, C.: tlber die Elektronentheorie der Metalle auf Grund der Fermischen
Statistik, insbesondere iiber den Voltaeffekt, Z. Physik, 47:38 (1928). (Sec. 1-4.)
Ehrenfest, P.: Energieschwankungen im Strahlungsfeld oder Kristallgitter bei Super-
position quantisierten Eigenschwingungen, Z. Physik, 34:362 (1925). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and G. E. Uhlenbeck: Die wellenmechanische Interpretation der Boltz-
mannschen Statistik neben der neueren Statistik, Z. Physik, 41:24 (1927).
- - - : See also P. S. Epstein.
Einstein, A.: Die Plancksche Theorie der Strahlung und die Theorie der spezifischen
Wii.rme, Ann .. Physik, 22:180, 800 (1907). (Secs. 7-1, 8-6.)
- - - : Theorie der Opaleszenz von homogenen Fliissigkeiten und Fliissigkeitsge-
mischen in der Nii.he des kritischen Zustandes, Ann. Physik, 33:1275 (1910).
- - - : Eine Beziehung zwischen dem elastischen Verhalten und der spezifischen
Wii.rme bei festen Korpern mit einatomigen Molekiil, Ann. Physik, 34:170, 590
(1911). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases, I, II, Sitzber. Preuss. Akad.
Wiss., 1924, p. 261; 1925, p. 3.
Eisenschitz, R., and F. London: tlber das Verhii.ltnis der van der Waalschen Kraften
zu den homiiopolaren Bindungskraften, Z. Physik, 60:491 (1930). (Secs. A5-2,
A5-7.)
Elsasser, W.: Bemerkungen zur Quantenmechanik freier Elektronen, Naturwiss.,
13:711 (1925).
Emersleben, 0.: Zetafunktionen und elcktrostatische Gitterpotentiale, Physik. Z.,
24:73, 97 (1923). (Secs. 9-3, 10-4.)
Epstein, P. 8., and P. Ehrenfest: The Quantum Theory of the Fraunhofer Diffraction,
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S., 10:133 (1924).
- - - : On the Elastic Properties of Lattices, Phys. Rev., 70:915 (1946). (Secs. 8-6,
10-4.)
Evjen, H. M.: Energy Changes by a Variation from the Crystallographic Group,
Phys. Rev., 34:1385 (1929). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Stability of Heteropolar Crystals, Phys. Rev., 39:675 (1932). (Secs. 9-3,
10-4.)
- - - : A New Analysis of Slater's Compressibility Data, Phys. Rev., 44:491 (1933).
(Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Contribution to the Theory of Heteropolar Crystals, Phys. Rev., 44:501
(1933). (Sec. 10-4.)
Ewald, P. P.: Zur Theorie der Interferenzen der Riintgenstrahlen in Kristallen,
Physik. Z., 14:465 (1913).
- - - : Bemerkung zu der Arbeit von M. Laue: Die dreizahligsymmetrischen
Riintgenstrahlaufnahmen an regularen Kristallen, Physik. Z., 14:1038 (1913).
- - - : Zur Begriindung der Kristalloptik. I. Theorie der Dispersion. IL Theorie
der Reflexion und Brechung. III. Die Kristalloptik dcr Rontgenstra.hlcn, Ann.
Physik, 49:1, 117 (1916); 64:519, 557 (1918). (Secs. 4-2, 6-1.)
- - - : Zurn Reflexionsgesetz der Rontgenstrahlen, Z. Physik, 2:332 (1920).
- - - : Abwcichungen vom Braggschen Reflexionsgesetz der Rontgcnstrahlen,
Physik. Z., 21 :617 (1920).
- - - : Die Berechnung optischer und elektrostatischer Gitterpotentiale, Ann. Physik,

64:253 (1921). (Secs. 9-3, 10-4.)
- - - : "Uber den Brechungsindex flir Rontgenstrahlen und die Abweichungen vom
Braggschen Reflexionsgesetz, Z. Physik, 30:1 (1924).
- - - : Die Intensitii.ten der Rontgenreflexe und der Strukturfaktor, Physik. Z.,
26:29 (1925).
- - - and C. Hermann: Gilt der Friedelsche Satz iiber die Symmetrie der Rontgen-
interferenzen? Z. Krist., 65:251 (1927).
Fajans, K.: Thermochemische Priifung der Bornschen Kristallgittertheorien, Verhandl.
Deut. Physik. Ges., 21:539 (1919). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Die Elektronenaffinitii.t der Halogenatome und die Ionisierungsarbeit der
Halogenwasserstoffe, Verhandl. Deut. Physik. Ges., 21:714 (1919). (Sec.
10-4.)
- - - and H. Grimm: "Uber die Molekularvolumina der Alkalihalogenide, Z. Physik,
2:299 (1920). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and K. H. Herzfeld: Die Ionengrosse und die Gitterenergie der Alkalihalogenide,
Z. Physik, 2:309 (1920). (Secs. 9-1, 10-4.)
- - - and K. von Beckeratz: Oberflii.chenkrii.fte bei heteropolaren Kristallgittern.
Adsorption von Bleiisotopen an kolloidalen Silberhalogeniden, Z. Physik. Chem.,
97:478 (1921). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - . : tlber Kraftwirkungen zwischen entfernteren Atomen im Diamanten und in
aliphatischen Molekeln, Z. Physik. Chem., 99:395 (1921).
- - - : Struktur und Deformation der ElektronenhuJlen in ihrer Bedeutung ftir die
chemischen und optischen Eigenschaften anorganischen Verbindungen,
Naturwiss., 11:165 (1923). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Die Eigenschaften salzartigen Verbindungen und Atombau, Z. Krist., 61:18
(1925). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Die Eigenschaften salzartigen Verbindungen und Atombau. II. Einf!uss der
Deformation der Elektronenhiillen, Z. Krist., 66:321 (1928). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Polarization of Ions and Lattice Distances, J. Chem. Phys., 9:281 (1941).
(Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Thermal Expansion, Compressibility, and Electronic Polarizability of Ionic
Crystals, Phys. Rev., 61:543 (1942). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and N. Bauer: Electronic Structure and Stability of Hydrogen Halides and of
Complex Ions XO., J. Chern. Phys., 10:410 (1942).
Fan, H. Y.: Contacts between Metals and between a Metal and a Semiconductor,
Phys. Rev., 62:388 (1942). (Sec. A2-2.)
Farnsworth, H. E.: Electron Emission and Diffraction by a Copper Crystal, Phys.
Rev., 34:679 (1929). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Certain Effects Accompanying Electron Diffraction, Phys. Rev., 35:1131
(1930).
- - - : The Inner Potential of a Copper Crystal, Phys. Rev., 36:1799 (1930). (Sec.
3-11.)
- - - : Diffraction of Low-speed Electrons by Single Crystals of Copper and Silver,
Phys. Rev., 40:684 (1932). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Fine Structure of Electron Diffraction Beams from a Gold Crystal and from a
Silver Film on a Gold Crystal, Phys. Rev., 43:900 (1933). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Concerning \V. T. Sproull's Article on "Diffraction of Low Speed Electrons by
a Tungsten Single Crystal," Phys. Rev., 44:417 (1933). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Investigation of Certain Effects Accompanying the Diffraction of Low Speed
Electrons, Phys. Rev., 49:598 (1936).
- - - : Penetration of Low Speed Diffracted Electrons, Phys. Rev., 49:605 (1936).
Faxen, H.: Die bei Interferenz von Rontgenstrahlen durch die Warmebewegung
entstehende zerstreute Strahlung, Ann. Physik, 54:615 (1918). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Die bei Interferenz von Rontgenstrahlen infolge der Warmebewegung
entstehende Streustrahlung, Z. Physik, 17:266 (1923). (Sec. 8-1.)
- a n d J. Holtsmark: Beitrag zur Theorie des Durchganges langsamer Elektronen
durch Gase, Z. Physik, 45:307 (1927).
Feinberg, E. L.: Some Relationships between Atomic Lattices, Physik. Z. Sowjetunion,
8:407 (1935). .
- - - : On the Possibility of Applying the Thomas-Fermi Method to the Problem of
Metallic Cohesion, Physik. Z. Sowjetunion, 8:416 (1935). (Sec. 10-1.)
Fermi, E.: Quantising Systems Containing Identical Elements, Nuovo Cimento, 1:145
(1924).
- - - : Ober die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Quantenzustande, Z. Physik, 26:54 (1924).
- - - : Quantisation of the Monatomic Perfect Gas, Accad. Lincei Atti., 3:145 (1926).
- - - : Zur Quantelung des idealen einatomigen Gases, Z. Physik, 36:902 (1926).
(Sec. 1-4.)
- - - : Application of Statistical Gas Methods to Electronic Systems, Accad. Lincei
Atti, 6:602 (1927).
- - - : Eine statistische Methode zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften des Atoms
und ihre Anwendung auf die Theorie des periodischen Systems der Elemente,
Z. Physik 48:73 (1928). (Sec. 10-1.)
- - - : Statistische Berechnung der Rydbergkorrektionen der s-Terme, Z. Physik,
49:550 (1928). (Sec. 10-1.)
Finch, G. I., and H. Wilman: The Study of Surface Structure by Electron Diffraction,
Erg. Exakt. Naturw., 16:353 (1937).
Fine, P. C.: The Normal Modes of Vibration of a Body-centered Cubic Lattice, Phys.
Rev., 66:355 (1939). (Sec. 8-6.)
Fock, V.: Bemerkung zur Quantelung des harmonischen Oscillators in Magnetfeld,
Z. Physik, 47:446 (1928). (Sec. 3-3.)
- - - : Ober die Gultigkeit des Virialsatzes in der Fermi-Thomasschen Theorie,
Physik. Z. Sowjetunion, 1:747 (1932). (Sec. 10-1.)
Forster, T.: Die Lichtabsorption aromatischer Kohlenwasserstoffen, Z. Physik. Chem.,
B41:287 (1938).
- - - : Farbe und Konstitution organischer Verbindungen vom Standpunkt der
modernen physikalischen Theorie, Z. Elektrochem., 46:548 (1939). _
- - - : Quantenmechanische Rechnungen zur Theorie der organischen Farbstoffe, 1,
Z. Physik. Chem., B47:24.5 (1940).
Fowler, R.H.: On Dense Matter, Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., 87:114 (1926).
(Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : An Elementary Theory of Electronic Semiconductors, and Some of Their
Possible Properties, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A140:505 (1933).
- - - : Notes on Some Electronic Properties of Conductors and Insulators, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), A141:56 (1933).
- - - : Report on the Theory of Semiconductors, Physik. Z. Sowjetunion, 3:507
(1933).
Fox, J. J., and A. E. Martin: The Relation between the Force Constant, Internuclear
Distance, and the Heat of Rupture of a Linkage, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 69:2106
(1938).
Frank, N. H.: Bemerkungen zur Theorie der metallischen Widerstandsanderung in
einem Magnetfeld, Z. Physik, 60:682 (1930). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : Zur Theorie der galvanomagnetischen, thermomagnetischen, und thermo-
elektrischen Erscheinungen in Metallen, Z. Physik, 63:596 (1930). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : Zur Theorie der Widerstandsii.nderung in starken Magnetfeldern, Naturwiss.,

34:751 (1930). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : Effect of Pressure on the Electrical Conductivity of the Alkalies, Phys. Rev.,
47:282 (1935).
- - - : See also A. Sommerfeld.
Freed, S., and S. I. Weissman: Lattice Vibrations of Crystals and the Corresponding
Vibrations of Their Solutions, II, J. Chem. Phys., 8:840 (1940). (Sec. 8-6.)
Frenkel, J.: Elementare Theorie magnetischer und elektrischer Eigenschaften der
Metalle beim absoluten Nullpunkt der Temperatur, Z. Physik, 49:31 (1928).
- - - and N. Mirulobow: Zur Wellenmechanischen Theorie der metallischen
Leitfii.higkeit, Z. Physik, 49:885 (1928). (Sec. 1-5.)
- - - : Nouveaux developpements de la theorie electronique des metaux, Proc. Intern.
Conj. Phys., Como, 1928, p. 1, N. Zanichelli, Bologna.
- - - : On the Electrical Resistance of Contacts between Solid Conductors, Phys.
Rev., 36:1604 (1930).
- - - : -Ober die Formel fiir das mittlere Gitterpotential, Z. Physik, 69:649 (1930).
(Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : On the Transformation of Light into Heat in Solids, I, II, Phys. Rev., 37:17,
1276 (1931). (Sec. A2-l.)
- - - and A. Joffe (A. Ioffe): On the Electric and Photoelectric Properties of Con-
tacts between a Metal and a Semiconductor, Physik. Z. Sowjetunion, 1:60
(1932).
- - - : On the Elementary Derivation of Some Relations in the Electron Theory of
Metals, Physik. Z. Sowjetunion, 2:247 (1932).
- - - and A. Joffe (A. Ioffe): On the Electric and Photoelectric Properties of Con-
tacts between a Metal and a Semiconductor, Phys. Rev., 39:530 (1932).
- - - : On the Absorption of Light and the Trapping of Electrons and Positive Holes
in Crystalline Dielectrics, Physik. Z. Sowjetunion, 9:158 (1936). (Sec. A2-1.)
Friedrich, W., P. Knipping, and M. Laue: Interferenzerscheinungen bei Riintgen-
strahlen, Sitzber. Math.-Physik. Kl. Bayer. Akad. Wiss., 1912, p. 303; Ann. Physik,
41:971 (1913). (Sec. 6-1.)
Frohlich, H.: Lichtabsorption und selektive Photoeffekt, Z. Physik, 76:539 (1932).
(Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : A Quantum Mechanical Discussion of the Cohesive Forces and Thermal
Expansion Coefficients of the Alkali Metals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A168:97
(1937). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Theory of Electrical Breakdown in Ionic Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A160:230 (1937).
- - - : Die spezifische Warme der Elektronen kleiner Metallteilchen bei tiefen
Temperaturen, Physica, 4:406 (1937). (Sec. 1-4.)
---and N. F. Mott: The Mean Free Path of Electrons in Polar Crystals, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), A171:496 (1939). (Sec. 8-3.)
- - - : Theory of Electrical Breakdown in Ionic Crystals, II, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A172:94 (1939).
- - - : Dielectric Breakdown in Ionic Crystals, Phys. Rev., 66:349 (1939).
- - - : Dielectric Breakdown in Solids, Rept. Progr. Phys., 6:411 (1939).
- - - : On the Electric Strength of Mixed Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A178:493 (1941).
- - - : Electric Breakdown of Ionic Crystals, Phys. Rev., 61:200 (1942).
- - - : Theory of Dielectric Breakdown, Nature, 161:339 (1943).
Fuchs, K.: A Quantum Mechanical Investigation of the Cohesive Forces of Metallic
Copper, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A161:585 (1935). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : A Quantum Mechanical Calculation of the Elastic Constants of Monovalent

Metals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A163:622 (1936). '(Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : The Elastic Constants and the Specific Heat of the Alkali Metals, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), A167:444 (1936). (Sec. 10-4.)
- : The Conductivity of Thin Metallic Films According to the Electron Theory of
Metals, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 34:100 (1938).
- - - : Operator Calculus in the Electron Theory of Metals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A176:214 (1940).
- - - : Crystal Theory of Metals: Calculation of the Elastic Constants, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), AlS0:451 (1942). (Sec. 10-4.)
Fujioka, Y.: Zur Dispersionstheorie im metallischen Leiter, Z. Physik, 76:537 (1932).
(Sec. 5-5.)
Furth, R.: On the Theory of Finite Deformations of Elastic Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), AlS0:285 (1942). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : On the Equation of State for Solids, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A183:87 (1944).
(Sec. 8-6.)
Gerritsen, A. N., and W. J. de Haas: Measurements on the Hall Phenomenon in Pure
Bismuth Single Crystals at Low Temperatures, Physica, 7 :802 (1940). (Secs. 2-4,
3-11.)
- - - : See also H. B. G. Casimir.
Glocker, R., and K. Schafer: Atomfaktor-bestimmungen im Gebiet der anomalen
Dispersion, Z. Physik, 73:289 (1932). (Sec. 6-2.)
G( ldstein, L.: Sur le traitement relativiste du probleme de plusieurs corps, Com pt.
Rend., 189:984 (1929). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Distribution de potentiel et de charge dans une molecule diatomique, Compt.
Rend., 190:1502 (1930). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Principe d'exclusion et statistique intramoleculaire, Compt. Rend., 191:521
(1930). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Evaluation statistique de l'energie d'interaction de Coulomb dans une
molecule, Compt. Rend., 191:606 (1930). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Sur la distribution des electrons dans l'atome, Compt. Rend., 191 :766 (1930).
(Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Traitement relativiste de l'atome a plusieurs electrons, J. Phys. Radium,
1:271 (1930). (Sec. 11-7.)
Combas, P.: tlber die metallische Bindung, Z. Physik, 94:473 (1935). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - Zur Theorie der Alkalimetalle, Z. Physik, 96:687 (1935). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Zur Theorie der metallischen Bindung. I, Z. Physik, 99:729 (1936); II,
100:599 (1936); III, 104:81 (1937); IV, 104:592 (1937).
- - - and G. Peter: Berechnung der wichtigsten Konstanten des metallischen
Strontiums und Bariums, Z. Physik, 107:656 (1937). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Zur Bestimmung der Verteilung der Metallelektronen ·n Alkalimetallen, Z.
Physik, 108:509 (1938). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Erweiterung der statistischen Theorie des Atoms, Z. Physik, 121:523 (1943).
(Sec. 10-1.)
- - - : See also T. Neugebauer.
Gordon, W.: Der Comptoneffekt, nach der Schrodingerschen Theorie, Z. Physik,
40:ll7 (1927). (Sec. 1-5.)
Griineisen, E.: Das Verhaltnis der thermischen Ausdehnung zur spezifischen Warme
fester Elemente, Verhandl. Deut. Physik. Ges., 13:426 (1911). (Sec. 7-1.)
Gurney, R. W., and N. F. Mott: Trapped Electrons in Polar Crystals, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), 49:32 (1937).
- - - and---: Conduction in Polar Crystals. IV. On the Colour Centres in ,

Alkali Halide Crystals, Trans. Faraday Soc., 34:506 (1938).
- - - and---: The Theory of the Photolysis of Silver Bromide and the Photo-
graphic Latent Image, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A164:151 (1938).
Hagen, E., and H. Rubens: Uber Beziehungen des Reflexions-und Emissionsvermogens
der Metalle zu ihrem elektrischem Leitvermogen, Ann. Physik, 11:873 (1903).
(Sec. 5-1.)
Hall, E. H.: On a New Action of the Magnet on Electric Currents, Am. J. Math.,
2:287 (1879). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : A Dual Theory of Conduction in Metals, Cambridge, Mass., 1938. (Sec. 2-4.)
Halpern, 0.: Zur Theorie der Rontgenstrahlstreuung, I, II, Z. Physik, 30:153 (1924);
38:149 (1926).
- - - : Zur Reflexionspolarisation der Elektronenwellen, Z. Physik, 67:320 (1931).
- - - : Uber einem klassischen Effekt bei der Streuung von Strahlung, Z. Physik,
67:523 (1931).
- - - and M. H. Johnson: On the Magnetic Scattering of Neutrons, Phys. Rev.,
66:898 (1939).
Harding, J. M.: The Dynamical Theory of Electron Diffraction and Its Application to
Some Surface Problems, Phil. Mag., 23:271 (1937).
Hartree, D. R.: Atomic Structure and the Reflection of X-rays by Crystals, Phil. Mag.,
46:1091 (1923). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - : The Atomic Structure Factor and the Intensity of Reflection of X-rays in
Crystals, Phil. Mag., 60:289 (1925). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - : The Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in a Stratified Medium, Proc.
- - - : The Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in a Refracting Medium in a
Magnetic Field, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 27:143 (1932). (Sec. 5-3.)
- - - : The Dispersion Formula for an Ionized Medium, Nature, 132:929 (1933).
(Sec. 5-3.)
- - - : See also R. W. James.
Hasse, H.: The Calculation of the van der Waals Forces for Hydrogen and Helium at
Large lnteratomic Distances, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 27:66 (1931). (Sec.
A5-4.)
Havighurst, R. J.: The Distribution of Diffracting Power in Sodium Chloride, Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S., 11:502 (1925). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - : The Distribution of Diffracting Power in Certain Crystals, Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. U.S., 11:507 (1925). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - : Electron Distribution in the Atoms of Crystals. Sodium Chloride and
Lithium, Sodium, and Calcium Fluorides, Phys. Rev., 29:1 (1927). (Sec. 6-2.)
Heisenberg, W.: Uber die inkohiirente Streuung von Rontgenstrahlen, Physik. Z.,
32:737 (1931).
Hellmann, H.: Zur Quantenmechanik der chemischen Valenz, Z. Physik, 82:192
(1933). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Zur Rolle der kinetischen Elektronenenergie fiir die zwischenatomaren
Kriifte, Z. Physik, 86:180 (1933). (Secs. 10-1, 10-4.)
- - - : Uber die Natur der chemischen Kriifte, Acta Physicochim. URSS, 1:334
(I 934). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Ein kombiniertes N iiherungsverfahren zur Energieberechnung im Viele-
lektronenproblem, I, II, Acta Physicochim. U RSS, 1 :913 (1935); 4:225 (1936).
(Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and J. K. Syrkin: Zur Frage der anormal kleinen sterischen Faktoren in der
chemischen Kinetik, Acta Physicochim. U RSS, 2 :433 (1935). (Sec. 10-4.)
- : Calculation of Optical Terms with the Aid of Fermi's Statistical Potential,

Z. Physik, 94:361 (1935). (Sec. 10-1.)
- : Bemerkung zur Polarisierung von Elektronenwellen <lurch Streuung, Z.
Physik, 96:247 (1935).
- : Zur quantenmechanischen Berechnung der Polarisierbarkeit und der Dis-
persionskrafte, Acta Physicochim. URSS, 2:273 (1935). (Sec. A5-7.)
- - - : Bemerkungen zu der Arbeit von E. L. Hill, "The Virial Theorem and the
Theory of Fusion," Physik. Z. Sowjetunion, 9:522 (1936). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and W. Kassatotschkin: Metallic Binding According to the Combined Approxi-
mation Procedure, J. Chem. Phys., 4:324 (1936). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and - - - : Die metallische Bindung nach dem kombinierten Niiherungs-
verfahren, Acta Physicochim. U RSS, 6:23 (1936). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - : Discussion of London, "The General Theory of Molecular Forces," Trans.
Faraday Soc., 33:40 (1937).
Herring, C.: Compressibility of Lithium, Phys. Rev., 66:598 (1939). (Sec. 10-4.)
Herzfeld, K. F.: On Atomic Properties Which Make an Element a Metal, Phys. Rev.,
29:701 (1927).
- - - : Surface Heat of Charging, Phys. Rev., 36:248 (1930).
- - - and M. G. Mayer: On the Theory of Fusion, Phys. Rev., 46:995 (1934).
- - - : See also K. Fajans, R. H. Lyddane.
Hettich, A., and A. Schleide: Beitriige zur Methodik der Kristallklassenbestimmung,
Z. Physik, 60:249 (1928).
Hill, E. L.: The Virial Theorem and the Theory of Fusion, Physik. Z. Sowjetunion,
8:401 (1935). (Sec. 10-4.)
Hilsch, R., and R. W. Pohl: Einige Dispersionsfrequenzen der Alkalihalogenidekristalle
im Schumanngebiet, Z. Physik, 69:812 (1930). (Secs. 3-11, 8-4.)
Hirschfelder, J. 0.: Polarizability and Related Properties of Molecular Hydrogen and
the Diatomic Hydrogen Ion, J. Chem. Phys., 3:555 (1935).
Holtsmark, J.: Zur Theorie der Streuung von langsamen Elektronen, Z. Physik, 48:231
(1928).
- - - : Zur Theorie der Elektronenstreuung und der Stosserregung, Z. Physik, 62:485
(1928).
- - - : Zur Theorie der Kopplungsverbreiterung von Spektrallinien, Z. Physik,
64:761 (1929).
- - - : Der Ramsauereffekt in Argon, Z. Physik, 66:437 (1929).
- - - : Der, Wirkungsquerschnitt des Kryptons fur langsame Elektronen, Z. Physik,
66:49 (1930).
- - - : See also H. Faxen.
Honl, H.: Zur Dispersionstheorie der Riintgenstrahlen, Z. Physik, 84:1 (1933). (Sec.
6-6.)
- - - : Atomfaktor fur Riintgenstrahlen als Problem der Dispersionstheorie (K-
Schale), Ann. Physik, 18:625 (1933). (Sec. 6-6.)
Houston, W. V.: Die Elektronenemission kalter Metalle, Z. Physik, 47:33 (1928).
(Sec. 1-4.)
- - - : Elektrische Leitfahigkeit auf Grund der Wellenmechanik, Z. Physik, 48:449
(1928). (Sec. 1-4.)
- - - : The Temperature Dependence of Electron Emission under High Fields, Phys.
Rev., 33:361 (1929). (Sec. 1-4.)
- - - : Temperature Dependence of Electrical Conductivity, Phy.,. Rev., 34:279
(1929). (Secs. 1-4, l-5.)
- - - : The Structure of Soft X-ray Lines, Phys. Rev., 38:1797 (1931).
- - - : Surface Photoelectric Effect, Phys. Rev., 62:1047 (1937).
- - - : Conservation of Momentum in Electrical Conductivity, Phys. Rev., 66:1255

(1939).
- - - : Acceleration of Electrons in a Crystal Lattice, Phys. Rev., 67:184 (1940).
Houstoun, R. A.: On the Theory of the Absorption of X-rays, Phil. Mag., 2:512
(1926).
Huggins, M. L.: Lattice Energies, Equilibrium Distances, Compressibilities, and
Characteristic Frequencies of Alkali Halide Crystals, J. Chem. Phys., 6:143
(1937). (Sec. 10-4.)
Hund, F.: Versuch einer Ableitung der Gittertypen aus der Vorstellung des isotropen
polarisierbaren Ions, Z. Physik, 34:833 (1925). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Vergleich der elektrostatischen Energien einiger Ionengitter, Z. Physik,
94:11 (1935). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Theorie der Bewegung der Elektronen in nichtmetallischen Kristallgittern,
Z. Tech. Physik, 16:331 (1935); Physik. Z., 36:725 (1935).
- - - : Materie unter sehr hohen Drucken und Temperaturen, Ergeb. Exakt. Naturw.,
16:189 (1936). (Sec. 10-4.)
Huntington, H. B.: Contributions to the Shear Constants of Hexagonal Crystals,
Phys. Rev., 67:60 (1940). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : See also E. P. Wigner.
Hylleraas, E.: Die Anordnung der Atome in den tetragonalen Kristallen der einwer-
tigen Quecksilberhalogenide Hg2CI., Hg2Br2, Hg2J2. Berechnung der optischen
Doppelbrechung von Hg,Cl 2, Z. Physik, 36:859 (1926). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Bestimmung der Lage der Sauerstoffatome in Rutil und Anatas mit Hilfe der
optischen Doppelbrechung, Z. Krist., 66:469 (1927). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Gleichgewichte der Atome, Doppelbrechung und optisches Drehungsvermiigen
von /3-Quarz, Z. Physik, 44:871 (1927). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Wellenmechanische Berechnung der Gitterenergie und der Gitterkonstante des
Lithiumhydrids, Z. Physik, 63:771 (1930). (Sec. 10-4.)
Iona, M., Jr.: On the Distribution of Lattice Vibrations of the KCl Crystal, Phys.
Rev., 60:822 (1941). (Sec. 8-6.)
Jaffe, G.: Local Fields in Polarized Dielectrics, J. Chem. Phys., 8:879 (1940).
Jahn, H. A.: Elastic Constants of Anisotropic Solids, Group-theoretical Treatment,
Z. Krist., A98:191 (1937). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Diffuse Scattering of X-rays by Crystals. The Faxen-Waller Theory and the
Surfaces of Isodiffusion for Cubic Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A179:320
(1942). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Diffuse Scattering of X-rays by Crystals. II. Detailed Calculation of the
Surfaces of Isodiffusion for the (002), (112), (222), and (110) Reflections of
Sodium Single Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A180:476 (1942). (Sec.
8-1.)
- - - and K. Lonsdale: Diffuse Reflection of X-rays by Anisotropic and Isotropic
Solids, Phys. Rev., 61:375 (1942). (Sec. 8-1.)
James, H. M., and V. A. Johnson: Electron Distribution in ZnO Crystals, Phys. Rev.,
66:119 (1939).
James, R. W., and E. M. Firth: Heat-motions of Atoms in a Rock-salt Crystal, Proc.
- - - , I. Waller, and D. R. Hartree: An Investigation into the Existence of Zero-
point Energy in the Rock-salt Lattice by an X-ray Diffraction Method, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), A118:334 (1928). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - and G. W. Brindley: Numerical Calculations of Atomic Scattering Factors,
Phil. Mag., 12:81 (1931); Z. Krist., 79:470 (1931). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - : See also W. L. Bragg, I. Waller.
Jensen, H.: Die Ladungsverteilung in Ionen und die Gitterkonstante des Rubid-
iumbromids nach der statistischen Methode, Z. Physik, 11:722 (1932). (Sec.
10-1.)
----': t.lber einige fiir die Theorie der Druckverbreiterung von Spektrallinien
wichtige lntegrale, Z. Phyaik, 80:448 (1933).
_____..: t.lber die Giiltigkeit des Virialsatzes in der Thomas-Fermischen Theorie, Z.
Phyaik, 81:611 (1933). (Sec. 10-1.)
- - .-: Zur relativistischen Behandlung des Fermiatoms, Z. Physik, 82:794 (1933).
(Sec. 10-1.)
- - ·: t.lber den Austausch im Thomas-Fermi-Atom, Z. Physik, 89:713 (1932):
93:232 (1934-1935). (Sees. 10-1, 10-2.)
- - : -t.lber die Existenz negativer Ionen im Rahmen des statistischen Modells, Z.
Physik, 101:141 (1936). .(Sec. 10-1.)
- : Quantentheoretische Berechnung der Alkalihalogenidgitter; Z. Physik,
101:164 (1936). (Secs. 10-1, 10-4.)
- - : Eigenschwingungen eines Fermi-Gases und Anwendung auf die Blochsche
Bremsformel'fiir schnelle Teilchen, Z. Phyaik, 106:620 (1937). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - , G. Meyer-Gossler and H. Rohde: Zur physikalischen Deutung der kristal-
lographischen Ionenradien, Z. Phyaik, 110:277 (1938). (Secs. 10-1, 10-4.)
- · - : Das Druck-Dichte-Diagramm der Elemente bei hoheren Drucken am Tem-
peraturnullpunkt, Z. Phyaik, 111:373 (1938). (Secs. 10-1, 10-4.)
Johnson, V. A.: The Mathematical Expression of Charge Distribution in a Space
Lattice, Z. Krillt., 96:493 (1937).
- - - : The Effect of Valence Electrons and Electron Cloud Distortion upon Intensi-
ties in Electron and X-ray Scattering, Applied to Zinc Oxide, Phys. Rev., 67:613
(1940).
- - - : See also H. M. James.
Jones, H.: The Energy of Crystal Lattices, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A127:689 (1930).
(Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and C. Zener: A General Proof of Certain Fundamental Equations in the
Theory of Metallic Conduction, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A144:101 (1934).
(Sec. Al-1.)
- - - : The Theory of Alloys in the ,--phase, Proc; Roy. Soc. (London), A144:225
(1934). (Secs. 3-li, 10-4.)
- - - and C. Zener: The Theory of the Change in Resists.nee in a Magnetic Field,
Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A146:268 (1934). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : Applications of the ·Bloch Theory to the Study of Alloys and the Properties of
Bismuth, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A147:396 (1934). (Sec. 3-11.)
· - - : Application de la theorie electronique des metaux a l'etude des alliages, Helv.
Phys. Acta, 7 (suppl. 2):84 (1934). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : The Theory of the Galvanomagnetic Effects in Bismuth, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A166:653 ·(1936). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
---and N. F. Mott: The Electronic Specific Heat and X-ray Absorption of Metals,
and Some Other Properties Related to Electron Bands, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A162:49 (1937).
- - - : The Phase Boundaries in Binary Alloys. I. The Equilibrium between
Liquid and Solid Phases, Proc. Phys. Soc. (Lcmdon), 49:243 (1937).
Jordan, P.: Bemerkung iiber einen Zusammenhang zwischen Duanes Quantentheorie
der Interferenz und den de Broglieschen Wellen, Z. Physik, 37:376 (1926).
- - - : Zur Quantenmechanik der Gasentartung, Z. Physik, 44:473 (1927).
Kallmann, H., and H. Mark: t.lber die anomale Dispersion im Gebiet der Rontgen-
strahlen, N aturwiss., 14 :648 (1926).
- - - and---: "Ober die Dispersion und Streuung von Rontgenstrahlen, Ann.

Phy8ik, 82:585 (1927).
Kapitza, P.: The Change of Electrical Conductivity in Strong Magnetic Fields. I.
Experimental Results. II. The Analysis and Interpretation of the Experimental
Results, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A123:292, 342 (1929). (Sec. 3-10.)
Keesom, W. H., and B. Kurrelmeyer: The Specific Heat of Iron from 1.1 to 20.4°K,
PhyBica, 6:364 (1939). (Sec. 1-4.)
--·- and---: Specific Heats of Alloys of Nickel with Copper and with Iron ftom
1.2° to 20°K, Physica, 7:1003 (1940). (Sec. 1-4.)
Kellermann, E. W.: Theory of Vibrations of NaCl Lattice, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.
A238:513 (1940). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : On the Specific Heat of the Sodium Chloride Crystal, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A178:17 (1941). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
Kikuchi, S.: Diffraction of Cathode Rays by Mica, Proc. Imp. Acad. (Tokyo), 4:271,
275, 354, 471 (1928).
- - - : Zur Theorie des Comptoneffekts, Z. Physik, 68:8()3 (1931). (Sec. 1-5.)
- - - : See also S. Nishikawa.
Kirkwood, J. G.: Polarisierbarkeiten, Suszeptibilitii.ten, und van der Waalsche Krii.fte
der Atome mit mehreren Elektronen, Physik. Z., 33:57 (1932). (Sec. A5-7.)
- - - : See also W. L. Bade, J. C. Slater.
Kohler, M.: Dynamische Reflexion von Rontgenstrahlen an idealen, insbesondere
absorbierenden Kristallen, Ann. Physik, 18:265 (1933).
Konobejewski, S. T.: Die Anwendung der Quantentheorie der Metalle auf das
Phasengleichgewicht in Legierungen, Ann. Physik, 26:97 (1936).
Kramers, H. A.: On the Theory of X-ray Absorption and the Continuous X-ray
Spectrum, Phil. Mag., 46:836 (1923).
- - - : Die Dispersion und Absorption von Rontgenstrahlen, Physik. Z., 30:522
(1929).
- - - : See also R. de L. Kronig, L. S. Ornstein.
Krishnan, K. S., and A. B. Bhatia: Investigation on the Resistivities of Binary Alloys.
I. Order-Disorder Alloys of the CuZn Type under Equilibrium Conditions, Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. India, A14:153 (1944). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Electrical Resistance of Liquid Metals, Nature, 156:503
(1945).
Kroll, W.: Beitrii.ge zur Quantenmechanik der Dispersion und Magnetorotation in
Diracs Theorie des Elektrons, Z. Physik, 66:69 (1930). (Secs. 3-8; 5-5.)
- - - : Ein Beitrag zur Theorie der thermoelektrischen Effekte, Z. Physik, 77:322
(1932).
- - - : Zur Theorie der thermoelektrischen Effekten bei tiefen Temperaturen, Z.
Physik, 80:50 (1932).
- - - : Zur Theorie der Druckabhii.ngigkeit der elektrischen Leitfii.higkeit der Metalle,
Z. Physik, 85:398 (1933).
Kronig, R. de L.: Theory of Dispersion of X-rays, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 12:547 (1926).
(Sec. 5-5.) ·
- - - : Zur Theorie des Kerreffekts in Gasen. I. Lineare Effekte, Z. Physik, 45:458
(1927).
- - - : Zur Theorie des Faradayeffekts in Gasen. I. Lineare Effekte, z. Physik,
45:508 (1927).
- - - : Zur Theorie des Kerr- und Faradayeffekts in Gasen. II. Quadratische
Effekte, Z. Physik, 47:702 (1928).
- - - and H. A. Kramers: Zur Theorie der Absorption und Dispersion in den
Rontgenspektren, Z. Physik, 48:174 (1928). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : The Quantum Theory of Dispersion in Metallic Conductors, Proc. Roy. Soc.

(London), A124:409 (1929). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Zur Theorie der Feinstruktur in den Riintgenabsorptionsspektren, I, II, III,
Z. Physik, 70:317 (1931); 76:191, 468 (1932).
- - - : The Quantum Theory of Dispersion in Metallic Conductors, II, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), A133:255 (1931). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and H. J. Groenewold: Lorentz-Lorenz Correction in Metallic Conductors,
Koninkl. Akad. Amsterdam, Proc., 36:974 (1932). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Remarkable Optical Properties of the Alkali Metals, Nature, 132:601 (1933).
(Secs. 5-3, 5-5.)
- - - : Zur Deutung einer Feinstruktur in den optischen Absorptionskanten der
Metalle, Naturwiss., 22:11 (1934).
- - - and H. J. Groenewold: On the Lorentz-Lorenz Correction in Metallic Con-
ductors, Physica, 1:255 (1934). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : The Quantum Theory of Dispersion in Metallic Conductors, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A124:409 (1939). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and J. Korringa: Zur Theorie der Bremsung schneller geladener Teilchen in
metallischen Leitem, Physica, 10:406, 800 (1943). (Sec. 5-3.)
- - - , J. de Boer, and J. Korringa: On the Internal Constitution of the Earth,
Physica, 12:245 (1946). (Sec. 10-4.)
Landau, L.: Diamagnetismus der Metalle, Z. Physik, 64:629 (1930). (Secs. 3-2, 3-8.)
- - - : "Uber die Bewegung der Elektronen im Kristallgitter, Physik. Z. Sowjetunion,
3:664 (1933)'.
---and G. Rumer: tlber Schallabsorption in festen Kiirpern, Physik. Z. Sowjetunion,
11:18 (1937). (Sec. 3-9.)
Lande, A.: Das elektrostatische Potential des Flussspatsgitters, Verhandl. Deut.
Physik. Ges., 20:217 (1918). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Uber die Grosse der Atome, Z. Physik, 1:191 (1920). (Secs. 9-1, 10-4.)
- - - : Dynamik der raumlichen Atomstruktur, IV, Z. Physik, 2:83 (1920).
- - - : Zur Wellenmechanik der Kontinua und Elektrodynamik, Z. Physik, 44:768
(1927).
- - - : Zur Quantenmechanik der Gasentartung, Z. Physik, 74:780 (1932).
Landshoff, R.: Quantenmechanische Berechnung des Verlaufs der Gitterenergie des
NaCl Gitters im Abhangigkeit vom Gitterabstand, Z. Physik, 102:201 (1936).
(Secs. 9-6, 10-4.)
- - - : Quantum Mechanical Calculation of the Lattice Energy of NaCl, Ph1}s. Rev.,
52:246 (1937). (Secs. 9-6, 10-4.)
Laue, M.: See M. von Laue.
Laval, J.: Sur la diffusion des rayons x par un cristal, Compt. Rend., 207:169 (1938).
(Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Etude experimentale de la diffusion des rayons x par Jes cristaux, Bull. Soc.
Franc. Mineral., 62:137 (1939). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Diffusion des rayons x par !es cristaux en dehors des directions de reflexion
selective, Compt. Rend., 208:1512 (1939). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Diffusion des rayons x par !es cristaux, Bull. Soc. Franc. Mineral., 64:1 (1941).
(Sec. 8-1.)
Ledermann, W.: Density of Frequencies in Lattice Dynamics, Nature, 161 :197 (1943).
(Sec. 8-6-.)
Lennard-Jones, J.E.: On the Determination of Molecular Fields. I. From the Varia-
tion of the Viscosity of a Gas with Temperature, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A106:441 (1924). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : On the Determination of Molecular Fields. II. From the Equation of State

of a Gas, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A106:463 (1924). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : On the Determination of Molecular Fields. III. From Crystal Measurements
and Kinetic Theory Data, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A106:709 (1924). (Sec.10-4).
- - - : On the Atomic Fields of Helium and Neon, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A107:157
(1925). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and A. E. Ingham: ·On the Calculation of Certain Crystal Potential Constants
and on the Cubic Crystal of Least Potential Energy, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A107:636 (1925). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and P. A. Taylor: Theoretical Calculations of the Physical Properties of
Certain Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A109:476 (1925). (Sec. 10-4.)-
- - - : Forces between Atoms and Ions, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A109:584 (1925).
(Sec. 10-4.)
---and B. M. Dent: The Forces between Atoms and Ions,Proc. Roy. Soc. (London).
A112:230 (1926), (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and----: Some Theoretical Determinations of the Structure of Carbonate
Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A118:673 (1927). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and W. -R. Cook: Equation of State of a Gaseous Mixture, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A116:334 (1927). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and B. M. Dent: Some Theoretical Determinations of Crystal Parameters,
Phil. Mag., 3:1204 (1927). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and H. J. Woods: Distributitm of Electrons in a Metal, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A120:727 (1928). -
- - - and B. M. Dent: Changes in Lattice Spacing at a Crystal Boundary, Proc.
Roy. Soc. (London), A121:247 (1928). (Sec, 10-4.)
- - - : Some Recent Developments of Statistical Mechanics, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
40:320 (1928).
- - - : Dependence of Crystal Spacing upon Crystal Size, Z. Krist., 76:215 (1930).
(Sec. 10-4.)
- - : Cohesion, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 48:461 (1931). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Discussion on Graphite, Trans. Faraday Soc., 80:58 (1934). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - and A. F. Devonshire: Critical and Cooperative Phenomena. III. A Theory
of Melting and the Structure of Liquids, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A169:317
(1939). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and---: Critical and Cooperative Phenomena. IV. A Theory of Disorder
in Solids and Liquids, and the Procese of Melting, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A170:464 (1939). (Sec. 10·4.)
- - - : Some Theoretical Problems Concerning the Solid State, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), 62:38 (1940). (Sec. 10-4.)
Lensen, M. H., and A. Michels: Contribution to the Theory of the Influence of
Pressure on the Electrical Resistivity of Metals, Physica, 2:1091 (1935).
Lenz, W.: Uber die Anwendbarkeit der statistiechen Methode auf Ionengitter, Z.
Physik, 77:713 (1932). (Sec. 10-1.)
London, F.: Properties and Applications of Molecular Forces, Z. Physik. Chem.,
Bll:222 (1930). (Sec. A5-7.)
- - - : The General Theory of Molecular Forces, Trans. Faraday Soc., 88:8 (1937).
(Sec. A5-7.)
- - - : See also R. Eisenschitz.
Lonsdale, K., and H. Smith: An Experimental Study of Diffuse X-ray Reflection by
Single Crystals, P--roc. Roy. Soc. (London), A179:8 (1941). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - and - - - : Secondary Diffraction Effect on Laue Photographs of Diamond,
Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 63:529 (1941). (Sec. 8-1.)
- and---: X-ray Diffuse Reflections from Sodium and Lithium in Relation

to Elastic Anisotropy, Nature, 148:628 (1941). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - and---: X-ray Study of the Elastic Constants of Metals, Nature, 149:21
(1942). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : X-ray Study of Crystal Dynamics, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 54:314 (1942).
(Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Experimental Study of X-ray Scattering in Relation to Crystal Dynamics,
Rept. Progr. Phys., 9:256 (1942). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : See also M. Born, H. A. Jahn.
Lorentz, H. A.: Uber die Beziehung zwischen der Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit des
Lichtes und der Korperdichte, Wied. Ann., 9:641 (1880). (Sec. 4-1.)
- - - : Motion of Electrons in Metals, Proc. Amsterdam Acad., 438:588, 684 (1905).
(Sec. 1-1.)
Lorenz, L.: tiber die Refraktionskonstante, Wied. Ann., 11:10 (1880). (Sec. 4-1.)
Lowery, H., H. Wilkinson, and D. L. Smare: On the Optical Constants of Alloys of
the Copper-Zinc System, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 49:345 (1937). (Sec.
3-1.)
Lyddane, R.H., and K. F. Herzfeld: Lattice Vibrations in Polar Crystals, Phys. Rev.,
54:846 (1938). (Secs. 8-3, 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - , - - - , a n d R. G. Sachs: The Electric Fields in Vibrating Polar Crystals,
Phys. Rev., 68:1008 (1940). (Secs. 8-3, 8-6.)
- - - , R. G. Sachs, and E. Teller: On the Polar Vibrations of Alkali Halides, Phys.
Rev., 69:673 (1941). (Secs. 8-3, 8-6.)
Madelung, E.: Molekulare Eigenschwingungen, Gett. Nachr., 1909, p. 100, 1910, p. 43;
Physik. Z., 1:898 (1910). (Secs. 8-6, 10-4.)
- - - : Das elektrische Feld in Systemen von regelmii.ssig angeordneten Punktla-
dungen, Physik. Z., 19:524 (1918). (Secs. 9-1, 10-4.)
Margenau, H.: Zur Theorie der Molekularkriifte bei Dipolgasen, Z. Physik, 64:585
(1930).
- - - : Role of Quadrupole Forces in van der Waals Attractions, Phys. Rev., 38:747
(1931). (Sec. A5-7.)
- - : Van der Waals Forces, Rev. Mod. Phys., 11:1 (1939). (Sec. A5-7.)
- - - : Van der Waals Potential in Helium, Phys. Rev., 56:1000 (1939). (Secs.
A5-6, A5-7.)
- - - : The Forces between Hydrogen Molecules, Phys. Rev., 63:385 (1943). (Sec.
A5-7.)
Maurer, R.: The Photoelectric and Optical Properties of Sodium and Barium, Phys.
Rev., 57:653 (1940). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : The Electrical Properties of Semiconductors, J. Appl. Phys., 16:653 (1945).
May, A.: Lattice Energies and Transition Temperatures of Cesium Chloride and
Ammonium Chloride, Phys. Rev., 52:339 (1937). (Sec. 10-4.)
Mayer, J. E., and L. Helmholz: Die Gitterenergie der Alkalihalogenide und die
Elektronenaffinitiit der Halogene, Z. Physik, 75:19 (1932). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and M. M. Maltbie: Die Gitterenergien der Erdalkalioxyde und -Sulfide und
die Elektronenaffinitiit des Sauerstoffs und des Schwefels, Z. Physik, 75 :7 48
(1932). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Disi:ersion and Polarizability and the van der Waals Potential in the Alkali
Halides, J. Chem. Phys., 1 :270 (19::l3). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Lattice Energies of the Silver and Thallium Halides, J. Chem. Phys., 1:327
(1933). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and R. B. Levy: Lattice Energies of the Cuprous Halides, J. Chem. Phys.,
1 :647 (1933). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and M. G. Mayer: Polarizabilities of Ions from Spectra, Phy8. Rev., 43:605

(1933). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : See also W. E. Bleick, M. Born.
Michels, A., J. de Boer, and A. Bijl: Molecular Interaction and Polarizability, Physica,
4:981 (1937). (Sec. A5-7.)
Misra, R. D.: On the Stability of Crystal Lattices, II, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc.,
36:173 (1940). (Sec. 10-4.)
Mlllller, C.: Uber die hoheren Naherungen der Bornschen Stossmethode, Z. Physik,
66 :513 (1930).
- - - : Uber den Stoss zweier Teilchen unter Beriicksichtigung der Retardation der
Krafte, Z. Physik, 70:786 (1931).
Montroll, E. W.: Frequency Spectrum of Crystalline Solids, J. Chem. Phyi,., 10:218
(1942). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Frequency Spectrum of Crystalline Solids. II. General Theory and Applica-
tions to Simple Cubic Lattices, J. Chem. Phys., 11:481 (1943); 12:111 (1944).
(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and D. C. Peaslee: Frequency Spectrum of Crystalline Solids. III. Body-
centered Cubic Lattices, J. Chem. Phys., 12:98 (1944). (Sec. 8-6.)
Mott, N. F.: The Quantum Theory of Electronic Scattering by Helium, Proc. Cambridge
Phil. Soc., 25:304 (1928).
- - - : The Scattering of Fast Electrons by Atomic Nuclei, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A124:425 (1929).
- - - : The Scattering of Electrons by Atoms, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), Al27 :658
(1930).
- - - : The Polarization of Electrons by Double Scattering, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A135:429 (1932).
- - - : On the Influence of Radiation Forces on the Scattering of Electrons, Proc.
- - - : The Resistance of Liquid Metals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A146:465 (1934).
- - - : The Conductivity of Metals, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 46:680 (1934).
- - - and C. Zener: The Optical Properties of Metals, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc.,
30:249 (1934). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : The Electrical Conductivity of Transition Metals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A153:699 (1936).
- - - : The Resistance and Thermoelectric Properties of the Transition Metals,
- - - : Optical Constants of Copper-Nickel Alloys, Phil. Mag., 32:287 (1936). (Sec.
3-11.)
- - - : Thermal Properties of an Incompletely Degenerate Gas, Proc. Cambridge
Phil. Soc., 32:108 (1936).
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Fiz., 30:811 (1956). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - and---: Theory of Cyclotron Resonance in Metals, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor.
Fiz., 32:896 (1957). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - , M. I. Kaganov, and I. M. Lifshits: Thermal Conductivity and Thermoelectric
Phenomena in Metals in a Magnetic Field, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 32:1188
(1957).
- - - : Concerning the Synthesis of the Shape of the Fermi Surface in Metals, Zh.
Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 34:754 (1958).
- - - : Contribution to the Theory of Surface Impedance of Metals in Anomalous
Skin Effect, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 34:766 (1958). (Sec. 5-1.)
- - - : Quantum Theory-of High-frequency Conductivity of Metals, Zh. Eksperim. i
Teor. Fiz., 34:969 (1958). (Sec. 5-1.)
- - - : Quantum Oscillations of High-Frequency Surface Impedance, Zh. Eksperim. i
Teor. Fiz., 34:1158 (1959). (Sec. 5-1.)
- - - and E. A. Kaner: Cyclotron Resonance in Metals, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
6:113 (1958). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : The Quantum Theory of the High Frequency Surface Impedance of a Metal, ·
- - - and E. A. Kaner: The Experimental Study of Cyclotron Resonance in Metals,
- - - : A New Resonance Effect in Metals at High Frequencies, Zh. Eksperim. i
Teor. Fiz., 39:400 (1960).
- - - : Quantum Oscillations of Thermodynamic Properties for an Arbitrary Fermi
Surface, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 39:878 (1960).
- - - : On the Possibility of Determining the Correlation Function for a Fermi
Liquid in Metals, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 39:1138 (1960).
- - - and G. A. Begiashvili: The Width of the Cydotron Resonance Line in Semi-
metals and the Determination of the Correlation Function for Bismuth, Zh.
Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 42:640 (1962). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - and R. N. Gurzhi: The Electrical Conductivity of Thin Samples and the
Possibility of Determining the Mean Free Path of Electrons in Metals, Zh.
- - - : Combined Resonance in Metals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:568 (1962).
- - - : Quantization of Quasi-particles with a Periodic Dispersion Law in a Strong
Magnetic Field, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 44:980 (1963).
- - - : See also R. N. Gurzhi, M. I. Kaganov, E. A. Kaner, I. M. Lifshits.
Azuma, M.: Effect of the Lattice on the Internal Dielectric Constant, J. Phys. Soc.
Japan, 18:194 (1963). (Sec. 8-6.)
Babiskin, J.: Oscillatory Galvanomagnetic Properties of Bismuth Single Crystals
in Longitudinal Magnetic Fields, Phys. Rev., 107:981 (1957). (Secs. 2-4,
3-11.}
---and P. G. Siebenmann: New Type of Oscillatory Magnetoresistance in Metals,
Phys. Rev., 107:1245 (1957). (Sec. 3-10.)
- : See also M. C. Steele.
Bacon, G. E., and R. S. Pease: Neutron Diffraction Study of Potassium Dihydrogen
Phosphate by Fourier Synthesis, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A220 :397 (1953).
(Secs. 8-1, 8-5.)
- and K. Lonsdale: Neutron Diffraction, Rept. Progr. Phys., 16:1 (1953).
(Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Etudes de structures moleculaires par diffraction des neutrons, J. Chim. Phys.,
61:D65 (1954). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - and R. S. Pease: A Neutron Diffraction Study of the Ferroelectric Transition
in Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A230:359 (1955).
(Secs. 8-1, 8-5.)
- - - : See also R. S. Pease.
Bacon, M. D., P. Dean, and J. L. Martin: Defect Modes in Two-component Chains,
Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 80:174 (1962). (Secs. 8-6.)
- - - : See also P. Dean.
Bade, W. L.: Drude-model Calculation of Dispersion Forces. I. General Theory,
J. Chem. Phys., 27:1280 (1957). (Sec. A5-7.)
- - - and J. G. Kirkwood: Drude-model Calculation of Dispersion Forces. II.
The Linear Lattice, J. Chem. Phys., 27:1284 (1957). (Sec. A5-7.)
- - - : Drude-model Calculation of Dispersion Forces. III. The Fourth-order Con-
tribution, J. Chem. Phys., 28:282 (1958). (Sec. A5-7.)
Baer, W. S., and R. N. Dexter: Electron Cyclotron Resonance in CdS, Phys. Rev.,
136:Al388 (1964). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Bagguley, D. M. S., J. A. Powell, and D. J. Taylor: Cyclotron Resonance over a Wide
Temperature Range, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), A70:759 (1957). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - and J. Owen: Microwave Properties of Solids, Rept. Progr. Phys., 20:304
(1957).
- - - : Electron-Phonon Interactions, Nature, 186:586 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - , R. A. Stradling, and J. S. Whiting: Cyclotron Resonance over a Wide Tem-
perature Range. I. Germanium. II. Silicon, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A262:340,
365 (1961). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Cyclotron Resonance at 4 Mm Wavelength, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), 78:1078 (1961). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - , M. L.A. Robinson, and R. A. Stradling: Cyclotron Resonance in p-type InSb
at Millimeter Wavelengths, Phys. Letters, 6:143 (1963). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Bailin, M.: Transport in Metals: Effect of the Non-equilibrium Phonons, Phys. Rev.,
112:1587 (1958).
- - - : Exchange and Correlation Effects in Electron-Phonon Scattering in Normal
Metals, Phys. Rev., 117:974 (1960).
Bak, T. A., M. Goche, and F. Benin: On the Motion of a Particle Coupled to Lattice
Vibrations, Mol. Phys., 2:181 (1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
Baker, G. A., Jr., B. J. Hill, and R. J. McKee, Jr.: Study of the Perturbation Series for
the Ground State of a Many-fermion System, Phys. Rev., 136:A922 (1964).
(Sec. 11-7.)
Balazs, N. L.: Thermal Fluctuations in Conductors, Phys. Rev., 106:896 (1957).
- - - : Thomas-Fermi Theory of the Atom as a Solution of the Density-matrix
Hierarchy, Phys. Rev., 134:A841 (1964).
- - - and R. A. Mould: Thomas-Fermi Theory of Excited Atomic States, Phys. Rev.,
136:A1560 (1964).
Baichan, A. S., and H. G. Drickamer: Effect of High Pressure on the Resistance of
Iodine and Selenium, J. Chem. Phys., 34:1948 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also H. L. Suchan.
Balchanova, L.A., M. M. Bredov, and B. A. Kotov: Plasmon Spectra in In and InSb,

Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:86 (1962).
Balcombe, R. J.: The Magneto-resistance of Aluminum, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A275:113 (1963). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
Baldock, G. R.: Lattice Vibrations and Specific Heat of Graphite, Phil. Mag., 1:789
(1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
Balkanski, M.: On the Mechanism of Energy Transport, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
6:401 (1958).
- - - : Energy Transfer in Semi-conductors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:179 (1959).
- - - and W. Nazarewicz: Localized Vibrations Due to Boron and Lithium in the
Silicon Lattice, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 25:437 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also P. Moch.
Ballantine, L. E., and V. Heine: On a Theory of Liquid Metals, Phil. Mag., 9:617
(1964).
Ballinger, R. A., and N. H. March: Extended Thomas-Fermi Methods, Proc. Phys.
Soc. (London), A67:378 (1954). (Sec. 10-1.)
Baltensperger, W.: On Conduction in Impurity Bands, Phil. Mag., 44:1355 (1953).
Band, W.: New Look at the Theory of Electron Phonon Resonance, Am. J. Phys.,
27 :397 (1959); II, 27:471 (1959).
Baraff, G. A.: Maximum Anisotropy Approximation for Calculating Electron Distribu-
tions: Application to High Field Transport in Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 133:A26
(1964).
- - - : Spectral Shape and Attenuation Length for Hot Electrons in the Presence of
Finite Absorption, Phys. Rev., 135:A528 (1964).
- - - : Magnetic Energy Levels in the Bismuth Conduction Band, Phys. Rev.,
137:A842 (1965). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Baramidze, G. A., G. E. Gurgenishvili, and G. R. Khutsishvili: The Quantum Theory
of Cyclotron Resonance in a Degenerate Band, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:2958 (1962).
(Sec. 3-8.)
Baranskii, P. I., and P. M. Kevilo: Investigation of the Symmetry Properties of Iso-
energy Surfaces in n-type Germanium by Means of Hall Measurements, Fiz.
Tverd. Tela, 6:54 (1964). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - , R. M. Vinetskii, and P. M. Kurilo: Anisotropy of the Hall Coefficient in
p-type Germanium, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1048 (1964). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Barber, S. W., and B. Martin: A Heat-capacity Function with Velocity Dispersion for
Isotropic Solids, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 9:198 (1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
Barcus, L. C., A. Perlmutter, and J. Callaway: Effective Mass of Electrons in Gallium
Arsenide, Phys. Rev., 111:167 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
Bardeen, J.: Surface States and Rectification at a Metal Semi-conductor Contact,
Phys. Rev., 71:717 (1947).
- - - and W. Shockley: Scattering of Electrons in Crystals in the Presence of Large
Electric Fields, Phys. Rev., 80:69 (1950).
- - - and---: Deformation Potentials and Mobilities in Non-polar Crystals,
Phys. Rev., 80:72 (1950). (Sec. 2-3.)
- - - : Interaction between Electrons and Lattice Vibrations, Can. J. Phys., 34:1171
(1956).
- - - , R. E. Coovert, S. R. Morrison, J. R. Schrieffer, and R. Sun: Surface Con-
ductance and the Field Effect of Germanium, Phys. Rev., 104:47 (1956). (SPe.
3-11.)
- - - : Methods for Determination of Distribution of Surface States in Ge and Si,
Semicond. Phosphors, 1958, p. 81. (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Trends in Semiconductor Research, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:2, 13 (1959).
- - - : See also D. C. Mattis.

Barker, A. S., Jr.: Infrared Lattice Vibrations in Calcium Tungstate and Calcium
Molybdate, Phys. Rev., 136:A742 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and J. J. Hopfield: Coupled-optical-phonon-mode Theory of the Infrared Dis-
persion in BaTiO,, SrTiO 3, and KTaO,, Phys. Rev., 136:A1732 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Transverse and Longitudinal Optic Mode Study in MgF2 and ZnF2, Phys.
Rev., 136:A1290 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
Barnes, G. A., and P. C. Banbury: Electrical Properties of Clean Germanium Surfaces,
Baroody, E. M.: Excitation of Electrons in Metals by Primary Electrons, Phys. Rev.,
101:1679 (1956).
Barrett, E. B., R. J<'. Whitman, and 8. J. Tetenbaum: Nonlinear Interaction of an
Electromagnetic Wave with a Plasma Layer in the Presence of a Static Magnetic
Field, Phys. Rev., 136:A369 (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
Barrett, J. H.: Dielectric Constant in Perovskite Type Crystals, Phys. Rev., 86:118
(1952). (Sec. 8-5.)
Barrie, R.: Electronic Conduction in Solids with Spherically Symmetric Band Struc-
ture, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B69:553 (1956).
- - - : Influence of Exchange and Correlation on Electron Transport in Metals,
Phys. Rev., 106:1581 (1956).
- - - : Magnetoresistance in Strong Magnetic Fields, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
B70:1008 (1957). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : See also C. Hilsum.
Barron, T. H. K.: Gruneisen Parameters for the Equation of State of Solids, Ann.
Phys. (N.Y.), 1:77 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and J. A. Morrison: Properties of Alkali Balide Crystals at Low Temperatures,
Phys. Rev., 116:1439 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : The Thermal Properties of the Alkali Halide Crystals. III.
The Inversion of the Heat Capacity, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A266:427 (1960).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Long-wave Optical Vibrations in Simple Ionic Crystals, Phys. Rev., 123:1995
(1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and M. L. Klein: Thermal and Elastic Properties of Crystals at Low Tempera-
tures, Phys. Rev., 127:1997 (1962). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - a n d - - - : On the Strain Dependence of the Vibrational Frequency Distribu-
tion of Simple Lattices, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 82:161 (1963). (Sec. 8-6.)
Bass, F. G., and I. M. Tsidilkovskii: The Theory of Isothermal Galvano- and Thermo-
ma!!;netic Phenomena in Semiconductors, Zh. Eksperim. i Tear. Fiz., 31 :672
(1956). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - and M. I. Kaganov: Concerning the Saturation of the Hall "Constant" in
Semiconductors Located in Strong Magnetic Fields, Zh. Eksperim. i 'l'eor. Fiz.,
32:1233 (1957). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - , - - - , a n d V. V. Slezov: On the Theory of Galvanomagnetic Phenomena in
Metals, Fiz. Metal. i Metalloved., 6:406 (1957). (Sec. 2-4.)
Bassani, F., J. Robinson, B. Goodman, and J. R. Schrieffer: Projected Wave-field
Approach to Many-electron Problem in Solids, Phys. Rev., 127:1969 (1962).
(Sec. 11-7.)
- - - , R. 8. Knox, and V{. B. Fowler: Bnn<l Structure and Electronic Properties of
AgCl and AgBr, Phys. Rev., 137:A1217 (1965). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also D. Brust, J.E. Robinson.
Bate, R. T., R. K. Willardson, and A. C. Beer: Transverse Magnetoresistance and
Hall Effect inn-type InSb, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 9:119 (1959). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Batterman, B. W.: X-ray Measurement of the Distribution of Electrons in Iron and

Copper, Phys. Rev. Letters, 2:47 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : X-ray Measurement of the Atomic Scattering Factor of Iron, Phys. Rev.,
116:81 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , D. R. Chipman, and J. J. De Marco: Absolute Measurement of the Atomic
Scattering Factors of Iron, Copper, and Aluminum, Phys. Rev., 122:68 (1961).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Effect of Thermal Vibrations on Diffraction from Perfect Crystals, II.
Bragg Case of Reflection, Phys. Rev., 127:686 (1962). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - and D.R. Chipman: Vibrational Amplitudes in Ge and Si, Phys. Rev., 127:690
(1962). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Effect of Dynamical Diffraction in X-ray Fluorescence Scattering, Phys. Rev.,
133:A759 (1964).
- - - : Redetermination of the Temperature Dependence of X-rays Anomalously
Transmitted through Germanium, Phys. Rev., 134:A1354 (1964).
- - - and H. Cole: Dynamical Diffraction of X-rays by Perfect Crystals, Rev. Mod.
Phys., 36:681 (1964). (Sec. 6-3.)
Bauer, E., and T. Y. Wu: Thermal Expansion of a Linear Chain, Phys. Rev., 104:914
(1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Coupling of Optic and Acoustic Modes of Vibration in Crystals, J. Chem. Phys.,
26:1440 (1957). Sec. 8-6.
Baym, G.: Direct Calculation of Electronic Properties of Metals from Neutron
Scattering Data, Phys. Rev., 136:Al691 (1964).
Bazarov, I. P.: The Theory of a Crystal, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 140:85 (1961).
Bazhulin, P. A., T. P. Myasnikova, and A. V. Rakov: Investigation of the Vibration
Spectra of Certain Ferroelectrics by the Method of Combination Scattering of
Light, Fiz. 1'verd. Tela, 6:1783 (1963). (Sec. 8-5.)
Beal, M. T., and J. Friedel: Relation between Local Order and Interference Effects in
Electrical Resistivity for Metallic Alloys, Phys. Rev., 136:A466 (1964).
Beattie, A. R., and P. T. Landsberg: Auger Effect in Semiconductors, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A249:16 (1959).
- - - and - - - : One-dimensional Overlap Functions and their Application to
Auger Recombination in Semiconductors, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A268:486
(1960).
- - - : See also P. T. Landsberg.
Beattie, J. R.: The Anomalous Skin Effect and the Infrared Properties of Silver and
Aluminum, Physica, 23 :898 (1957). (Secs. 3-11, 5-1.)
Beck, A., J P. Jan, W. B. Pearson, and I. M. Templeton: Experimental Determination
of Fermi Surfaces: An Extension to Metallic Compounds and Alloys, Phil. Mag.,
8:351 (1963).
Becker, J. H., and W.R. Hosler: Multiple-band Conduction inn-type Rutile (TiO 2 ),
Phys. Rev., 137:Al872 (1965). (Sec. 3-11.)
Becker, W. M., A. K. Ramdas, and H. Y. Fan: Energy Band Structure of Gallium
Antimonide, J. Appl. Phys., 32 (suppl.): 2094 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
Beeby, J. L., and S. F. Edwards: The Electronic Structure of Liquid Insulators,
- - - : The Electronic Structure of Disordered Systems, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A279:82 (1964).
- - - : Electronic Structure of Alloys, Phys. Rev., 136:Al30 (1964).
Beer, A. C., J. A. Armstrong, and I. N. Greenberg: Evaluation of Transport Integrals
for Mixed Scattering and Application to Galvanomagnetic Effect, Phys. Rev.,
107 :1506 (1957). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - and R. K. Willardson: Hall and Transverse Magnetoresistance Effects for
Warped Bands and Mixed Scattering, Phys. Rev., 110:1386 (1958). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : Fine Structure in the Hall Coefficient, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:507 (1959).
(Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : See also R. T. Bate..
Begbie, G. H., and M. Born: Thermal Scattering of X-rays by Crystals, Dynamical
Foundation, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A188:179 (1947). (Sec. 8-1.}
- - - : Thermal Scattering of X-rays by Crystals. II. The Thermal Scattering of
the Face-centered Cubic and the Close-packed' Hexagonal Lattices, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), A188:189 (1947). Sec. 8-1.
Begiashvili, G. A.: Theory of Cyclotron Resonance, Fiz. Metal. i M etalloved., 11 :954
(1961). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : See also M. Ya. Azbel.
Bell, R. L., and C. A. Hogarth: Anisotropic Diffusion Lengths in Germanium and
Silicon Crystals Containing Parallel Arrays of Edge Dislocations, J. Electron.
Control, 3:455 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
Bellemans, A., and M. de Leener: Ground-state Energy of an Electron Gas in a
· Lattice of Positive Point Charges, Phys. Rev. Letters, 6:603 (1961). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : See also M. de Leener.
Bellman, R.: Dynamics of a Disordered Linear Chain, Phys. Rev., 101:19 (1956).
(Sec. 8-6.)
Bemski, G.: Recombination in Semiconductors, Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs., 46:990 (1958).
- - - and B. Szymanski: Observations of Oscillatory Magnetoresistance in InAs at
Microwave Frequencies, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 17:335 (1960). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
Benedek, G. B., W. Paul, and H. Brooks: Conductivity, Hall Effect, and Magneto-
resistance inn-type Germanium, and Their Dependence on Pressure, Phys. Rev.,
100:1129 (1955). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : Deduction of the Volume Dependence of the Cohesive Energy of Solids from
Shock-wave Compression Measurements, Phys. Rev., 114:467 (1959). (Sec.
10-4.)
Benneman, K. H.: T-matrix Approach to Electron Distribution in Crystals, Phys.
Rev., 133:A1045 (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
Bennett, A. I., and L. P. Hunter: Pulse Measurement of the Inverse Voltage Character-
istic of Germanium Point Contacts, Phys. Rev., 81:152 (1951).
Bennett, H. S., and E. A. Stern: Faraday Effect in Solids, Phys. Rev., 137:A448 (1965).
(Sec. 3-8.)
Benoit a la Guillaume, C., and J. Cernogora: Photoconductivite extrinseque avec
emission de phonons dans la germanium, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:383 (1963).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and C. Tric: Etude optique de semiconducteurs III-V propres a la realisation
de laseurs, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 25:837 (1964). (Sec. 5-5.)
Benson, G. C., and R. McIntosh: Some Calculations of the Surface Energy of Magne-
sium Oxide, Can. J. Chem., 33:1677 (1956). (Sec. 10-4.)
---,H.P. Schreiber, and D. Paterson: An Examination of Verwey's Model for the
Lattice Structure of the Free Surface of Alkali Halide Crystals, Can. J. Phys.,
34:265 (1956). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and T. A. Claxton: Estimation of the Surface Energy of Inert Gas Crystals,
Benthem, C. W.: On the Possible Influence of Electron Interaction on the Reflectivity
of Metals, Appl. Sci. Res., B7:275 (1958). (Sec. 5-5.)
Berg, W. T., and J. A. Morrison: The Thermal Properties of Alkali Halide Crystals.
I. The Heat Capacity of Potassium Chloride, Potassium Bromide, Potassium
Iodide and Sodium Iodide between 2.8 and 270°K. II. Analysis of Experimental
Results, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A242:467, 478 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
Berghuis, J., J. Haanappel, M. Potters, B. 0. Loopstra, C.H. MacGillavry, and A. L.
Veenendaal: New Calculations of Atomic Scattering Factors, Acta Cryst., 8:478
(1955). (Sec. 6-2.)
Berglund, C. N., and W. E. Spicer: Photoemission Studies of Copper and Silver-
Theory, Phys. Rev., 136:A1030 (1964). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - and---: Photoemission Studies of Copper and Silver: Experiment, Phys.
Rev., 136:Al044 (1964). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : See also W. E. Spicer.
Berlincourt, T. G.: De Haas-van Alphen Effect in Cadmium, Phys. Rev., 94:1172
(1954). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - and M. C. Steele: Temperature-dependent de Haas-van Alphen Parameters
in Zinc, Phys. Rev., 95:1421 (1954). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - and---: Oscillatory Hall Effect, Magnetoresistance, and Magnetic Suscepti-
bility of a Graphite Single Crystal, Phys. Rev., 98:956 (1955). (Secs. 2-4, 3-10,
3-11.)
- - - : De Haas-van Alphen Effect in Arsenic, Phys. Rev., 99:1716 (1955). (Secs.
3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : Hall Effect, Magnetoresistance, and Size Effects in Copper, Phys. Rev.,
112:381 (1958). (Secs. 2-4, 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : See also W. C. Overton, Jr., A. C. Thorsen.
Berman, R.: The Thermal Conductivity of Dielectric Solids at Low Temperatures,
Adv. Phys., 2:103 (1953).
- - - , E. L. Foster, and J. M. Ziman: The Thermal Conductivity of Diefectric
Crystals: The Effect of Isotopes, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A237:344 (1956).
- - - , P. T. Nettley, F. W. Sheard, A. N. Spencer, R. W. H. Stevenson, and J. M.
Ziman: The Effect of Point Imperfections on Lattice Conduction in Solids, Proc.
Roy. Soc. (London), A253:403 (1959).
Bernard, W., H. Roth, and W. D. Straub: Galvanomagnetic Studies of Degenerate
Gallium-doped Germanium: Nonparabolic Energy Bands with Variable Warping,
Phys. Rev., 132:33 (1963). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , - - - , and J. E. Mulhern, Jr.: De Haas-van Alphen Oscillations in
the Magnetoresistance of Heavily Doped Germanium, Phys. Rev., 135:A1386
(1964). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
Bernstein, I. B.: Waves in a Plasma in a Magnetic Field, Phys. Rev., 109:10 (1958).
Berz, F.: On the Theory of Plasma Waves, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B69:939 (1956).
(Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : On the Theory of Surface Recombination in Semiconductors for Large Poten-
tial Differences between Surface and Bulk, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 71 :275
(1958).
Bess, L.: Possible Mechanism for Radiationless Recombinations in Semiconductors,
Phys. Rev., 105:1469 (1957).
Best, P. E.: The Characteristic Electron Energy Loss Spectra of Some Alkali Halides,
- - - : Characteristic Energy Losses in Compounds, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
80:1308 (1962). (Sec. 5-3.)
- - - : See also J. D. Robins.
Betts, D. D., A. B. Bhatia, and M. Wyman: Houston's Method and Its Application
to the Calculation of Cha.ractcristic Temperatures of Cubic Crystals, Phys. Rev.,
104:37 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - , - - - , and G. K. Horton: Debye Characteristic Temperatures of Certain

Noncubic Crystals, Phys. Rev., 104:43 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
Bezuglyi, P.A., and A. A. Galkin,: Cyclotron Resonance in Tin at 9300 Mc/S, Zh.
Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz. 33:1076 (1957). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - and---: Cyclotron Resonance in Lead at 8900 Mc/8, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor.
Fiz. 34:236 (1958). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - and---: Cyclotron Resonance in Indium at a Frequency of 9300 Mc/8,
- - - , - - - , and A. I. Pushkin: Magnetoacoustic Oscillations and the Fermi
Surface in Aluminum, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 44:71 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Bhatia, M. S., and G. Speisman: Correlation Energy of an Electron Gas at Metallic
Densities, Phys. Rev., 136:A362 (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
Bienenstock, A.: A Calculation of the Thermal Expansion of Germanium, Phil. Mag.,
9:755 (1964).
Bijvoet, J.M., and K. Lonsdale: The Ionic State of LiH, Phil. Mag., 44:204 (1953).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Bingen, R.: On the Propagation of Acoustic Waves in Crystals, Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.
Classe Sci., 41:741 (1955). (Sec. 8-6.)
Binnie, W. P.: Calculation of the Mean Debye Temperature of Cubic Crystals, Phys.
Rev., 103:579 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
Biondi, M. A., and J. A. Rayne: Band Structure of Noble Metal Alloys: Optical
Absorption in a-brasses at 4.2°K, Phys. Rev., 116:1522 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
Biot, M. A.: General Theorems on the Equivalence of Group Velocity and Energy
Transport, Phys. Rev., 106:1129 (1957).
Bir, G. L., and G. E. Pikus: Theory of the Deformation Potential for Semiconductors
with a Complex Band, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:2287 (1960).
- - - and - - - : Effect of Deformation on the Energy Spectrum and Electrical
Properties of Semiconductors of the InSb Type, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:3050 (1961).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : E. Normantas, and G. E. Pikus: Galvanomagnetic Effects in Semiconductors
with Degenerate Zones, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:1180 (1962). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - and G. E. Pikus: Band Structure and Piezoresistance Effects in PbTe and
PbSe, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:2243 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also G. E. Pikus.
Birch, J. A., W.R. G. Kemp, and P. G. Klemens: The Lattice Thermal Conductivity
of a Gold-Platinum Alloy, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 71:843 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
Birgeneau, R. J., J. Cordes, G. Dolling, and A. D. B. Woods: Normal Modes of
Vibration in Nickel, Phys. Rev., 136:Al359 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
Birman, J. L.: Some Selection Rules for Band-Band Transition in Wurtzite Structure,
Phys. Rev., 114:1490 (1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Electronic Structure of the Centers in ZnS, Phys. Rev., 121:144 (1961).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Space Group Selection Rules: Diamond and Zincbleude, Phys. Rev., 127:1093
(1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
Bjork, R. L.: Impurity-induced Localized Modes of Lattice Vibration in a Diatomic
Chain, Phys. Rev., 106:456 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
Blackman, M.: On O Values in the Resistance of Metals, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
A64:681 (1951).
- - - : Diffraction from a Bent Crystal, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B64:625 (Hl.51 ).
- - - : Diffraction from a Curved Linear Lattice, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B64:631
(1951).
- - - : On the Calculation of Characteristic Temperatures from the Elastic Constants,

Phil. Mag., 42:1441 (1951). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : On the Limiting Vibrational Frequencies of an Ionic Lattice, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), A66:394 (1952). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : The Specific Heat of Solids, "Handbuch der Physik," vol. 7-1, Springer-
Veriag OHG, Berlin, 1955. (Sec. 8-6.)
- - : A Note on the Debye-Waller Theory, Acta Cryst., 9:734 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.}
- - - : On the Thermal Expansion of Solids, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B70:827
(1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : On Negative Volume Expansion Coefficients, Phil. Mag., 3:831 (1958). (Sec.
8-6.)
- - - : On the Lattice Theory of Expansiori, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 74:17 {1959).
(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : On the Relation between the Finite Strain Approach and the Lattice Theory
of Thermal Expansion, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 84:371 (1964).
- - - : See also M. Smollett;
Blanc, J., and L. R. Weisbert: Energy-level Model for High-resistivity Gallium
Arsenide, Nature, 192:155 (1961).
Blatt, F. J.: Effect of Point Imperfections on the Electrical Properties of Copper. I.
Conductivity. II. Thermoelectric Power, Phys. Rev., 99:1708 (1955); 100:666
(1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Influence of Exchange and Correlation on Electron Transport in Metals,
Phys. Rev., 99:1735 (1955).
- - - : Ultrasonic Attenuation in Germanium and Silicon, Phys. Rev., 106:1118
(1957). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : Hall and Drift Mobilities; Their Ratio and Temperature Dependence in
Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 106:1203 (1957). (Sec. 2-4.)
- ~ - : Residual Resistivity of Copper and Silver Alloys: Dependence on Periodic
Table, Phys. Rev., 108:285 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Residual Resistivity of Gold Alloys: Dependence on Periodic Table, Phys.
Rev., 108:1204 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and R. H. Kropschot: Thermoelectric Power of Dilute Copper Alloys, Phys.
Rev., 118:480 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Thermoelectric Power in Metals at Normal Temperatures-Reply to a Query,
- - - : See also E. Burstein.
Bline, R.: On the Isotopic Effects in the Ferroelectric Behavior of Crystals with Short
Hydrogen Bonds, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 13:204 (1960). (Sec. 8-5.)
Bloch, C., and A. Messiah: Limites de la polarisation d' un systeme atomique soumis
a un champ radioelectrique, J. Phys. Radium, 16:785 (1955).
- - - and C. de Dominicis: Un developpement du potentiel de Gibbs d'un systeme
quantique compose d'un grand nombre de particules, I, II, Nucl. Phys., 7:459
(1958); 10:181 (1959). (Sec. 11-7.)
Blount, E. I., J. Callaway, M. Cohen, W. Dumke, and J. Phillips: Infrared Absorption
of Indium Antimonide, Phys. Rev., 101:563 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : IDtrasonic Attenuation by Electrons in Metals, Phys. Rev., 114:418 (1959).
(Sec. 3-9.)
- - - : Exclusion Fact.ors in Transport Theory, Phys. Rev., 116:1365 (1959).
--·-:Direct Observation of Open Magnetic Orbits, Phys. Rev. Letters, 4:114 (1960).
(Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : Bloch Electrons in Magnetic Field, Phys. Rev., 126:1636 (1962).
- - - : Formalisms of Band Theory, Solid State Phys., 13:306 (1962).
- : See also E. N. Adams, M. H. Cohen.

Blue, M. D.: Hall Coefficients of Dilute Copper Alloys, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 11:31
(1959). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - : Optical Absorption in HgTe and HgCdTe, Phys. Rev., 134:A226 (1964).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Blume, M., A. J. Freeman, and R. E. Watson: Neutron Magnetic Form Factors and
X-ray Atomic Scattering Factors for Rare-earth Ions, J. Chem. Phys., 37 :1245
(1962).
Boardman, A. D., and N. H. March: Theory of Specific Heats of Dilute Alloys,
J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 26:1435 (1964).
Boccara, N.: Champ de forces du milieu cristallin et matrice de Fourier des halogenures
alcalins, Compt. Rend., 261:2505 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
Bogolyubov, N. N., and S. V. Tyablikov: Retarded and Accelerated Green's Functions
in Statistical Physics, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 126:53 (1959).
Bogomolov, V. N., and V. P. Zhuze: Anisotropy of the Hall Effect in Partially-
reduced Single-crystal Rutile (TiO 2), Fiz. 1'verd. 1'ela, 6:3285 (1963). (Secs.
2-4, 3-11.)
Bogomolov, Yu. V.: Effective Fields in Crystals, Fiz. 1'verd. 1'ela, 2:297 (1960).
Bogoroditskii, N. P., I. A. Mityureva, and I. D. Fridberg: Effect of the Covalent
Bonds in Titanium Dioxide on Its Dielectric Constant, Fiz. 1'verd. 1'ela, 4:2393
(1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and I. D. Fridberg: Contribution to the Question of Electrical Conductivity
in Solid Dielectrics, Fiz. 1'verd. 1'ela, 6:680 (1964).
Bohm, D., and E. P. Gross: Theory of Plasma Oscillations. A. Origin of Medium-like
Behavior. B. Excitation and Damping of Oscillations, Phys. Rev., 76:1851, 1864
(1949). (Secs. 5-3, 11-7.)
- - - and D. Pines: Screening of Electronic Interactions in a Metal, Phys. Rev.,
80:903 (1950). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
- - - a n d - - - : Collective Description of Electron Interactions. I. Magnetic Inter-
actions, Phys. Rev., 82:625 (1951). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
- - - : Application of Collective Treatment of Electron and Ion Vibrations to
Theories of Conductivity and Superconductivity, Phys. Rev., 84:836 (1951).
(Secs. 11-6, 11-7.) ·
- - - and D. Pines: Collective Description of Electron Interactions. III. Coulomb
Interactions in a Degenerate Electron Gas, Phys. Rev., 92:609 (1953). (Secs.
11-6, 11-7.)
- - - , K. Huang, and D. Pines: Role of Subsidiary Conditions in the Collective
Description of Electron Interactions, Phys. Rev., 107:71 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
---and G. Carmi: Separation of Motions of Many-body Systems into Dynamically
Independent Parts by Projection onto Equilibrium Varieties in Phase Space,
I, Phys. Rev., 133:A319 (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : See also G. Carmi, D. Pines.
Bohrn, H. V.: Some Fermi Surface Measurements in Silver, "The Fermi Surface,"
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1960, p. 245. (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and V. J. Easterling: Magnetoacoustic Measurements in the Noble Metals at
350 Mc/S, Phys. Rev., 128:1021 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also V. J. Easterling, G. N. Kamm, R. W. Morse.
Boiko, I. I., and E. I. Rashba, Properties of Semiconductors with a Brillouin Zone
Extremum Loop, I, II, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:1224, 1874 (1960).
- - - : The Optical Properties of Semiconductors with Extremum Loops, Fiz. Tverd.
1'ela, 3:1950 (1961).
- - - : See also E. I. Rashba.
Boitsov, V. G.: Determination of Force Constants and Calculation of the Vibrational

Spectrum of Tellurium, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1822 (1963). (Sec. 8-6.)
Bolton, H. C., and J. W. Heaton: The Electronic Distribution in Diamond and the
Intensities of X-ray Reflections, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 78:239 (1961). (Sec.
3-11.)
- - - , W. Fawcett, and I. D. C. Gurney: The Electric Fields in Crystals: The
Refractivity of Rutile, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 80:199 (1962). (Secs. 3-11,
5-5.)
Bonch-Bruevich, V. L.: Theory of Interaction between Electron Gas and Crystal
Lattice Oscillations, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 30:342 (1956). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Statistics of Electrons and Holes in a Homopolar Semiconductor, Taking into
Account Their Interaction with the Lattice Vibrations, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz.,
31:254 (1956). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Remarks on the Theory of Electron Plasma in Semiconductors, Zh. Eksperim.
i Teor. Fiz., 32:1092 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : On the Theory of the Electron Plasma in a Solid, Fiz. Metal. i M etalloved.,
4:546 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : On the Theory of the Field Effect, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz.,28:70 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Application of the Green Function Method to the Multi-electron Problem
in a Solid, Fiz. Metal. i Metalloved., 6:590 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Application of Renormalization Group to the Coulomb Problem in a Solid,
Fiz. Metal. i Metalloved., 6:769 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and V. B. Glasko: The Electron Energy Spectrum in a Non-ideal Metal
Lattice, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 124:1015 (1959). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - · The Relation between the Electron-Phonon and Electron-Impurity Inter-
action Coefficients in Metals, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 124:1233 (1959). (Sec.
11-7.)
- - - : Accurate Theory of Recombination in· a Plasma, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1:1076
(1959). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Impurity Band Theory, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1:1213 (1959). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and Sh. M. Kogan: On the Theory of Electron Plasmas in Semiconductors,
- - - and Yu. V. Gulyaev: On the Theory of Collision Recombination in Semi-
conductors, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:465 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and A. G. Mironov: On the Theory of Electron Plasma in a Magnetic Field,
- - - : Concerning the Dependence of Phonon Spectra on the Concentration of
Free Charge Carriers, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:1857 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and Sh. M. Kogan: On the Theory of the Temperature Green's Functions,
Ann. Phys. (N. Y.), 9:125 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Problems of the Many-electron Theory of Semiconductors, Semicond. Phys.
Conj., Prague, 1960, Academic Press Inc., New York, 1961, p. 28. (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Characteristics of the Many-electron System Energy Spectrum in a Semi-
conductor, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:768 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and A. G. Mironov: Influence of an Impurity on the Energy Spectrum of
Current Carriers, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:3009 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : On the Theory of Optical Transitions in Semiconductors, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
4:298 (1962). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Theory of Heavily Doped Semiconductors, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1852 (1963).
---and R. Rozman: Theory of Heavily Doped Semiconductors in Interband
Transitions, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:2890 (1963).
Borelius, G.: Phenomenological Aspects of the Resistivity of Pure Metals, Can. J.

Phys., 34:1336 (1956).
Borgnis, F.: Zur elektromagnetischen Energiedichte in Medien mit Dispersion, Z.
Physik, 169:1 (1960). (Sec. 5-5.)
Borisov, N. D., V. V. Nemoshkalenko, and A. M. Fefer: The Electronic Band Structure
in Iron-Chrome Alloys, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 121:264 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- and---: The Electron Configuration in Metals of the Iron Group, lzv.
Akad. Nauk SSSR, 26:1002 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
Borisov, V. T., E. Z. Vintaikin, and L. P. Potapov: Characteristics of the Thermal
Vibration Spectrum, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:2530 (1963). (Sec. 8-6.)
Borland, R. E.: The Nature of Electronic States in Disordered One-dimensional
Systems, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), -A274:529 (1963).
- - - : See also R. L. Agacy.
Borovik, E. S.: Hall Effect and Magnetoresistance in Lead, Copper, and Magnesium,
- - - and V. G. Volotskaya: Investigation of Galvanomagnetic Phenomena in
Chromium at Low Temperature, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 36:1650 (1959).
(Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Boswarva, I. M., and A. B. Lidiard: Faraday Rotation in Germanium, Semicond.
Conj., Exeter, 1962, Institute of Physics and the Physical Society, London, 1962,
p. 308. (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and---: Faraday Effect in Semiconductors, II, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A278:588 (1964). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : Analysis of the Faraday Rotation Spectrum of InSb in the Absorption Edge
Region, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 84:389 (1964). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Bowers, R., C. Legendy, and F. Rose: Oscillatory Galvanomagnetic Effect in Metallic
Sodium, Phys. Rev. Letters, 7 :339 (1961). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : See also A. D. B. Woods.
Bowers, W. A., and H. B. Rosenstock: On the Vibrational Spectrum of Crystals,
J. Chem. Phys., 18:1058 (1950). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also D. N. Singh.
Bowman, J.C., and J. A. Krumhansl: The Low-temperature Specific Heat of Graphite,
J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 6:367 (1958). (Secs. 1-4, 3-11.)
Boyle, W. S., and A. D. Brailsford: Infrared Resonant Absorption from Bound
Landau Levels in InSb, Phys. Rev., 107:903 (1957). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , a n d J. K. Galt: Dielectric Anomalies and Cyclotron Absorption in
the Infrared: Observations on Bismuth, Phys. Rev., 109:1396 (1958). (Secs.
3-8, 3-11.)
---and K. F. Rodgers: De Haas-van Alphen Type Oscillations in the Infrared
Tran~mission of Bismuth, Phys. Rev. Letters, 2:338 (1959). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - , F. S. L. Hsu, and J. E. Kunzler: Spin Splitting of the Landau Levels in
Bismuth Observed by Magnetothermal Experiments, Phys. Rev. Letters, 4:278
(1960). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also G. Weinreich.
Bradley, C. C., T. E. Faber, E.G. Wilson, and J.M. Ziman: A Theory of the Electrical
Properties of Liquid Metals. II. Polyvalent Metals, Phil. Mag., 7:865 (1962).
- - - : The Resistivity and Thermoelectric Power of Liquid Gallium and Mercury at
Const.ant Volume, Phil. Mag., 8:lf,35 (1963). (Sec. 3-l 1.)
Bragg, W. L.: Giant Molecules, Nature, 164:7 (1949).
- - - (Sir Lawrence Bragg): The Development of X-ray Analysis, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A262:145 (1961).
Brailsford, A. D.: The Magnetic Energy Levels of Electrons in Metals, Proc. Phys.
Soc. (London), A70:275 (1957).
- - - and A. W. Overhauser: Theory of the Resistance Minimum in Dilute Para-
magnetic Alloys, Phys. Rev. Letters, 3:331 (1959). ··i
- - - and - - - : Theory of the Resistance Minimum in Dilute Paramagnetic ',
Alloys, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 15:140 (1960). .
- - - : See also W. S. Boyle, J. K. Galt. • '>
Brandt, G. B., and J. A. Rayne: The Electronic Structure of Chromium-group Metals i
from Low Field de Haas-van Alphen Studies, Phys. Letters, 3:148(1962). (Secs.
3-9, 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Low-field de Haas-van Alphen Effect in Indium, Phys. Rev.,
132:1512 (1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Low-field de Haas-van Alphen Studies of Chromium Group
Transition Elements, Phys. Rev., 132:1945 (1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
Brandt, N. B., and G. A. Ryabenko: Effect of Uniaxial Compression on the Quantum ,',J
Oscillations of the Magnetic Susceptibility of Bismuth, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor.
Fiz., 37:389 (1959). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - , A. E. Dubrovskaya, and G. A. Kytin: An Investigation of the Quantized
Oscillations in the Magnetic Susceptibility of Bismuth at Extremely Low Tempera-
tures, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 37:572 (1959). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : The Hole Part of the Fermi Surface in Bismuth, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz.,
38:1355 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and M. V. Razumeenko: Effect of Impurities on the Energy Spectrum of
Electrons in Bismuth, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 39:276 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and V. V. Shchekochikhina: The Influence of Antimony Impurities on the
de Haas-van Alphen Effect in Bismuth, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 41:1412
(1961). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : See also N. E. Alekseevskii.
Braner, A. A., and R. Chen: Some Optical Properties of Iodine Single Crystals, J.
Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:135 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Brauer, P.: Energy Problems on the Incorporation of Foreign Ions in Ionic Crystals,
from "Semiconductors and Phosphors," Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Brunswick
Germany, 1958, p. 63. '
Brauer, W.: Energy Losses of Electrons of Medium Velocity in Metals, Ann. Physik,
20 :390 (1957).
Braunstein, R., A. R. Moore, and F. Herman: Intrinsic Optical Absorption in German-
ium-Silicon Alloys, Phys. Rev., 109:695 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Intervalence Band Transitions in Gallium Arsenide, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
8:280, 285 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also M. S. Abrahams.
Brillouin, L.: Interaction between Electrons and Waves, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.,
41:401 (1955).
- - - : Molecules geantes et semiconducteurs, Cahiers Phys., 15:413 (1961).
Briscoe, C. V., and C. F. Squire: Elastic Constants of LiF from 4.2°K to 300°K by
Ultrasonic Methods, Phys. Rev., 106:1175 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also C. F. Squire.
Brockhouse, B. N., and D. G. Hunt: Energy Distribution of Slow Neutrons Scattered
from Solids, Phys. Rev., 88:542 (1952). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - and A. T. Stewart: Scattering of Neutrons by Phonons in an Aluminum Single
Crystal, Phys. Rev., 100:756 (1955). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Neutron Scattering and the Frequency Distribution of the Normal Modes of
Vanadium Metal, Can. J. Phys., 33:889 (1955). (Sec. 8-1.)
- and P. K. Iyengar: Normal Vibrations of Germanium by Neutron Spectrometry,

Phys. Rev., 108:894 (1957). (Secs. 8-1, 8-2.)
- - - and A. T. Stewart: Normal Modes of Aluminum by Neutron Spectrometry,
Rev. Mod. Phys., 30:236 (1958). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - and P. K. Iyengar: Normal Modes of Germanium by Neutron Spectrometry,
Phys. Rev., 111:747 (1958). (Secs. 8-1, 8-2.)
- - - : Field Dependence of Neutron Scattering by Spin Waves, Phys. Rev., 111:1273
(1958). (Sec. 8-1.}
- - - : Structural Dynamics of Water by Neutron Spectrometry, Nuovo Cimento
Suppl., 9:45 (1958). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Lattice Vibrations in Silicon and Germanium, Phys. Rev. Letters, 2:256 (1959).
(Sec. 8-1.}
- - - : Diffusive Motions in Liquids and Neutron Scattering, Phys, Rev. Letters,
2:287 (1959). (Sec. 8-1.}
- - - and N. K. Pope: Time-dependent Pair Correlations in Liquid Lead, Phys. Rev.
Letters, 3:259 (1959). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Lattice Vibrations of Semiconductors by Neutron Spectrometry, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 8:400 (1959). (Sec. 8-1.}
- - - : K. R. Rao, and A. D. B. Woods: Image of the Fermi Surface in the Lattice
Vibrations of Lead, Phys. Rev. Letters, 7:93 (1961). (Secs. 3-11, 8-1.)
- - - : "Inelastic Scattering of Neutrons in Solids and Liquids," International Atomic
Energy Agency, Vienna, 1961, p. 113. (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - , T. Arase, G. Caglioti, K. R. Rao, and A. D. B. Woods: Crystal Dynamics
of Pb. I. Dispersion Curves at 100°K, Phys. Rev., 128:1099 (1962). (Sec.
8-1.)
- - - : See also R. A. Cowley, A. E. Dixon, G. Dolling, A. T. Stewart, A. D. B. Woods.
Brodsky, M. B.: Hall Effect in Plutonium, Phys. Rev., 137:Al423 (1965). (Sec.
2-4.)
Brooks, H.: Theory of the Electrical Properties of Germanium and Silicon, L. Marton
(ed.), "Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics," vol. 7, Academic Press
Inc., New York, 1955, p. 85. (Sec. 3-11.}
- - - : Quantum Theory of Cohesion, Nuovo Cimento Suppl., 7:165 (1958). (Ser..
10-4.)
- - - : Stationary States of Semiconductors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:531 (1959).
- - - : See also G. B. Benedek, M. Cardona, T. Deutsch, J. A. Krumhansl, M. I.
Nathan.
Broom, R. F., and A. C. Rose-Innes: A Pulse Method for Measurement of Hall
Coefficient at Low Temperatures: Some Results on Indium Antimonide, Proc.
Phys, Soc. (London), B69:1269 (1956). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : Magnetoresistance of n-type InSb at 4.2°K, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
71:470 (1958). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
Brophy, J. J.: Electronic Band Structure of Diamond, Physica, 22:156 (1956). (Sec.
3-11.)
- - - : Organic Semiconductors, Phys. Today, 14:40 (1961). (Sec. 3~11.)
Bross, H., and A. Seeger: Electron Theoretical Investigation of Defects in Metals.
V. General Theory of the Effects of Lattice Defects on the Transport Processes in
Metals. VI. The Electrical Resistance of Vacancy Pairs (Divacancies) in Mono-
valent Metals, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 4:161 (1958); 6:324 (1958).
- - - : Die elektrische Leitfii.higkeit von Kupfer unter besonderen Beriicksichtigung
der Anisotropie des Gitterschwingungsspektrums, Z. Naturforsch., 14a:560 (1959).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also A. Seeger.
Broudy, R. M., and J. D. Venables: D.C. Magnetoconductivity and Energy Band

Structure in Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 103:1129 (1956); 106:1757 (1957).
(Sec. 3-10.)
Brout, R., and I. Prigogine: Statistical Mechanics of Irreversible Processes. V.
Anharmonic Forces. VI. Thermal Conductivity of Crystals, Physica, 22:35,
263 (1956). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Statistical Mechanics of Irreversible Processes. VII. Boltzmann Equation,
Physica, 22:509 (1956). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and I. Prigogine: Statistical Mechanics of Irreversible Processes. VIII.
General Theory of Weakly Coupled Systems, Physica, 22:621 (1956). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Correlation Energy of a High Density Gas: Plasma Coordinates, Phys. Rev.,
108;515 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : The Classical Limit of the Quantum Transport Equation, Physica, 23:953
(1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Sum Rule for Lattice Vibrations in Ionic Crystals, Phys. Rev., 113:43 (1959).
(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Collective Oscillations and Giant Density Fluctuations, Phys. Rev. Letters,
6:193 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Phonons and Plasmons, Plasma-phys.-Accelerators-Thermonucl. Res., 2:46
(1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and W. M. Visscher: Suggested Experiment on Approximate Localized Modes
in Crystals, Phys. Rev. Letters, 9:54 (1962). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also F. Englert, K. Sawada.
Brown, E.: Bloch Electrons in a Uniform Magnetic Field, Phys. Rev., 133:Al038
(1964).
Brown, F. C.: Mobility of Electrons in the Silver Halides, Nuovo Cimento Suppl.,
7:600 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Electronic Properties and Band Structure of the Silver Halides, J. Phys.
Chem., 66:2368 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also G. Ascarelli, K. K. Kanazawa, H. H. Tippins.
Brown, M. A. C. S., and E. G. S. Paige: Electric-field-induced Modulation of the
Absorption due to Interband Transition of Free Holes in Germanium, Phys. Rev.
Letters, 7:84 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
Brown, R. N., J. G. Mavroides, M. S. Dresselhaus, and B. Lax: Interband Magneto-
reflection Experiments in Bismuth, from "The Fermi Surface," John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1960, p. 203. (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , - - - , and - - - : Interband Magnetoreflection in Bismuth, II,
Phys. Rev. Letters, 6:243 (1960). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , and B. Lax: Magnetoreflection in Bi, Phys. Rev., 129:2055 (1963).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Broyles, A. A.: Fields on Plasma Ions by Collective Coordinates, Phys. Rev., 106:347
(1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
Brueckner, K. A., C. A. Levinson, and H. M. Mahmoud: Two-body Forces and
Nuclear Saturation. I. Central Forces, Phys. Rev., 96:217 .(1954). (Secs. 11-6,
11-7.)
- - - : Nuclear Saturation and Two-body Forces. II. Tensor Forces, Phys. Rev.,
96:508 (1954). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
- - - and C. A. Levinson: Approximate Reduction of the Many-body Problem for
Strongly Interacting Particles to a Problem of SCF Fields, Phys. Rev., 97:1344
(1955). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.) ·
- - - : Two-body Forces and Nuclear Saturation. III. Details of the Structure of
the Nucleus, Phys. Rev., 97 :1353 (1955). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
- - - : Many-body Problem for Strongly Interacting Particles. II. Linked Cluster

Expansion, Phys. Rev., 100:36 (1955). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
- - - : Relation between Nucleon Density and Nuclear Potential, Phys. Rev., 103:1121
(1956). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
- - - and W. Wada: Nuclear Saturation and Two-body Forces: SCF Solutions and
the Effect of the Exclusion Principle, Phys. Rev., 103:1008 (1956). (Secs. 11-6,
11-7.)
- - - and J. L. Gammel: Solution of the Nuclear Many-body Problem, Phys. Rev.,
105:1679 (1957). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
- - - and K. Sawada: Bose-Einstein Gas with Repulsive Interactions, Phys. Rev.,
106:6 (1957). (Secs. 11~, 11-7.)
- - - and J. L. Gammel: Properties of Nuclear Matter, Phy.~. Rev., 109:1023 (1958).
(Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
- - - : See also M. Gell-Mann, K. Sawada.
Brust, D., J. C. Phillips, and F. Bassani: Critical Points and Ultraviolet Reflectivity
of Semiconductors, Phys. Rev. Letters, 9:94 (1962). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Electronic Spectra of Crystalline Germanium and Silicon, Phys. Rev.,
134:A1337 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Bube, R. H.: Photoconductivity of the Sulfide, Selenide, and Telluride of Zinc or
Cadmium, Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs., 43:1836 (1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and E. L. Lind: CdS-type Photoconductivity in ZnTe Crystals, Phys. Rev.,
105:1711 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and---: Photoconductivity of Zinc Selenide Crystals and a Correlation of
Donor and Acceptor Levels in II-VI Photoconductors, Phys. Rev., 110:1040
(1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
Buckingham, A. D.: Quantitative Comparison of the Approximate Dielectric Polariza-
tion Theories with an Exact One at Low Densities, J. Chem. Phys., 23:2370
(1955). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and J. A. Pople: The Statistical Mechanics of Imperfect Polar Gases. I.
Second Virial Coefficients. II. Dielectric Polarization, Trans. Faraday Soc.,
51:1173, 1179 (1955).
- - - : A Theory of the Dielectric Polarization of Polar Substances, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A238:235 (1956). (Secs. 5-5, 8-6.)
- - - : Theory of the Dielectric Constant at High Field Strengths, J. Chem. Phys.,
25:428 (1956). (Secs. 5-5, 8-6.)
- - - and J. A. Pople: A Theory of Magnetic Double Refraction, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), B69:1133 (1956).
- - - and - - - : Electromagnetic Properties of Compressed Gases, Discussions
Faraday Soc., 22:17 (1956).
- - - , C. A. Coulson, and J. T. Lewis: The Quadrupole Moment of a Hydro-
gen Atom in a Uniform Field, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), A69:639
(1956).
- - - : The Influence of a Strong Magnetic Field on the Dielectric Constant of a
Diamagnetic Fluid, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London);B70:753 (1957).
- - - and R. E. Raab: A Molecular Theory of the Electro-optical Kerr Effect in
Liquids, J. Chem. Soc., 1957, p. 2341. (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and .J. A. Pople: Electric Quadrupole Moments and Dielectric Constants, J.
Chem. Phys., 27:820 (l9ii7). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and - - - : The Polarization of a Hydrogen Atom in Combined Electric and
Magnetic Fields, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 53:262 (1957). (Sec. 5-5.)
Budd, H. F.: Galvanomagnetic Phenomena in High Electric Fields, Phys. Rev.,
131:1520 (1963). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : Low-temperature Galvanomagnetic Phenomena in an Intense Electric Field,

Phys. Rev., 134:A1281 (1964). (Sec. 2-4.)
Budzinski, E. E., and H. Schiff: Characteristic Temperatures of Cubic Metals, Can.
J. Phys., 36:507 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
Buimistrov, V. M., and S. I. Pekar: Quantum States of Particles Interacting with a
Harmonically Oscillating Continuum, the Coupling Force Being Arbitrary. I.
The Case without Translational Symmetry. II. A Case of Translational Sym-
metry, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 32:1193 (1957); 33:1271 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : The Excited States of a Local Electron Center Interacting with a Quantum
Field at Arbitrary Values of the Coupling Constant. I. Application to the
Theory of F and F' Centers, Ukr. Fiz. Zh. Dodatok., 2:12 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and M. F. Deigen: The Theory of Absorption of Light by Impurities in
Homopolar Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1:1463 (1959). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and V. N. Piskovoi: Investigation of the Accuracy of a Variational Method in
the Problem of Impurity Absorption of Light in Silicon, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2 :608
(1960). (Sec. 5-5.)
Buley, E. R., and F. W. Cummings: Dynamics of a System of N Atoms Interacting
with a Radiation Field, Phys. Rev., 134:A1454 (1964). (Sec. 5-5.)
Bullis, W. M., and W. E. Krag: Hall Effect in Oriented Single Crystals of n-type
Germanium, Phys. Rev., 101:580 (1956). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : Galvanomagnetic Effects in Oriented Single Crystals of n-type Germanium,
Phys. Rev., 109:292 (1958). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : See also L. Gold.
Bulyanitsa, D.S., and Yu. E. Svetlov: Properties of the Bloch and Wannier Functions,
Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:1339 (1962).
Buras, B., and D. O'Connor: The Neutron-Phonon Interaction in Solids, Nukleonika,
4:119 (1959). (Sec. 8-1.)
Burdick, G. A.: Energy Band Structure of Cu, Phys. Rev., 129:138 (1963). (Sec. 3-10.)
Burley, G.: An X-ray Determination of the Debye Temperature of Silver Iodide,
Burns, F. P., and A. A. Fleischer: Piezoresistive Effect in Indium Antimonide, Phys.
Rev., 107:1281 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
Burstein, E., E. E. Bell, J. W. Davisson, and M. Lax: Optical Investigations of
Impurity Levels in Silicon, J. Chem. Phys., 67:849 (1953). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , G. S. Picus, and H. A. Gebbie: Cyclotron Resonance at Infrared Frequencies
in InSb at Room Temperature, Phys. Rev., 103:825 (1956). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , - - - , and F. Blatt: Magnetic Optical Band Gap Effect in InSb,
Phys. Rev., 103:826 (195G). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , B. Henvis, and R. Wallis: Absorption Spectra of Impurities in Silicon.
I. Group III Acceptors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 1 :65 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Interband Magneto-optic Effects in Semiconductors, Phys. Rev.,
106:1123 (1957). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - , - - - , R. F. Wallis, and F. Blatt: Zeeman-type Magneto-optical Studies of
Interband Transitions in Semiconductors, PJws. Rev., 113:15 (1959). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - , - - - , - - - , and - - - : Zeeman-type Magneto-optic Studies of Energy
Band Structure, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:395 (1959). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - , P. J. Stiles, D. N. Langenberg, and R. F. Wallis: Azbel-Kaner Cyclotron
Resonance in Sernicond11ctorn, and Scmirnctals, Phys. Rev. Letters., 9:260 (l9fi2).
(Sec. 2-4.)
- - - , - - - , - - - , and - - : Free Carrier Magnetooptical Phenomena:
Azbel-Kaner-type Cyclotron Resonance, Semicond. Conj., Exeter, Institute of
Physics and the Physical Society, London, 1962, p. 345. (Sec. 2-4.)
- - : See also M. Lax, G. Picus, P. J. Stiles, L. R. Testardi.
3usch, G.: Elektronenleitung in Nichtmetallen, Z. Angew. Math. Phys., 1:3, 81 (1950).
3utcher, P. N.: The Absorption of Light by Alkali Metals, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
A64:765 (1951). (Secs. 3-11, 5-5.)
- and T. P. McLean: The Non-linear Constitutive Relation in Solids at Optical
Frequencies, I, II, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 81:219 (1963); 83:579 (1964).
- - - , D. M. Hum, and E. R. Pike: The WKB Approximation for Bloch Electrons,
with an Application to Interband Tunnelling, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A280:185
(1964).
Buyers, A. G.: Calculation of Work Functions for Surfaces Composed of Ionic Crystals,
Buyers, W. J. L., and T. Smith: The Debye-Waller Factors of Sodium Chloride,
Bychkov, Y. A., L. E. Gurevich, and G. M. Nedlin: Thermoelectric Phenomena in
Strong Magnetic Fields in Metals Possessing Various Fermi Surfaces, Zh.
- - - : Quantum Theory of the Electrical Conductivity of Metals in Strong Magnetic
Fields, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 39:689 (1960). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : and L. P. Gorkov: Quantum Oscillations of a Metal in a Magnetic Field
According to the Fermi Fluid Model, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 41:1592 (1961).
Calais, J. L., and K. Appel: Inversion of Cyclic Matrices, J. Math. Phys., 6:1001
(1964). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : and J. Linderberg: Atomic Wave Functions for the Configurations snpm
Studied by the Projection Operator Technique, Theoret. Chim. Acta, 3:69 (1965).
(Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Different Bands for Different Spins. I. The Cohesive Energy of an Alkali
Metal. IL Application to a Linear Chain of Hydrogen Atoms. III. Solid
Atomic Hydrogen, Arkiv. Fysik., 28:479, 511 (1965); 29:255 (1965). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Crystal Integrals and Molecular Integrals, Arkiv. Fysik, 28:539 (1965). (Sec.
10-4.)
- - - : See also 0. Goscinski.
Calder, R. S., W. Cochran, D. Griffiths, and R. D. Lowde: An X-ray and Neutron
Diffraction Analysis of Lithium Hydride, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 23:621 (1962).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Callaway, J.: Model for Lattice Thermal Conductivity at Low Temperatures, Phys.
Rev., 113:1046 (1959).
- - - : Correlation Energy in a Model Semiconductor, Phys. Rev., 116:1368 (1959).
(Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Optical Absorption in an Electric Field, Phys. Rev., 134:A998 (1964).
(Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : See also L. C. Barcus, E. Blount, A. J. Hughes, R. W. LaBahn.
Callen, H.B.: Electric Breakdown in Ionic Crystals, Phys. Rev., 76:1394 (1949).
- - - : Electronic Structure, Infrared Absorption, and Hall Effect in Tellurium,
J. Chem. Phys., 22:518 (1954). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Callies, J. L., and C. Rigaux: Effet Faraday intrabande du tellure, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 26:1363 (1964). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Campbell, E. S.: Existence of a "Well Defined" Specific Energy for an Ionic Crystal;
Justification of Ewald's Formulae and of Their Use to Deduce Equations for
Multipole Lattices, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:197 (1963). (Sec. 10-4.)
Canut, M. L., and J. L. Amoros: Estudios acerca de la dinamica reticular en cristales
moleculares. VI. Difraccion difuse de los acidos dicarboxilocos de la series par:
succinico y adipico, Publ. Dept. Crist. Min. (Madrid), 3:15 (1957). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - and---: Estudios acerca de la dinamica reticular en cristales moleculares.

VII. Difraccion difusa de los acidos dicarboxilicos de la serie impar: pimelico,
Publ. Dep. Crist. Min. (Madrid), 3:27 (1957). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - and - - - : Temperature Dependence of the X-ray Diffuse Scattering of
Molecular Crystals, Naphthalene, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 21:146 (1961). (Sec.
8-1.)
- - - : See also J. L. Amoros, M. Velasco.
Cardona, M., and W. Paul: A Quadratic Photoelectromagnetic Effect in Germanium,
- - - , - - - , a n d H. Brooks: Dielectric Constant of Germanium and Silicon as a
Function of Volume, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:204 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and---: Pressure Dependence of the Direct Energy Gap in Germanium,
- - - : Optical Determination of the Conduction Band Structure of GaSb, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 17:336 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Optical Investigation of the Band Structure of GaSb, Z. Physik, 161 :99
(1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Electron Effective Masses of InAs and GaAs as a Function of Temperature
and Doping, Phys. Rev., 121:752 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Optical Studies of the Band Structure of InP, J. Appl. Phys., 32:958 (1961).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Voigt Effect in Semiconductors, Helv. Phys. Acta, 34:796 (1961). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Reflectivity of Semiconductors with Wurtzite Structure, Phys. Rev., 129:1068
(1963). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Band Parameters of Semiconductors with Zincblende, Wurtzite, and Ger-
manium Structure, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:1543 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
---and D. L. Greenaway: Optical Properties and Band Structure of Group IV-VI
and Group V Materials, Phys. Rev., 133:Al685 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and G. Harlake: Optical Properties and Band Structure of Wurtzite-type
Crystals and Rutile, Phys. Rev., 137:A1467 (1965). (Sec. 5-5.)
Carmi, G., and D. Bohm: Separation of Motion of Many Body System into Dynam-
ically Independent Parts by Projection onto Equilibrium Varieties in Phase
Space, II, Phys. Rev., 133: A332 (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : See also D. Bohm.
Caroline, D., and J.E. Schriber: Pressure Effect on the Fermi Surface of Ag and Cu,
Phil. Mag., 8:71 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Carpenter, G. B.: Density of the Bonding Electrons in Diamond, J. Chem. Phys.,
32:525 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
Carr, W. J., Jr.: Energy, Specific Heat, and Magnetic Properties of the Low-density
Electron Gas, Phys. Rev., 122:1437 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - , R. A. Coldwell-Horsfall, and A. E. Fein: Anharmonic Contribution to Energy
of Dilute Electron Gas-Interpolation for Correlation Energy, Phys. Rev.,
124:747 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Ground-state Energy of Metallic Hydrogen, I, Phys. Rev., 128:120 (1962).
(Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and A. A. Maradudin: Ground-state Energy of a High-density Electron Gas,
Phys. Rev., 133:A371 (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
Carruthers, J. A., T. H. Geballe, H. M. Rosenberg, and J. M. Ziman: The Thermal
Conductivity of Germanium and Silicon Between 2 and 300°K, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A239:502 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
Carruthers, P.: Scattering of Phonons by Elastic Strain Fields and the Thermal
Resistance of Dislocations, Phys. Rev., 114:995 (1959).
Carter, F. L., and R. Mazelsky: The ZnSb Structure: A Further Enquiry, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 26:571 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Carter, R. S., D. J. Hughes, and H. Palevsky: Inelastic Scattering of Lowaenergy
Neutrons by Lattice Vibrations of Vanadium, Phys. Rev., 104:271 (1956).
(Sec. 8-1.)
- - - , H. Palevsky, and D. J. Hughes: Inelastic Scattering of Slow Neutrons by
Lattice Vibrations in Aluminum, Phys. Rev., 106:1168 (1957). (Sec. 8-1.)
Cartz, L.: Thermal Vibrations of Atoms in Cubic Crystals. I. The Temperature
Variation of Thermal Diffuse Scattering of X-rays by Lead Single Crystals.
II. The Amplitude of Atomic Vibrations, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B68:951,
957 (1955). (Sec. 8-1.)
Casimir, H. B. G., and D. Polder: Influence of Retardation on the London-van der
Waals Force, Phys. Rev., 73:360 (1948). (Sec. A5-7.)
- - - : Sur Jes forces van der Waals-London, J. Chim. Phys., 46:407 (1949). (Sec.
A5-7.)
Caspari, M. E., and W. J. Merz: Electromechanical Behavior of BaTiO3 Single-
domain Crystals, Phys. Rev., 80:1082 (1950). (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - : See also R. R. Rau.
Casselman, T. N., and J. J. Markham: Some Effects of a Perturbation in a Lattice
on the Normal Modes, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:669 (1963). (Sec. 8-6.)
Castle, J. G., Jr., B. S. Chandrasekhar, and J. A. Rayne: Cyclotron Resonance in
Indium, Phys. Rev. Letters, 6:409 (1961). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Castner, T. G., W. Kanzig, and T. 0. Woodruff: The Electronic Structure of a V-cen-
ter, Nuovo Cimento Suppl., 7:612 (1958).
- - - : Direct Measurement of the Valley-orbit Splitting of Shallow Donors in
Silicon, Phys. Rev. Letters, 8:13 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
Chambers, R. G.: The Conductivity of Thin Wires in a Magnetic Field, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), A202:378 (1950). (Sec. 5-1.)
- - - : The Anomalous Skin Effect, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A215:481 (1952).
(Sec. 5-1.)
- - - : The Kinetic Formulation of Conduction Problems, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
A65:458 (1952).
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance under Anomalous Skin Effect Conditions, Phil. Mag.,
1:459 (1956). (Secs. 3-8, 5-1.)
- - - : Our Knowledge of the Fermi Surface, Can. J. Phys., 34:1395 (1956).
- - - : Magneto-resistance Effects in the Group I Metals at High Fields, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), A238:344 (1957). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : l\1agnetoresistance, from "The Fermi Surface," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1960, p. 100. (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : The Inversion of Specific Heat Curves, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 78:941
(1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and B. K. Jones: Measurement of the High-field Hall Effect by an Inductive
Method, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A270:417 (1963). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : See also J.E. Aubrey.
Chambers, W. G.: A Note on the Mathematical Properties of the Boltzmann Equa-
tion, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 81:877 (1963).
- - - : Magnetic Breakdown in a Simple Model, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 84:181
(1964).
- - - : Magnetic Breakdown and Ultrasonic Attenuation in a Two-dimensional
Model, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 84:941 (1964).
Champness, C. H.: The Statics of Divalent Impurity Centres in a Semiconductor,
Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B69:1335 (1956).
- - - and R. P. Chasmar: The Transverse Magnetoresistance Effect in Indium

Arsenide, J. Electron. Control, 3:494 (1957). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : The Transverse Magnetoresistance Effect in Indium Antimonide, J. Electron.
Control, 4:201 (1958). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
Chandrasekhar, S.: Optical Rotatory Dispersion of Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A269:531 (1961). (Sec. 5-5.)
Chanyshev, S. I., and V. E. Zgaevskii: The Temperature Dependence of the Chemical
Potential in a Semiconductor, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:2461 (1960).
Cheglokov, E. I.: Symmetry of the Solutions of the Hartree-Fock Equations for
Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1834 (1964).
- - - : Possible Structure of the Valence Bands in Hexagonal Selenium and Tellurium
Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela 1 6:1845 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Chen, C. W.: Electronic Structures of Mn-substituted Fe-Co Alloys, Phys. Rev.,
129:121 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Cherepanov, V. I.: The Possibility in Principle of an "Intrazonal" Mechanism for
Light Absorption in Solids, Fiz. Metal. i Metalloved., 4:212 (1957). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : A Theory of Optical Properties of Electron Semiconductors, in the Infrared
Spectral Region, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1 :1035 (1959). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : See also A. V. Sokolov.
Chester, G. V., and A. Houghton: Electron-Phonon Interaction in Metals. I. The
Harmonic Approximation, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 73:609 (1959).
- - - and A. Thellung: On the Electrical Conductivity of Metals, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), 73:745 (1959).
- - - : The Theory of the Interaction of Electrons with Lattice Vibrations in Metals,
Advan. Phys., 10:357 (1961).
- - - : The Boltzmann Equation for Inhomogeneous Electric Fields, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), 81 :938 (1963).
Chetkarov, M. L.: On the Variation of Ionization Energy in Impurity Semiconductors,
Zh. Tekhn. F'iz., 28:962 (1958).
Choyke, W. J., and L. Patrick: Absorption of Light in Alpha SiC near the Band Edge,
Phys. Rev., 106:1721 (1947). (Sec. 3-11.)
Christian, J. W., and J. Spreadborough: Stacking Faults and Dislocations in Copper-
Aluminum and Cobalt-Nickel Alloys, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B70:1151 (1957).
Chuenkov, V. A.: The Behavior of the Germanium-type Valence Semiconductors in
Strong Electric Fields, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 28:470 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : The Behavior of Germanium-type Valence Crystals in Strong Electric Fields,
Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR Ser. Fiz., 22:363 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Electrical Conductivity of Valence Semiconductors at Low Temperatures in
Strong Electric Fields, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:799 (1960). -
Chynoweth, A. G., G. H. Wannier, R. A. Logan, and D. E. Thomas: Observation of
Stark Splitting of Energy Bands by Means of Tunnelling Transitions, Phys. Rev.
Letters, 6:57 (1959).
Ciccarello, I. S., and K. Dransfeld: lTitrasonic Absorption at Microwave Frequencies
and Low Temperatures in MgO and Al 20 3 , Phys. Rev., 134:Al517 (1964). (Secs.
3-9, 3-11.).
- - - : See also R. Nava.
Clark, B. C., D. C. Gazis, and R. F. Wallis: Frequency Spectrum of Body-centered
Cubic Lattices, Phys. Rev., 134:Al486 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
Clark, C. B.: Calculated Lattice Specific Heats for Seven bee Elements, "Phys. Rev.,
126:1898 (1962). (Sec. 8-6.) ·
Clark, C. D.: The Absorption Edge Spectrum of Diamond, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
8:481 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , P. J. Dean, and P. V. Harris: Instrinsic Edge Absorption in Diamond, Proc.

Clarke, D. H.: Semiconductor Lifetime as a Function of Recombination State Density,
J. Electron. Control, 3:375 (1957).
Clegg, P. E., and E.W. J. Mitchell: The Density of States Mass of Holes in Semicon-
ducting Diamond, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 84:31 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Clemmow, P. C., and A. J. Willson: The Dispersion Equation in Plasma Oscillations,
Clendenen, G. L., and H. G. Drickamer: Effect of Pressure on the Volume and Lattice
Parameters of Magnesium, Phys. Rev., 136:Al643 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Clinton, W. J., and B. Rice: Reformulation of the Jahn-Teller Theorem, J. Chem.
Phys., 30:542 (19.59).
Clogston, A. M.: Impurity States in Metals, Phys. Rev., 126:439 (1962). (Sec. A2-l.)
- - - : Impurity States in Transition Metals, Phys. Rev., 136:Al417 (1964).
Cochran, W.: The Effect of Anisotropic Thermal Vibration on the Atomic Scattering
Factor, Acta Cryst., 7 :503 (1954). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Theory of the Lattice Vibrations of Germanium, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A263:260 (1959). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : Lattice Dynamics of Alkali Halides, Phil. Mag., 4:1082 (1959). (Secs. 8-6,
9-5.)
- - - : Dielectric Constants and Lattice Vibrations of Cubic Ionic Crystals, Z. Krist.,
112:465 (1959). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : Theory of the Lattice Vibrations of Germanium, Phys. Rev. Letters, 2:495
(1959). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : Crystal Stability and the Theory of Ferroelectricity, Phys. Rev. Letters,
3:412 (1959). (Secs. 8-3, 8-5, 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : Theory of the Lattice Vibrations of Germanium, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A263:260 (1959). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : Crystal Stability and the Theory of Ferroelectricity, Advan. Phys., 9:387
(1960). (Secs. 8-5, 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : "Effective" Ionic Charge in Crystals, Nature, 191:60 (1961). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - , G. J. Fray, F. A. Johnson, J. E. Quarrington, and N. Williams: Lattice
Absorption in Gallium Arsenide, J. Appl. Phys., 32 (suppl.) :2102 (1961). (Secs.
8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : Crystal Stability and the Theory of Ferroelectricity. II. Piezoelectric
Crystals, Advan. Phys., 10:401 (1961). (Secs. 8-5, 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - and R. A. Cowley: Dielectric Constants and Lattice Vibrations, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 23:447 (1962). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : Review Paper on Lattice Vibrations, Semicond. Conj., Exeter, 1962. (Secs.
8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : Lattice Dynamics of Sodium, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A276:308 (1963).
(Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : Lattice Vibrations, Rept. Progr. Phys., 26:1 (1963). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - and G. S. Pawley: The Theory of Diffuse Scattering of X-rays by a Molecular
Crystal, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A280:l (1964). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - and J. C. Phillips: Microscopic Dielectric Susceptibility of Germanium, Phys.
Rev., 134:Al402 (1964). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : See also R. S. Calder, IL A. Cowley, A. D. B. Woods.
Cohen, M. H., and F. Keffer: Dipolar Sums in the Primitive Cubic Lattices, Phys.
Rev., 99:1128 (1955). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and V. Heine: Electronic Band Structures of the Alkali Metals and of the
Noble Metals and their a-phase Alloys, Advan. Phys., 7 :395 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Optical Constants, Heat Capacity, and the Fermi Surface, Phil. Mag., 3:762
(1958).
- - - , M. J. Harrison, and W. A. Harrison: Magnetic-field Dependence of IBtrasonic
Attenuation in Metals, Phys. Rev., 117:937 (1960).
- - - and F. S. Ham: Electron Effective Mass in Solids. A Generalization of
Bardeen's Formula, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 16:177 (1960).
- - - and E. I. Blount: The g-factor and de Haas-van Alphen Effect of Electrons in
Bismuth, Phil. Mag., 5:115 (1960). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - and L. M. Falicov: Magnetic Breakdown in Crystals, Phys. Rev. Letters,
7:231 (1961).
- - - : Interatomic Interactions in Metals, J. Phys. Radium, 23:643 (1962). (Sec.
11-7.)
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Many-body Problem, Phys. Rev., 130:1301 (1963). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and J. C. Phillips: Evidence for a New Collective Resonance in a "Free-
electron" Metal, Phys. Rev. Letters, 12:662 (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Generalized Self-consistent Field Theory: Gorkov Factorization, Phys. Rev.,
137:A497 (1965).
- - - : See also H. Ehrenreich.
Coldwell-Horsfall, R. A., and D. ter Haar: On Determining the Shape of the Fermi
Surface, Physica, 23:1126 (1957).
- - - and - - - : Influence of Collective Effects on the Magnetoresistance of
Metals, Phys. Rev., 115:891 (1959). (Secs. 3-10, 11-7.)
- - - and A. A. Maradudin: Zero-point Energy of an Electron Lattice, J. Math.
Phys., 1 :395 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Relation between Elastic Constants and Second- and Third-order Force Con-
stants for fee and bee Lattices, Phys. Rev., 129:22 (1963). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also W. J. Carr.
Cole, H., and B. E. Warren: Approximate Elastic Spectrum of ,8-brass from X-ray
Scattering, J. Appl. Phys., 23:355 (1952). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Approximate Elastic Spectrum of Acoustic Waves in AgCl from X-ray
Scattering, J. Appl. Phys., 24:482 (1953). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - and E. Kineke: Lattice Vibrational Spectra of Si and Ge, Phys. Rev. Letters,
1 :360 (1958). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Interatomic Force Constants from a Central-force Law, IBM J. Res. Develop.,
3:126 (1959). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : See also B. W. Batterman.
Coleman, R. V., A. J. Funes, J. S. Plaskett, and C. M. Tapp: Calculation and Com-
parison to Experiment of Magnetoresistance of the Noble Metals, Phys. Rev.,
133:A521 (1964). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : See also A. J. Funes.
Coles, B. R.: Electron Structure and Physical Properties of the Alloy Systems Nickel-
Copper and Palladium-Silver, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B65:221 (1952).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : The Electronic Structure of Transition Metals in Alloys, Phil. Mag., 44:915
(1953). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Significance of Hall Effect Measurements on Alloys, Phys. Rev., 101:1245
(1956). (Rec. 2-4.)
- - - : Spin-disorder Effects in the Electrical Resistivities of Metals and Alloys,
Advan. Phys., 7:40 (1958).
Collins, J. G.: The Theory of the Anomalous Skin Effect in Metals for Obliquely
Incident Radiation, Appl. Sci. Res., B7:1 (1958). (Sec. 5-1.)
Collins, M. F.: Lattice Dynamics of Magnesium, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 80:362
(1962). (Sec. 8-6.)
Companion, A. L.: The Optical Energy Gap of Scandium Oxide, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 26:357 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Condon, J. H., and J. A. Marcus: Fermi Surface of Calcium by de Haas-van Alphen
Effect, Phys. Rev., 134:A446 (1964). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
Conklin, J.B., Jr., L. E. Johnson, and G. W. Pratt, Jr.: Energy Bands in PbTe, Phys.
Rev., 137:A1282 (1965). (Sec. 3-11.)
Connell, P. A., and J. A. Marcus: Low-temperature Galvanomagnetic Effects in
Bismuth Monocrystals, Phys. Rev., 107:940 (1957). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Conway, J.M., D. A. Greenwood, J. A. Krumhansl, and W. Martienssen: Oscillator
Strength for Optical Absorption by Silver Ions in Alkali Halide Crystals, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 24:239 (1963). (Sec. 5-5.)
Conwell, E., and V. F. Weisskopf: Theory of Impurity Scattering in Semiconductors,
Phys. Rev., 77:388 (1950).
- - - : Impurity Band Conduction in Germanium and Silicon, Phys. Rev., 103:51
(1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Properties of Silicon and Germanium, II, Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs., 46:1281
(1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - : Lattice Mobility of Hot Carriers, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:262 (1959).
- - - and A. L. Brown: Scattering of Hot Carriers in Germanium, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 16:208 (1960}. (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and B. W. Levinger: Band Structure of Heavily Doped Semiconductors, Semi-
cond. Conj., Exeter, 1962, p. 227.
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(1964).
- - - : Relative Energy Loss to Optical and Acoustic Modes of Electrons in Avalanche
Breakdown in Ge, Phys. Rev., 136:Al138 (1964).
- - - : Phonon and Electron Distributions in High Electric Fields, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 26 :593 (1964).
- - - : See also P. P. Debye, A. Zylberstejn.
Cooper, B. R., H. Ehrenreich, and H. R. Philipp: Optical Properties of Noble Metals,
II, Phys. Rev., 138:A494 (1965). (Sec. 5-5.)
Cooper, G. S., G. A. Saunders, and A. W. Lawson: The Electrical Resistivity and
Thermoelectric Power of InBi and In,Bi, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 26:1277
(1964).
Cooper, J. R. A., and S. Raimes: The Effect of Anisotropic Relaxation Times on the
Hall Coefficients of Some Dilute Alloys of Silver, Phil. Mag., 4:145 (1959).
(Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - and---: Extension of the Theory of the Effect of Anisotropic Relaxation
Times on the Hall Coefficients of Some Dilute Alloys of Silver, Phil. Mag., 4:1149
(1959). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Corak, W. S., M. P. Garfinkel, C. B. Sattersthwaite, and A. Wexler: Atomic Heats of
Copper, Silver, and Gold from 1°K to 5°K, Phys. Rev., 98:1699 (1955). (Sec. 1-4.)
Corciovei, A.: The Effect of Long and Short Range Order on Residual Resistivity,
Nuovo Cimento, 11 :118 (1959).
Corless, G. K., and N. H. March: Electron Theory of Interaction between Point
Defects in Metals, Phil. J',.fog., 6 :1285 (I 961).
Cornish, A. J.: Arrays of Inorganic Semiconducting Compounds, J. Electrochem. Soc.,
106:685 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
Costa, P., and R. Lallement: Etude de la structure electronique des carbures de
thorium, d'uranium et de plutonium, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 26:559 (1964).
Coulson, C. A., L.B. Redei, and D. Stocker: The Electronic Properties of Tetrahedral
Intermetallic Compounds. I. Charge Distribution, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A270:357 (1962). (Sec. 11-1.)
- - - and C. S. Sharma: Corrections for Self-interaction in the Thomas-Fermi
Potential with Application to f Electrons in Atoms, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
79:920 (1962).
- - - : See also A. D. Buckingham, P. B. Sherry.
Coumes, A.: Oscillations collectives d'un systeme de trous en presence de phonons,
J. Phys. Radium, 21:229 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
Cowley, J.M., and A. L. G. Rees: Fourier Methods in Structure Analysis by Electron
Diffraction, Rept. Progr. Phys., 21:165 (1958).
Cowley, R. A.: The Lattice Dynamics of Ionic and Covalent Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A268:109 (1962). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : The Elastic and Dielectric Properties of Crystals with Polarizable Atoms,
Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A268:121 (1962). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5, 10-4.)
- - - : Some Calculations Using the Ewald Transformation, Acta Cryst., 15:687
(1962). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5, 10-4.)
- - - : Temperature Dependence of a Transverse Optic Mode in Strontium Titanate,
Phys. Rev. Letters, 9:159 (1962). (Secs. 8-5, 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - , W. Cochran, B. N. Brockhouse, and A. D. B. Woods: Lattice Dynamics of
Alkali Halide Crystals. III. Theoretical, Phys. Rev., 131:1030 (1963). (Secs.
8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : The Lattice Dynamics of an Anharmonic Crystal, Advan. Phys., 12:421
(1963). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : The Theory of Raman Scattering from Crystals, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
84:281 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Lattice Dynamics and Phase Transitions of Strontium Titanate, Phys. Rev.,
134:A981 (1964). (Secs. 8-5, 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : See also W. Cochran, A. D. B. Woods.
Craig, D. P., and T. Thirunamchandran: The Electronic Spectra of Mixed Crystals,
Crawford, J. H., Jr., H. C. Schweinler, and D. K. Stevens: Magnetic Indications of
Electronic Structure of the Conduction Band in Ge, Phys. Rev., 99:1330 (1955).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Cribier, D.: Determination des oscillations d'agitation thermique des atomes engages
clans un cristal: cas de la structure type fluorine, Acta Cryst., 6:293 (1953).
(Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : X-ray Scattering by Thermal Agitation and the Compton Effect in Fluorite,
Rev. Mod. Phys., 30:228 (1958). (Sec. 8-1.)
Cross, L. E.: A Thermodynamic Treatment of Ferroelectricity and Antiferroelectricity
in Pseudo-cubic Dielectrics, Phil. Mag., 1:76 (1956). (Sec. 8-5.)
Cruickshank, D. W. J.: The Determination of the Anisotropic Thermal Motion of
Atoms in Crystals, Acta Cryst., 9:747 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : The Analysis of the Anisotropic Thermal Motion of Molecules in Crystals,
Acta Cryst., 9:754 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : The Variation of Vibration Amplitudes with Temperature in Some Molecular
Crystals, Acta Cryst., 10:1005 (19.'i6). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - < Ou the Lattice Vibration of Benzene, Naphthalene and Anthracene, Rev . .l}fod.
Phys., 30:163 (1958). (Sec. 8-6.)
Csavinsky, P.: Corrections to the Ground State Energies of Shallow Donors in Silicon
and Germanium, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:1003 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Treatment of Ionized Impurity Scattering in Degenerate Semiconductors.
Combination of the Variational and Perturbational Technique in the Partial-wave

Method, Phys. Rev., 131:2033 (1963); 136:AB3 (1964).
Cuff, K. F., M. R. Ellett, and C. D. Kuglin: Oscillatory Magnetoresistance in the
Conduction Band of PbTe, J. Appl. Phys., 32 (suppl.):2179 (1961). (Secs. 3-10,
3-11.)
- - - , - - - , and---: Band Structure and Transport Properties of PbTe,
Semicond. Conj., Exeter, 1962, Institute of Physics and the Physical Society,
London, 1962, p. 316. (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also C. D. Kuglin.
Curie, D.: Niveaux d'impurete dans les cristaux (modele hydrogenoide), J. Phys.
Radium, 17:16 (1956).
- - - : ~tude theorique et experimentale de quelques proprietes des pieges a electrons
et des centres luminogenes dans les sulfures, J. Phys. Radium, 17:699 (1956).
- - - : Modeles pour les divers types de pieges dans le sulfure de zinc phosphorescent.
Liberation thermique et optique des electrons pieges, J. Phys. Radium, 18:214
(1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Emploi de la masse effective et de la masse electronique normale dans les
semi-conducteurs, J. Phys. Radium, 19:694 (1958).
- - - : Modele hydrogenoide des niveaux d'impurete dans un cristal ionique: constante
dielectrique effective pour les etats excites, Compt. Rend., 246:2116 (1958).
Curien, H.: Diffusion thermique des rayons X par des monocristaux de fer-a et
dynamique de reseau cubique centre, Acta Cryst., 6:393 (1952). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Thermal Agitation of Atoms in Crystals and the Scattering of X-rays: The
Case of Sodium, J. Phys. Radium, 16:44S (1955). (Sec. 8-1.)
Cutler, M., R. L. Fitzpatrick, and J. F. Leavy: The Conduction Band of Cerium
Sulfide Ce3_,S4, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:319 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , J. F. Leavy, and R. L. Fitzpatrick: Electronic Transport in Semimetallic
Cesium Sulfide, Phys. Rev., 133:A1143 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Electronic Transport in High-resistivity Cesium Sulfide, Phys.
Rev., 133:A1153 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Dalgarno, A., and N. Lynn: Properties of the Helium Atom, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
A70:802 (1957). (Sec. A5-6.)
Dang, G. D., and A. Klein: Higher Random Phase Approximations and Theory of
Electron Gas, Phys. Rev., 130:2572 (1963). (Sec. 11-7.)
Daniel, E., and S. H. Vosko: Momentum Distribution of an Interacting Electron Gas,
Phys. Rev., 120:2041 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
---:Surles proprietes electriques et magnetiques d'alliages de metaux de transition
dilues dans le cuivre, l'or, et la palladium hydrogene, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
23:975 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
Daniel, M. R., and L. Mackinnon: The Magnetoacoustic Effect and the Fermi Surface
of Cadmium, Phil. Mag., 8:537 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also L. Mackinnon.
Danilenko, V. M., M.A. Krivoglaz, Z. A. Matsyna, and A. A. Smirnov: On the Theory
of Scattering of Waves by the Crystalline Lattice of Solid Solutions, Fiz. Metal. i
Metalloved., 4:28 (1957).
Darby, J. K., and N. H. March: Electron-Phonon Interaction and Temperature
Dependence of the Electrical Resistivity of Sodium, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
84:591 (1964). (Sec. 3-1 l.)
Darnell, A. J., and W. F. Libby: Artificial Metals: InSb, the Sn Alloys with InSb, and
Metallic InTe, Phys. Rev., 136:Al453 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Das, P.: Microwave Hot-electron Conduction in Many-valley Semiconductors, Phys.
Rev., 138:A590 (1965).
- - - : See also B. R. Nag.

Das, S. B., and A. N. Gerritsen: Deviations from the Matthiessen Rule Due to
Possible Changes in the Phonon Spectrum of Dilute Magnesium Alloys, Phys.
Rev .. , 135:Al081 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Das, T. P., A. N. Jette, and R. S.Knox: Theory of the Optical and Magnetic Properties,
of Self-trapped Hole in Lithium Fluoride, Phys. Rev., 134:A1079 (1964). (Sec.
3-11.)
- - - : See also B. G. Dick.
Das Gupta, K.: A New Type of X-ray Scattering, I, II, Nature, 166:563 (1950);
167:313 (1951).
Dash, W. C., and R. Newman: Intrinsic Optical Absorption in Single-crystal Germa-
nium and Silicon at 77°K and 311 °K, Phys. Rev., 99 :1151 (1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
Datars, W. R., and R. N. Dexter: Cyclotron Resonance in Sb, Phys. Rev., 124:75
(1961). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance in Antimony, Can. J. Phys., 39:1922 (1961). (Secs.
3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Cyclotron Resol).ance in Antimony at 35 Ge/sec and 70 Ge/sec, Can. J. Phys.,
40:1784 (1962). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance in KCl, Can. J. Phys., 41:712 (1963). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Date, M.: Magneto-plasma Resonance in Semiconductors, I, J. Phys. Soc. Japan,
15:1488 (1960).
Davidson, E. R., and L. L. Jones: Correlation Splitting in the Hydrogen Molecule,
J. Chem. Phys., 37:1918 (1962).
Dawber, P. G., and R. J. Elliott: Theory of Optical Absorption by Vibrations of
Defects in Silicon, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 81 :453 (1963). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and---: The Vibrations of an Atom of Different Mass in a Cubic Crystal,
Dayal, B., and S. P. Singh: Correct Enumeration of Vibration Frequencies in the
Brillouin Zone, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 76:777 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and B. Sharan: The Use of Electron Gas Modification in the Evaluation of the
Vibration Frequencies and the Specific Heat of Lithium, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A259:361 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and - - - : The Use of Electron Gas Modification in the Evaluation of the
Vibration Frequencies and the Specific Heats of Sodium and Potassium, !'roe.
- - - and B. B. Tripathi: A Revision of Kellermann's Calculations of the Specific
Heats of Sodium Chloride, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 77:303(1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and S. P. Singh: Participation of the Electron Gas in Lattice Vibrations, Proc.
Phys. Soc. (London), 78:1495 (1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and B. B. Tripathi: Fuchs's Relations and the Contribution of the Free
Electrons to the Elastic Constants of Metals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A260:122
(1962). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and R. S. Srivastava: Vibration Spectrum of Silver Based on Metallic Inter-
action, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A270:212 (1962). (Sec. 8-6.)
Dean, P.: Vibrational Spectra of Diatomic Chains, Proc. Roy. Soc. ·(London), A254:507
(1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and J. L. Martin: Functional Equations for the Vibrational Spectra of Diatomic
Chains, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 75:45:2 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Vibrational Spectra of Diatomic Chains, II, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A260:263
(1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and M. D. Bacon: The Nature of Vibrational Modes in Disordered Systems,
- - - : See also M. D. Bacon.

Deaton, B. C., andJ. D. Gavenda: Ultrasonic Investigation of Open Orbits in Cadmium
and Zinc, Phys. Rev., 136:A1096 (1964). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : See also J. D. Gavenda.
Debye, P. P., and E. M. Conwell: Electrical Properties of n-type Germanium, Phys.
Rev., 93:693 (1954). (Sec. 3-11.) ·
De Graaf, A. M.: On the Diamagnetism of the Conduction Electrons in the Alkali
Metals, Helv. Phys. Acta, 35:652 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
De Heer, J.: Studies on the Alternant Molecular Orbital Method. III. A Many-
parameter Energy Expression for Systems with Closed-shell Structure, J. Chem.
Phys., 37:2080 (1962). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : A Refined Alternant Molecular Orbital Treatment of the Ground State of
Benzene, J. Phys. Chem., 66:2288 (1962). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : The Method of Different Orbitals for Different Spins and Its Application to
Alternant Hydrocarbons, Rev. Mod. Phys., 35:631 (1963). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and R. Pauncz: Studies on the Alternant Molecular Orbital Method. VI.
A Many-parameter Energy Expression for States with Different Multiplicities;
Application to Benzene, J. Chem. Phys., 39:2314 (1963). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : See also R. Pauncz, J. D. Swalen.
Dehlinger, U.: Entropie der Elektronen in Metallgittern, Z. Naturforsch., Ba:67
(1953).
Deigen, M. F., and V. L. Vinetskii: Quantum States arid Optical Transitions
of the Ft-center Electron, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 32:289 (1957). (Sec.
5-5.)
- - - and---: Interaction between Current Carriers and F-centers with Acous-
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Dekhtyar, I. Ya.: Defects of Crystal Structure and Certain Properties of Metals and
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- - - : On the States of Atoms in Alloys of the Transition Elements, Fiz. Metal. i
Metalloved., 5:17 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
De Launay, J.: Lattice Dynamics of Body-centered and Face-centered Cubic Metallic
Elements, J. Chem. Phys., 21:1975 (1953). (Sec. 8-6.)
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Chem. Phys., 24:1071 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
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(1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Lattice Dynamics of Body-centered and Face-centered Cubic Metallic Ele-
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(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - , R. L. Dolocek, and R. T. Webber: Magnetoresistance of Copper, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 11:37 (1959); Physica, 24:S172 (1958). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
De Leener, M., and A. Bellemans: Ground State Energy of an Electron Gas in a
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De Loach, B. C., and W. H. Shaffer: Note on Vibrations of Linear Chains of Particles,
J. Chem. Phys., 24:1114 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
Delves, R. T.: Theoretical Transport Coefficients for Polar Semiconductors, Proc.
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- - - : HgTe-MnTe Alloys. II. Electrical Properties, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:885

(1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
De Marco, J. J., and R. J. Weiss: Absolute X-ray Scattering Factors of Silicon and
Germanium, Phys. Rev., 137:Al869 (1965). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - : See also B. W. Batterman, L. D. Jennings, R. J. Weiss.
De Marcus, W. C.: Zero-point Energy of Monatomic Crystals, J. Chem. Phys.,
23:602 (1955). (Sec. 8-6.)
Demidenko, Z. A.: Calculation of the Internal Field in NaCl and Diamond Type
Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:803 (1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and K. B. Tolpygo: Normal Vibrations of Alkali-Halide Crystals with Ions
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- - - , T. I. Kucher, and K. B. Tolpygo: Frequencies and Amplitudes of Vibrations
of Atoms in a Diamond Type Crystal for a Wave Vector Directed along a Face
Diagonal of the Cube, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:104 (1962). (Sec. 8-6.)
Denke, S. P.: Relation of Bonding and Electronic Band Structure to the Creation
of Lattice Vacancies in TiO, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 26:1397 (1964).
De Nobel, J.: Thermal and Electrical Conductivities of· Tungsten. Experimental
Results on Single Crystals Compared with Theory, Physica, 23:349 (1957).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Deresiewicz, H., and R. D. Mindlin: Waves on the Surface of a Crystal, J. Appl.
Phys., 28:669 (1957).
Dermit, G.: Alternant Orbitals in Crystals, Phys. Rev., 127:1110 (1962). (Sec. 10-4.)
Deschamps, R.: Relation entre l'ionicite cristalline et l'ionicite moleculaire, Compt.
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Des Cloiseaux, J.: Energy Bands and Projection Operators in a Crystal: Analytic
and Asymptotic Properties, Phys. Rev., 136:A685 (1964).
- - - : Analytical Properties of n-dimensional Energy Bands and Wannier Functions,
Phys. Rev., 136:A698 (1964).
- - - : See also P. Aigrain.
Deutsch, T., W. Paul, and H. Brooks: Pressure Dependence of the Hall Constant
of the Alkali Metals, Phys. Rev., 124:753 (1961). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Devonshire, A. F.: Theory of Barium Titanate, I, II, Phil. Mag., 40:1040 (1949);
42:1065 (1951). (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - : Theory of Ferroelectrics, Advan. Phys., 3:85 (1954). (Sec. 8-5.)
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- - - : Some Recent Work on Ferroelectrics; Rept. Progr. Phys., 27:1 (1964). (Sec.
8-5.)
Devyatkova, E. D.: Investigation of the Thermal Conductivity of Lead Telluride,
Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:461 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
De Warnes, R. E., and G. W. Lehman: Re-examination of the Lattice Dynamics of
White Tin Using a Modified Axially Symmetric Model, Phys. Rev., 136:Al 70
(1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - , T. Wolfram, and G. W. Lehman: Lattice Dynamics, Heat Capacities, and
Debye-Waller Factors for Be and Zn Using a Modified Axially Symmetric
Model, Phys. Rev., 138:A717 (1965). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also G. W. Lehman, T. Wolfram.
De Wette, F. W.: On the Theory of Transitions in Some Molecular Crystals, II,
Physica, 22:644 (1956).
- - - and B. R. A. Nijboer: The Electrostatic Potential in Multipole Lattices,
Physica, 24:1105 (1958). (Sec. 10-4.)
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(Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Electric Field Gradients in Point-ion and Uniform-background Lattices,

Phys. Rev., 123:103 (1961). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - : Note on the Electron Lattice, Phys. Rev., 135:A287 (1964). (Sec. 10-4.)
Dexter, D. L.: Note on the Absorption Spectra of Pure and Colored Alkali Halide
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Rev., 83:1044 (1951). (Sec. 3-11.)
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103:107 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
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(1958). (Sec. 5-5.)
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- - - : Optical Investigation of Semiconductors at the University of Rochester,
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(Sec. 5-5.)
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Dexter, R. N., H.J. Zeiger, and B. Lax: Anisotropy of Cyclotron Resonance of Holes
in Germanium, Phys. Rev., 95:557 (1954). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - and B. Lax: Effective Masses of Holes in Silicon, Phys. Rev., 96:223 (1955).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , A. F. Kip, and G. Dresselhaus: Effective Masses of Electrons in
Silicon, Phys. Rev., 96:222 (1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and---: Cyclotron Absorption in Bismuth, Phys. Rev., 100:1216 (1955).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , H. J. Zeiger, and B. Lax: Cyclotron Resonance Experiments in Silicon and
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(1959). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
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Dhillon, J. S., and D. Shoenberg: The de Haas-van Alphen Effect. III. Experiments
at Fields up to 32 kG, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London), A248:1 (1955). (Sec. 3-9.)
Dick, B. G., Jr., and A. W. Overhauser: Theory of the Dielectric Constants of Alkali
Halide Crystals, Phys. Rev., 112:90 (1958). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
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Rev., 127:1053 (1962). (Sec.10-4.)
- - - : Exchange Charge Contributions to Failure of Cauchy Relations in Alkali
Halide Crystals, Phys. Rev., 129:1583 (1963). (Sec. 10-4.)
Dimmock, J. 0., and R. G. Wheeler: Irreducible Representations of Magnetic Groups,
- - - and G. B. Wright: Band Edge Structure of PbS, PbSe, and PbTe, Phys. Re11.,
135:A821 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Dingle, R. B.: The Electrical Conductivity of Thin Wires, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A201 :545 (1950). (Sec. 5-1.)
- - - : Some Magnetic Properties of Metals. I. General Introduction, and Proper-
ties of Large Systems of Electrons. IL The Influence of Collisions on the Mag-
netic Behavior of Large Systems. III. Diamagnetic Resonance. IV. Properties
of Small Systems of Electrons. V. Magnetic Behavior of a Cylindrical System
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- - - : The Anomalous Skin Effect and the Reflectivity of Metals. Evaluation of
the Integrals Appearing in the Expressions for the Surface Impedance, Appl.
Sci. Res., B3:69 (1953). (Secs. 5-1, 5-5.)
- - - : The Anomalous Skin Effect and the Reflectivity of Metals. I, II, Compari-
son between Theoretical and Experimental Optical Properties. III. General
Theory of Low-frequency and Optical Behaviour. IV. Theoretical Optical
Properties of Thin Metallic Films, Physica, 19:311, 348, 729, 1187 (1953).
(Secs. 5-1, 5-5.)
- - - : Scattering of Electrons and Holes by Charged Donors and Acceptors in
Semiconductors, Phil. Mag., 46:831 (1955).
- - - : Pictorial Kinetic Methods in the Theory of Metals and Semiconductors,
Physica, 22:671 (1956).
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I, II, Physica, 22:683, 1237 (1956). (Secs. 5-1, 5-5.)
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- - - : A Remark on the Influence of High Frequency Electric Fields and Uniform
Magnetic Fields on Electronic Conduction, Physica, 22:701 (1956).
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in Electronic Conductors, Physica, 22:703 (1956). (Sec. 3-8.)
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Dixon, A. E., A. D. B. Woods, and B. N. Brockhouse: Frequency Distribution of the
Lattice Vibrations in Sodium, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 81:973 (1963). (Sec.
8-1.)
Dixon, J. R.: Photoelectromagnetic Effect in Indium Arsenide, Phys. Rev., 107:374
(1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
Dobbs, E. R., and G. 0. Jones: Theory and Properties of Solid Argon, Rept. Progr.
Phys., 20:516 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
Dobrovolskii, V. N., and Yu. I. Gritsenko: Use of the Hall Current for Investigation of
Carrier Scattering in Semiconductors, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:2760 (1962). (Sec. 2-4.)
Dogonadze, R. R., and Yu. A. Chizmadzhev: Electrical Conductivity of Polar
Crystals with Low Carrier Mobility. I. Structure of the Energy Spectrum, Fiz.
Tverd. Tela, 3:3712 (1961).
---,A.A. Chernenko, and Yu. A. Chizmadzhev: Electrical Conductivity of Polar
Crystals with Low Carrier Mobility. II. Mobility Calculations, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
3:3720 (1961).
Dolling, G., and B. N. Brockhouse: Lattice Vibrations in Pyrolitic Graphite, Phys.
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- - - : See also R. J. Birgeneau, G. Gilet.
Domb, G.: Specific Heats of Compressible Lattices and the Theory of Melting, J.
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(1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
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- - - , - - - , - - - , and - - - : Vibration Frequency Spectra of Disordered
Lattices. I. Moments of the Spectra for Disordered Linear Chains. II. Spectra
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8-6.)
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245 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
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(1963). (Sec. 8-6.}
Domenicali, C. A., and F. A. Otter: Thermoelectric Power and Electron Scattering in
Metal Alloys, Phys. Rev., 96:1134 (1954).
- - - : Thermoelectric Power and Electron Scattering in Metal Alloys, Phys. Rev.,
112:1863 (1958).
Donaich, S.: Lattice Screening in Polar Semiconductors, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
73:849 (1959).
- - - : See also H. Frohlich.
Donovan, B.: A New Calcu_littion of the Cohesive Energy of Metallic Beryllium,
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A68:1026 (1955). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - and N. H. March: High Frequency Conductivity in Semiconductors, Proc.
Phys. Soc. (London), B69:528 (1956).
- - - and - - - : On the Absorption by Free Carriers in Semicondu.ctors, Proc.
Phys. Soc. (London), B70:883 (1957). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and J. Webster: The Faraday Effect in Non-degenerate Semiconductors,
- - - and---: The Anisotropic Faraday Effect inn-type Germanium, Semicond.
Conj., Exeter, 1962, p. 643. (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : The Theory of the Faraday Effect in Anisotropic Semiconductors,
I, II, Applications ton-type Germanium, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 79:46 (1962);
81:90 (1963). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - and---: Note on the Faraday Effect in Anisotropic Semiconductors, Proc.
Dorfman, Ya. G.: Diamagnetic Resonance in Strongly Magnetic Bodies, Dokl. A.kad.
Nauk SSSR, 110:201 (1956}. (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : Diamagnetism and Interatomic Bonds in Molecules and Non-metallic
Crystals, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 35:533 (1958).
- - - : A New Method of Interpreting the Magnetic Susceptibilities of Diamagnetic
Organic Compounds, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 119:305 (1958).
- - - : Properties and State of Metal Atoms in Certain Organo-metal Compounds,
Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 125:765 (1959).
Dorn, D.: Zur Elektronen-Defektelektronen-Wechselwirkung in nichtpolaren Halblei-
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- - - : Zur Temperaturabhangigkeit der Beweglichkeit in nichtpolaren Halbleitern,
Z. Natur.forsch., 12a:18 (1957).
- - - : Ein verallgemeinertes Variationsverfahren zur Behandlung der Trans-
portvorgange in Metallen und Halbleitern, Z. Naturforsch., 12a:739 (1957).
Douglas, A. S.: A Method of Improving Energy-level Calculations for "Series"
Electrons, Proc. Ca.mbridge Phil. Soc:, 52:687 (1956). (Sec. 11-4.)
Douglas, T. B.: Modification of the Born-Mayer Potential Function as Applied to the
Crystalline Alkali Halides, J. Chem. Phys., 38:2461 (1963). (Sec. 10-4.)
Dousmanis, G. C.: Proposal for Detection of Negative-mass Carriers by Cyclotron
Resonance, Phys. Rev. Letters, 1:55 (1958).
- - - , R. C. Duncan, Jr., J. J. Thomas, and R. C. Williams: Experimental Evidence

for Carriers with Negative Mass, Phys. Rev. Letters, 1:404 (1958).
- - - , - - - , - - - , and - - - : Cyclotron Resonance and Landau Levels of
Negative Masses, Bemicond. Phys. Conf., Prague, 1960, Academic Press Inc.,
New York, 1961, p. 603. (Sec. 3-8.)
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- - - , B. W. Gaughnan, and R. M. Josephs: Further Aspects of Negative Mass
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Drabble, J. R., and R. Wolfe: Anisotropic Galvanomagnetic Effects in Semiconductors,
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Drell, S. D.: On the Interaction of Conduction Electrons and Lattice Vibrations,
Phys. Rev., 83:838 (1951).
Dresselhaus, G., A. F. Kip, and C. Kittel: Observation of Cyclotron Resonance in
Germanium Crystals, Phys. Rev., 92:827 (1953). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
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in Germanium, Phys. Rev., 96:568 (1954). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , a n d - - - : Cyclotron Resonance of Electrons and Holes in Silicon
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- - - , - - - , - - - , and G. Wagoner: Cyclotron and Spin Resonance in Indium
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(1955).
- - - , A. F. Kip, and C. Kittel: Plasma Resonance in Crystals: Observations and
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- - - , - - - , H. Y. Ku, G. Wagoner, and S. M. Christian: Cyclotron Resonance in
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- - - : See also R. N. Dexter, M. S. Dresselhaus, D. C. Mattis.
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Drougard, M. E., and E. J. Huibregtse: The Effect of an Electric Field on the
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DuBois, D. F.: Electron Interactions. I. Field Theory of a Degenerate Electron Gas.
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Dudkin, L. D.: Crystal-chemical Characteristics of Semiconducting Compounds of
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Rev., 131:1087 (1963).
- - - : See also Y. Eckstein.
Eckstein, Y., J. B. Ketterson, and S. G. Eckstein: Observation of Magnetoacoustic
Geometric Resonances for Magnetic Field at Arbitrary Direction, Phys. Rev.,
136:A740 (1964). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - and---: Shubnikov-de Haas Effect in Bismuth, Phys. Rev., 137:Al777
(1965). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also J. Ketterson.
Eden, R. J., and N. C. Francis: Theory of Nuclear Models, Phys. Rev., 97:1366 (1955).
(Secs. 11-6, 11-7 .)
- - - : Nuclear Saturation: A Generalized Hartree-Fock Method, Phys. Rev., 99:1418
(1955). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
Edmiston, C., and K. Ruedenberg: Localized Atomic and Molecular Orbitals, Rev.
Mod. Phys., 36:457 (1963).
Edwards, A. L., T. E. Slykhouse, and H. G. Drickamer: The Effect of Pressure on
Zincblende and Wurtzite Structures, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 11:140 (1959).
Edwards, S. F.: Correlations in the Charge Density of a Classical Plasma, Phil. Mag.,
3:302 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : A New Method for the Evaluation of Electric Conductivity in Metals, Phil.
Mag., 3:1020 (1958).
- - - : The Collective Treatment of a Fermi Gas, I, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
72:685 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.) ·
- - - and Y. B. Gulyaev: The Density of States of a Highly Impure Semiconductor,
- - - : See also J. L. Beeby.
Efros, A. L.: Approximate Calculation of the Vibrational Spectrum of Lead Sulfide
and Telluride, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:2065 (1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Oscillations of Transverse Electrical Conductivity in Strong Magnetic Fields,
Caused by Scattering by Optical Phonons in Metals and Semimetals, Fiz: Tverd.
Tela, 3:2848 (1961). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : See also L. E. Gurevich, V. L. Gurevich, B. Ya. Moizhes, S.S. Shalyt.
Ehrenreich, H., and A. W. Overjlauser: Scattering of Holes by Phonons in Germanium,
Phys. Rev., 104:331 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Lattice Scattering Mobility of Holes in Germanium, Phys. Rev.,
104:649 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - : Electron Scattering in InSb, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 2:131 (1957). (Sec.

3-11.)
- - - : Screening Effects in Polar Semiconductors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,_ 8:130
(1959).
- - - : Transport of Electrons in Intrinsic InSb, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 9:129 (1959).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and M. H. Cohen: Self-consistent Field Approach to the Many-electron
Problem, Phys. Rev., 115:786 (1959). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Electron Mobility of Indium Arsenide Phosphide, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
12:97 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Band Structure and Electron Transport of GaAs, Phys. Rev., 120:1951
(1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Band Structure and Transport Properties of GaAs, Semicond. Phys. Conf.,
Prague, 1960, Academic Press Inc., New York, 1961, p. 67. (Sec.-3-11.)
- - - : Band Structure and Transport Properties of Some 3-5 Compounds, J. Appl.
Phys., 32 (suppl.): 2155 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and H. R. Philipp: Optical Properties of Ag and Cu, Phys. Rev., 128:1622
(1962). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11, 5-4.)
- - - , - - - , a n d J.C. Phillips: Interband Transitions in Groups 4, 3-5, and 2-6
Semiconductors, Phys. Rev. Letters, 8:59 (1962). (Secs. 3-11, 5-5.)
- - - and---: Optical Properties of Semiconductors in the Ultraviolet, Semi-
cond. Conf., Exeter, 1962, Institute of Physics and the Physical Society, London,
1962, p. 367. (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - , - - - , a n d D. J. Olechna: Optical Properties and Fermi Surface of Nickel,
Phys. Rev., 131:2469 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
---,---,and B. Segall: Optical Properties of Aluminum, Phys. Rev., 132:1918
(1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also B. R. Cooper, H. R. Philipp, T. 0. Woodruff.
Ehrlich, A. C., J. A. Dreesen, and E. M. Pugh: Hall Effects and Magnetoresistance in
Some Nickel-Copper-Iron Alloys, Phys. Rev., 133:A407 (1964). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Eisenhauer, C. M., I. Pelah, D. J. Hughes, and H. Palevsky: Measurement of Lattice
Vibrations in Vanadium by Neutron Scattering, Phys. Rev., 109:1046 (1958).
(Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : See also A. Ghose, I. Pelah.
Elliott, R. J.: Vibrations of a Perturbed Lattice, Phil. Mag., 1 :298 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - , T. P. McLean, and G. G. Macfarlane: Theory of the Effect of a Magnetic
Field on the Absorption Edge in Semiconductors, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
72 :553 (l 958).
- - - and R. Loudon: Theory of Fine Structure on the Absorption Edge in Semi-
conductors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:421 (1959). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and - - - : Group Theory of Scattering Processes in Crystals, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 15:146 (1960).
- - - and - - - : Theory of the Absorption Edge in Semiconductors in a High
Magnetic Field, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 15:196 (1960). (Sec. 5-5,)
- - - and F. A. Wedgwood: Theory of the Resistance of the Rare Earth Metals,
Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 81 :846 (1963).
- - - : Effects in Non-metals at High Magnetic Fields, Brit. J. Appl. Phys., 14:770
(1963).
---and D. W. Taylor: Theory of Correlations and Scattering of Lattice Vibrations
by Defects Using Double-time Green's Functions, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
83:189 (1964).
- - - : See also P. G. Dawber.
Ellis, S. G., F. Herman, E. E. Loehner, W. J. Merz, C. W. Struck, and J. G. White,

Photovoltages Larger than the Band Gap in Zinc Sulfide Crystals, Phys. Rev.,
109:1860 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
Emersleben, 0.: Die elektrostatische Gitterenergie eines neutralen ebenen, insbes-
ondere alternierenden quadratischen Gitters, Z. Physik, 127:588 (1950). (Sec.
10-4.)
- - - : Uber die Berechnung der Gitterenergie endlicher Kristallstiicke, Z. Angew.
Math. Mech., 30:252 (1950). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Das Selbstpotential der endlichen ii.quidistanten Punktreihe, Ma,th. Nachr.,
3:373 (1950). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Uber die Konvergenz der Reihen Epsteinscher Zetafunktionen, Math. Nachr.,
4:468 (1951). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Das Selbstpotential einer endlichen Reihe neutraler ii.quidistanter Punkte-
paare, Math. Nachr., 6:155 (1951). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Die elektrostatische Gitterenergie endlicher Stucke heteropolarer Kristalle,
Z. Physik. Chem., 199:170 (1952). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Uber die Abhangigkeit der Losungswarme eines Ionenkristalle von seiner
Kornfeinheit, Z. Physik. Chem., 200:1 (1952).
- - - : Uber das Restglied der Gitterenergieentwicklung neutraler Ionengitter,
Math. Nachr., 9:221 (1953). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Das elektrostatische Selbstpotential ii.quidistanter Ladungen auf einer
Kreislinie, Math. Nachr., 10:135 (1953). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Wie wirkt sich die Haufung gleichnamiger Ionen an der Oberflache neutraler
Ionengitter auf die Koeffizienten der Gitterenergieentwicklung aus? I. All-
gemeine -Ubersicht, Z. Physik. Chem., 204:121 (1955). (Sec. 10-4.)
Emtage, P.R.: Band Structure of Platinum Antimonide, Phys. Rev., 138:A452 (1965).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Enderby, J.E.: The Hall Effect in Liquid Metals, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 81:772
(1963). (Sec. 2-4.)
Endo, H., and S. Suekane: The Effect of the Electron Correlation on the Electrical
Resistivity of Liquid Metals, Can. J. Phys., 41:1397 (1963). (Sec. 11-7.)
Engeler, W. E.: Magnetoabsorption and Band Gap of Bi, Phys. Rev., 129:1509 (1963).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Engelmann, F.: Untersuchungen zur Theorie der Energiezustii.nde von Elektronen in
idealen und gestorten Kristallgittern, Z. Physik, 145:430 (1956).
Engelsberg, S.: Energy Losses and Collective Excitations in Crystals, Phys. Rev.,
126:1262 (1962). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and J. R. Schrieffer: Coupled Electron-Phonon System, Ph_ys. Rev., 131:993
(1963). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and B. B. Varga: One-dimensional Electron-Phonon Model, Phys. Rev.,
136:Al582 (1964).
Englert, F.: Behaviour of a Small Quantized System in a Weakly Dissipative Medium:
Some Applications to Coulomb Interactions, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 11:78 (1959).
(Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and R. Brout: Dielectric Formulation of Quantum Statistics of Interacting
Particles, Phys. Rev., 120:1085 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
Englman, R., and E. H. Sondheimer: The Electrical Conductivity of Anisotropic Thin
Films, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B69:449 (1956).
- - - : The Transport Theory of Temperature Waves in Insulators, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), 72:191 (1958).
Enz, C. P.: Magnetic Susceptibility of Electrons in Periodic Fields, Nuovo Cimento
Suppl., 6:1224 (1957).
Epstein, S., and H. J. Juretschke: Galvanomagnetic Effects and Band Structure of

Pure and Tin-doped Single-crystal Antimony, Phys. Rev., 129:1148 (1963). (Secs.
2-4, 3-11.)
Erezhepov, M. E., and S. I. Pekar: Theory of Electric Conductivity in Semiconductors
Including the Fields of Charged Impurity Centers, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1297
(1963).
Eriksson, L., 0. Beckman, and S. Hornfeldt: The Fermi Surface of Antimony from
Magneto-acoustic Resonances, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 26:1339 (1964). (Secs.
3-9, 3-11.)
Erma, V. A.: Zur Thomas-Fermischen Gleichung bei hohen Temperaturen, Ann.
Physik, 20:345 (1957). (Sec. 10-1.)
Ern, V., and A. C. Switendick: Electronic Band Structure of TiC, TiN, and TiO,
Phys. Rev., 137:A1927 (1965). (Sec. 3-11.)
Eros, S., and J. R. Reitz: Elastic Constants by the lTitrasonic Pulse Echo Method,
J. Appl. Phys., 29:683 (1958). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and C. S. Smith: Low-temperature Elastic Constants of Magnesium Alloys,
A~ta Met., 9:14 (1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
Esaki, L.: New Phenomenon in Magnetoresistance of Bismuth at Low Temperature,
Eshelby, J. D.: Supersonic Dislocations and Dislocations in Dispersive Media, Proc.
Phys. Soc. (London), B69:1013 (1956).
- - - , C. W. Newey, P. L. Pratt, and A. B. Lidiard: Charged Dislocations and the
Strength of Ionic Crystals, Phil. Mag., 3:75 (1958). (Sec. 10-4.)
Estermann, I., and A. Foner: Magnetoresistance of Germanium Samples between 20°
and 300°K, Phys. Rev., 79:365 (1950). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : See also S. A. Friedberg.
Everett, G. E.: Cyclotron Resonance Measurements in Bismuth, Phys. Rev., 128:2564
(1962). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Evseev, Z. Ya.: The Effect of a Transverse Magnetic Field on the Thermal Conductivity
of Metals, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 31:331 (1956).
Evtuhov, V.: Valence Bands of Germanium and Silicon in an External Magnetic Field,
Phys. Rev., 126:1869 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Landau Levels in the Valence Bands of Diamond-type Semiconductors,
Semicond. Conj., Exeter, 1962, Institute of Physics and the Physical Society,
London, 1962, p. 590. (Sec. 3-8.)
Ewald, A. W., and 0. N. Tufte: Electronic Properties of Gray Tin Single Crystals,
- - - : See also E. D. Hinkley, R. E. Lindquist.
Ewald, P. P., and H. Juretschke: Atomic Theory of Surface Energy, from Gomer and
Smith, "Structure and Properties of Solid Surfaces," University of Chicago Press,
Chicago, 1953, p. 82. (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Group Velocity and Phase Velocity in X-ray Crystal Optics, Acta Cryst.,
11:888 (1958).
Eyges, L.: Exchange Energy of Electron Gas in Periodic Potential, Phys. Rev.,
130:2218 (1963). (Sec. 11-7.)
Fakidov, LG., and E. A. Zavadskii: Oscillations of the Electrical Resistance of n-type
Germanium in Strong Pulsed Magnetic Fields, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 34:1036
(1958). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : See also E. A. Zavadskii.
Falicov, L. M.: The Velocity and Effective Charge of the Particles near the Fermi
Surface, "The Fermi Surface," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1960, p. 39.
(Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and V. Heine: The Many-body Theory of Electrons in Metal or Has a Metal

Really Got a Fermi Surface? Advan. Phys., 10:57 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and S. Galin: Electronic Band Structure of Arsenic. I. Pseudopotential
Approach, Phys. Rev., 137:A871 (1965). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and P. R. Sievert: Theory of the Galvanomagnetic Effects in Metals with
Magnetic Breakdown: Semiclassical Approach, Phys. Rev., 138:A88 (1965).
(Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : See also M. H. Cohen, D. F. Gibbons, M. G. Priestley.
Falk, D. S.: Effect of the Lattice on Dielectric Properties of an Electron Gas, Phys.
Rev., 118:105 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
Falkovskii, L.A.: Theory of Electron Spectra of Bismuth-type Metals in a Magnetic
Field, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 44:1935 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Fan, H. Y.: Valence Semiconductors, Germanium, and Silicon, Solid State Phys.,
1 :283 (1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Infrared Absorption in Semiconductors, Rept. Pro(/r. Phys., 19:107 (1956).
(Sec. 5-5.)
- - - , W. Spitzer, and R. J. Collins: Infrared Absorption inn-type Germanium,
Phys. Rev., 101:566 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Properties of Semiconductors, Nuovo Cimento Suppl., 7:661 (1958).
- - - and P. Fisher: Absorption Spectra of Group V Donors in Germanium, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 8:270 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also W. M. Becker, H. Kamiya, W. G. Spitzer.
Fano, U.: Atomic Theory of Electromagnetic Interactions in Dense Materials, Phys.
Rev., 103:1202 (1956). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Normal Modes of a Lattice of Oscillators with Many Resonances and Dipolar ,
Coupling, Phys. Rev., 118:451 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
Fatuzzo, E.: Field Dependence of the Absorption Bands of Ferroelectrics in the Far
Infrared, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 84:709 (1964). (Sec. 8-5.)
Faulkner, J. S.: Electronic States of Kronig-Penney Crystal with Random Atomic
Positions, Phys. Rev., 136:A124 (1964).
Fawcett, E.: Cyclotron Resonance in Tin and Copper, Phys. Rev., 103:1582 (1956).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance in Aluminum, Phys. Rev. Letters, 3:139 (1959). (Secs.
3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance in Aluminum, "The Fermi Surfaces," John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, 1960, p. 166. (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Anomalous Skin Effect in Aluminum, "The Fermi Surface," John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1960, p. 197. (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : The Fermi Surface Areas of Magnesium, Zinc, and Cadmium, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 18:320 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Fermi Surface Topology of Even-valent Metals From Their Magnetore-
sistance Anisotropy, Phys. Rev. Letters, 6:534 (1961). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : Magnetoresistance of Transition Metals in the High-field Limit, Phys. Rev.
Letters, 7:370 (1961). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - and W. M. Walsh, Jr.: Cyclotron Resonance in Tungsten, Phys. Rev. Letters,
8:476 (1962). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - and W. A. Reed: Multiple Connect.ivity of the Fermi Surface of Nickel from
Its Magnetoresistance Anisotropy, Phys. Rev. Letters, 9:33G (1962). (Secs. 3-10,
3-11.)
- - - and D. Griffiths: The Fermi Surface Areas of Chromium, Molybdenum and
Tungsten, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 23:1631 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
- : Magnetoresistance of Molybdenum and Tungsten, Phys. Rev., 128:154 (1962).

(Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- and W. A. Reed: Effects of Compensation on the Galvanomagnetic Properties
of Nonmagnetic and Ferromagnetic Metals, Phys. Rev., 131:2463 (1963). (Sec.
2-4.)
- - - and - - - : High-field Magnetoresistance of Molybdenum and Tungsten,
Phys. Rev., 134:A723 (1964). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - High-field Galvanomagnetic PropErties of Metals, Advan. Phys., 13 :139
(1964). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : See also W. A. Reed, W. M. Walsh, Jr.
Federov, F. I.: Optics of Absorbing Crystals. IV. Classification, Opt. i Spektroskopiya,
6 :450 (1958). (Sec. 5-5.)
Feinberg, E. L.: Collective Vibrations of Electrons in Crystals, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor.
Fiz., 34:1125 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : See also I. I. Sobelman.
Ferreira, L. G.: Deformation Potentials of Lead Telluride, Phys. Rev., 137 :A1601
(1965). (Secs. 2-3, 3-11.)
Ferrell, R. A.: Angular Dependence of the Characteristic Energy Loss of Electrons
Passing through Metal Foils, Phys. Rev., 101 :554 (1956). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Characteristic Energy Loss of Electrons Passing through Metal Foils. II.
Dispersion Relation aDd Short Wavelength Cutoff for Plasma Oscillations, Phys.
Rev., 107:450 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and J. Quinn: Characteristic Energy Loss of Electrons Passing through Metal
Foils: Momentum Exciton Model of Plasma Oscillations, Phys. Rev., 108:570
(1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Predicted Radiation of Plasma Oscillations in Metal Films, Phys. Rev.,
111:1214 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Rigorous Validity Criterion for Testing Approximations to the Electrons Gas
Correlation Energy, Phys. Rev. Letters, 1:443 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and E. A. Stern: Plasma Resonance in the Electrodynamics of Metal Films,
Am. J. Phys., 30:810 (1962). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : See also A. J. Glick, J. J. Quinn, E. A. Stern.
Feynman, R. P., N. Metropolis, and E. Teller: Equations of State of Elements Based
on a Generalized Fermi-Thomas Theory, Phys. Rev., 76:1561 (1949). (Sec.
10-4.)
Fielding, P., G. Fischer, and E. Mooser: Semiconductors of the Type AIJIBv 1 , J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 8:434 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
Fieschi, R.: Thermodynamical Theory of Galvanomagnetic and Therm om agnetic
Phenomena, Nuovo Cimento Suppl., 2:1168 (1955). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : bn the Thermodynamical Theory of Thermal Conduction of Dielectrics
under Electric Fields, Nuovo Cimento, 6 :1225 (1957).
Fiks, V. B.: Effect of Magnetic Field on the Ionic Conductivity of Semiconductors,
Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:1863 (1962).
Firsov, Yu. A.: On the Structure of Electron Spectra of Tellurium-type Lattices,
- - - : Magnetic Susceptibility in Tellurium-type Semiconductors, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz.,
27:2212 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : The Value of thb Hall Constant in Semir:unductors for Stroug J\lfagnetic
Fields, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 28:1129 (1958). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance in Semiconductors with Complex Equipotential Sur-
faces, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1 :44 (1959). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : Theory of the Hall Effect in Semiconductors with Low Mobility, Fiz. Tverd.
Tela, 5:2149 (1963). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : See also V. L. Gurevich, L. I. Korovin.
Fischbeck, H. J.: Symmetrieeigenschaften des Blochelektrons im Magnetfeld, Phys.
Status Solidi, 3:1082,2399 (1963).
Fischer, G., and D. K. C. MacDonald: Magnetoresistance and Field Dependence of the
Hall Effect in Indium Antimonide, Can. J. Phys., 36:527 (1958). (Secs. 3-10,
3-11.)
- - - and F. T. Hedgcock: Magnetic Susceptibility and Galvanomagnetic Effects
in Pure p-type Tellurium, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 17:246 (1960). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - and J. L. Brebner: Electrical Resistivity and Hall Effect of Single Crystals of
GaTe and GaSe, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 23:1363 (1962). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : See also P. Fielding.
Fischer-Hjalrnars, I., and B. Grabe: Theoretical Study of the Colored Alkali Oxides,
J. Chem. Phys., 22:1259 (1954). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : On the Nature of Bonds between Carbon Atoms, Tetrahedron, 17:235 (1962).
Fisher, E.: Energy Levels of Sodium Chloride, Phys. Rev., 73:36 (1948). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Coulomb Energy of Complex Crystals, J. Chem. Phys., 19:1284 (1951).
(Sec. 10-4.)
Fisher, I. Z.: Effects of Screening of a Coulomb Field by Free Charges in Metals and
Semic::onductors, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:638 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : The Polar Model of a Metal, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 33:262 (1957).
- - - and V. I. Krylovich: The Hydrogen-like System with Partially Screened
Coulomb Potential, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:1289 (1957).
- - - : The Extrinsic Conductivity in Liquid and Amorphous Semiconductors, Fiz.
Tverd. Tela, 1:192 (1959).
Fisher, J. C.: Particle-hole Inversion in Fermi Surface: A Symmetry Operation for
Collective Excitations, Phys. Rev., 126:492 (1962). (Sec. 11-7.)
Fisher, P.: The Effect of Chemical Splitting on the Lyman Series of Antimony Impurity
in Germanium, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 23:1346 (1962). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : See also H. Y. Fan.
Fletcher, G. C.: The Thermal Expansion of Solids, Phil. Mag., 2:639 (1957). (Sec.
8-6.)
- - - : The Thermal Expansion of Solids, Australian J. Phys., 12:237 (1959). (Sec.
8-6.)
Fletcher, J. G., and D. C. Larson: Influence of Electron Interactions on Metallic
Properties, Phys. Rev., 111 :455 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
Fletcher, R. C., W. A. Yager, and F. R. Merritt: Observation of Quantum Effects in
Cyclotron Resonance, Phys. Rev., 100:747 (1955). (Sec. 3-8.)
Flubacher, P., A. J. Leadbetter, J. A. Morrison, and B. P. Stoicheff: The Low-tempera-
ture Heat Capacity and the Raman and Brillouin Spectra of Vitreous Silica,
Fochs, P. D.: The Measurement of the Energy Gap of Semiconductors from Their
Diffuse Reflection Spectra, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B69:70 (1956). (Sec. 5-5.)
Fok, M. V.: Forbidden Bandwidth and Effective Charge of Ions in the Crystal Lattice
of ZnS, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1489 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Fomin, N. V.: High Electric Fields in the Theory of the Electrical Conductivity of
Semiconductors, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 28:783 (1958).
- - - : Absorption of Infrared Radiation by Semiconductor in an Electric Field,
Fiz. 1'verd. Tela, 2:605 (1960). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Theory of Screening in the Case of the Many-val~ey Electron Energy Spectrum,
Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:1883 (1961).
Foner, S., and E. M. Pugh: Hall Effects of the Cobalt Nickel Alloys and of Armco Iron,
Phys. Rev., 91:20 (1953). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - : Hall Effect in Permalloys, Phys. Rev., 99:1079 (1955). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : Hall Effect and Magnetic Properties of Armco Iron, Phys. Rev., 101:1648
(1956). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : Hall Effect in Titanium, Vanadium, Chromium, and Manganese, Phys. Rev.,
107:1513 (1957). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - , F. E. Allison, and E. M. Pugh: Hall Effect in Ni 3Mn and Fe-Co as a Function
of Order, Phys. Rev., 109:1129 (1958). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : See also R. J. Keyes, S. J. Williamson, S. Zwerdling.
Foreman, A. J. E., and W. M. Lomer: Lattice Vibrations and Harmonic Forces in
Solids, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B70:1143 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Anharmonic Specific Heat of Solids, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 79:1124 (1962).
(Sec. 8-6.)
Fiirsvoll, K., and I. Holwech: Galvanomagnetic Size Effects in Al Films, Phil. Mag.,
9:435 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and---: Galvanomagnetic Size Effects in Indium Films, Phil. Mag., 10 :181
(1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Sondheimer Oscillations in the Hall Effect of Aluminum, Phil.
Mag., 10:921 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Fowler, H. A., and H. E. Farnsworth: Reflection of Very Slow Electrons, Phys. Rev.,
111 :103 (1958).
Fox, D., and 0. Schnepp: Theory of the Lower Excited Electronic States of the Benzene
Crystal, J. Chem. Phys., 23:767 (1955). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Conducting States in Organic Molecular Crystals, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
8:439, 442 (1959).
Fradkin, E. S.: A Refinement of the Thomas-Fermi Model at Small Distances, Zh.
Frank, F. C.: Lattice Sums for Ionic Crystals, Phil. Mag., 41:1287 (1950). (Sec.
10-4.)
Frank, H. S.: Thermodynamics of a Fluid Substance in the Electrostatic Field, J.
Chem. Phys., 23:2023 (1955).
Frank, V.: Hall Coefficient of Technically Pure Metals from 80°K to 800°K. I.
Results for Cu, Ag, Au, Pd, and Pt. II. Results for Zr, W, Mo, Ta, Nb, and Al.
Survey of Results for the 4d- and 5d-transition Group of Metals, Appl. Sci. Res.,
BG:379 (1957); B7:41 (1958). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Franklin, A. D.: Ferroelectricity of Barium Titanate Single Crystals, Prog. Dielectrics,
1959, pp. 171-215. (Sec. 8-5.)
Fray, S., J., F. A. Johnson, and R. H. Jones: Lattice Absorption Bands in Indium
Antimonide, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 76:939 (1960). (Secs. 3-11, 8-6.)
- - - : See also W. Cochran.
Frazer, B. C., and R. Pepinsky: X-ray Analysis of the Ferroelectric Transition in
KH,PO,, Acta Cryst., 6:273 (1953). (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - , H. R. Danner, and R. Pepinsky: Single-crystal Neutron Analysis of Tetragonal
BaTiOa, Phys. Rev., 100:745 (1955). (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - : See also G. Shirane.
Frederikse, H. P. R., and R. F. Blunt: Photoeffects in Intermetallic Compounds,
Proc. Inst. Radiu Engrs., 43:1828 (1955).
- - - and E. V. Mielczarek: Thermoelectric Power of Indium Antimonide, Phys.
Rev., 99:1889 (1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and W. R. Hosler: Galvanomagnetic Effects inn-type InSb at 4.2°K, Can. J.
Phys., 34:1377 (1956). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - and---: Galvanomagnetic Effects inn-type Indium Antimonide, Phys.

Rev., 108:1136 (1957). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Galvanomagnetic Effects in p-type Indium Antimonide, Phys.
Rev., 108:1146 (1957). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Oscillatory Galvanomagnetic Effects in n-type Indium Arsenide,
Phys. Rev., 110:880 (1958). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
---,W.R. Thurber, and W.R. Hosler: Electronic Transport in Strontium Titanate,
Phys. Rev., 134:A442 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also A. H. Kahn.
Fredkin, D.R., and N. R. Werthamer: Towards a Quantum Many-body Theory of
Lattice Dynamics. I. Time-dependent Hartree Approximation, Phys. Rev.,
138:A1527 (1965). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : See also H. Suhl, G. H. Wannier.
Freedman, S. J., and H.J. Juretschke: Galvanomagnetic Effects and Band Structure
of Antimony, Phys. Rev., 124:1379 {1961). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Freeman, A. J.: Atomic Scattering Factors for Spherical and Aspherical Charge
Distributions, Acta Cryst., 12:261 (1959). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - and J. H. Wood: An Atomic Scattering Factor for Iron, Acta Cryst., 12:271
(1959). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - : A Study of the Compton Scattering of X-rays: Ne, Cu+, Cu, and ZnH,
Acta Cryst., 12:274 (1959). (Secs. 1-5, 6-2.)
- - - : X-ray Incoherent Scattering Functions for Non-spherical Charge Distribu-
tions: N, N-, o-, 0, o+, OH, o+•, F, F-, Si+<, Si+•, Si, and Ge, Acta Cryst.,
12:929 (1959). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - : A Study of the Compton Scattering of X-rays. II. Li, Li+, Be, Na, Na+,
Al+, AJ+•, K+, CJ-, Ca, Ca+, and Ca+ 2, Acta Cryst., 13:190 (1960). (Secs. 1-5, ·
6-2.)
- - - : X-ray Incoherent Scattering Functions for Non-spherical Charge Distribu-
tions. II. Ti+, v+ 2, MnH, Mn, and Fe, Acta Cryst., 13:618 (1960). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - and R. E. Watson: Effect of Crystalline Fields on Charge Densities and
Magnetic Form Factors, Phys. Rev., 118:1168 (1960). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - and---: Hartree-Fock Atomic Scattering Factors for the Neutral Atom
Iron Transition Series, Acta Cryst., 14:231 (1961). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - : See also M. Blume.
Frei, V., M. Matyas, B. Velicky, M. Zavetova, and J. Skacha: Investigations on the
Band Structure of CdSb, Semicond. Conj., Exeter, 1962, Institute of Physics and
the Physical Society, London, 1962, p. 766. (Sec. 3-11.)
Friedberg, S. A., I. Estermann, and J. E. Goldman: Electronic Specific Heat in
Chromium and Manganese, Phys. Rev., 86:375 (1952). (Sec. 1-4.)
- - - : See also G. L. Guthrie.
Friedel, J.: The Absorption of Light by Noble Metals and Its Relation to the Van der
Waals Contribution to the Cohesive Energy, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B66:769
(1952). (Secs. 5-5, A5-7.)
- - - : Electronic Structure of Primary Solid Solutions in Metals, Advan. Phys.,
3:446 (1954). (Sec. A2-l.)
- - - : Solutions solides primaires dans Jes metaux, Proc. 10th Solvay Conj., Brussels,
1954, p. 183. (Sec. A2-1.)
- - - : On Some Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Metallic Solid Solutions,
Can. J. Phys., 34:ll90 (1956). (Sec. A2-l.)
- - - : P. l,englart, and G. Leman: Etude du couplage spin-orbite dans Jes metaux
du transition. Application au platine, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 26:781 (1964).
- - - : See also M. Asdente, M. T. Beal.
Friedman, L.: Transport Properties of Organic Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 133 :A1668
(1964).
]:<'ritzsche, H.: Resistivity and Hall Coefficient of Antimony-doped Germanium at
Low Temperature, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 6:69 (1958). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : Valley-orbit Splitting of Antimony in Germanium, Phys. Rev., 120:1120
(1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
Frohlich, H.: On the Theory of Dielectric Breakdown in Solids, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A188:521 (1947).
- - - : Conduction Electrons in Non-metallic Solids, Research (London), 3:202 (1950).
- - - , H. Pelzer, and S. Zienau: Properties of Slow Electrons in Polar Materials,
Phil. Mag., 41:221 (1950).
- - - and F. Seitz: Notes on the Theory of Dielectric Breakdown in Ionic Crystals,
Phys. Rev., 79:526 (1950).
- - - and R. L. Platzman: Energy Loss of Moving Electrons to Dipolar Relaxation,
Phys. Rev., 92:1152 (1953). (Sec. 5-3.)
- - - : Electrons in Lattice Fields, Advan. Phys., 3:325 (1954).
- - - and H. Pelzer: Plasma Oscillations and Energy Loss of Charged Particles in
Solids, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), A68:525 (1955). (Sec. 5-3.)
---and B. V. Paranjape: Dielectric Breakdown in Solids, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
B69:21 (1956).
- - - , - - - , C. G. Kuper, and S. Nakajima: The Influence of Interelectronic
Collisions and of Surfaces on Electronic Conductivity, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
B69:842 (1956).
- - - and S. Doniach: Plasma Interaction and Conduction in Semiconductors,
- - - : Phenomenological Theory of the Energy Loss of Fast Particles in Solids, from
"Max Planck Festschrift," Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin, 1958,
p. 277. (Sec. 5-3.)
- - - and G. L. Sewall: Electric Conduction in Semiconductors, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), 74:642 (1959). ·
- - - and A. W. B. Taylor: The Boltzmann Equations in Electron-Phonon Systems,
Froman, P. 0.: A Numerical Comparison of the Density Matrix of Rb+ in the Statis-
tical Approximation and in the Hartree Approximation, Arkiv Fysik, 5:135
(1952).
- - - : Concerning the Statistical Calculation of Cohesive Energies of Ionic Crystals,
Arkiv Fysik, 9:93 (1954). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Simple Analytical Approximations for the Equation of State of an Ideal Non-
relativistic Fermi-Dirac Gas, Arkiv Fysik, 26:127 {1964). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : See also S. 0. Lundqvist.
Fues, E., H. Stumpf, and F. Wahl: Klassische nichtlineare Gitterstatistik eindimen-
sionaler Gitterstiirungen, Z. Naturforsch., 13a:962 (1958). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and---: Elektron-Gitter Gleichgewichtszustii.nde in gestiirten Kristallen,
Z. Naturforsch., 14a:142 (1959).
Fujimoto, F.: Dynamical Theory of Electron Diffraction in Laue-Case. I. General
Theory. II. Numerical Calculation of Intensities. III. Forbidden Reflection,
J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 14:1558 (1959); 16:859, 1022 (1960).
- - - - and 0. Sueoka: Plasma Oscillation of Electrons in Alloys. I. Ag-Al Alloys,
J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 19:2069 (1964).
- - - : See also 0. Sueoka.
Fujita, E., and T. Usui: Excitations in a High Density Electron Gas. II. Diamag-
netism, Progr. Theoret. Phys. (Kyoto) 23 :799 {1960).
434 INSULATORS., SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS
- - - : See also H. Kanazawa.

Fujiwara, H: On the Application of the Thomas-Fermi-Dirac Method to the Study of
the Residual Resistance of Binary Alloys Containing Foreign Atoms in Small
Concentrations, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 11:376 (1956). (Sec. 10-1.)
- - - : On the Screened Field around an Impurity Atom in Metal, J. Phys. Soc.
Japan, 13:250 (1958). (Sec. 10-1.)
- - - : An Application of the Modified Thomas-Fermi Method to Atoms and Crystals,
J. Sci. Hiroshima Univ., A25:1 (1961). (Sec. 10-1.)
Fukai, M., H. Kawamura, K. Sekido, and I. Imai: Line-broadening of Cyclotron
Resonance Due to Lattice and Neutral Impurity Scattering in Si and Ge, J. Phys.
Soc. Japan, 19:30 (1964). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : See also H. Kawamura, K. Sekido.
Fuks, V. B.: On the Mechanism of Ion Mobility in Metals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1:16
(1959).
Fukuda, J., F. Iwamoto, and K. Sawada: Linearized Many-body Problem, Phys. Rev.,
135:A932 (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
Fukuda, Y.: Electronic States in Perturbed Two-dimensional Graphite Lattice,
J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 20:353 (1965).
Fukuroi, T: On the Width of Forbidden Energy Zone of Tellurium, Sci. Rept. Tohoku
Univ., A3:175 (1951). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and C. Yamanouchi: The Relationship between the Hall Coefficient and the
Resistivity of Semiconductors, Taking Various Scattering Mechanisms of the
Charge Carriers into Account, Sci. Rept. Res. Inst. Tohoku Univ., A9:267 (1957).
(Sec. ~-4.)
- - - and Y. Saito: The de Haas-van Alphen Effect of Zinc, Sci. Rept. Res. Insts.
Tohoku Univ., A9:273 (1957). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : See also K. Tanaka.
Fumi, F. G., and M. P. Tosi: On the Naor Relations between Madelung Constants for
Cubic Ionic Lattice, Phil. Mag., 2:284 (1957). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and - - - : Extension of Madelung Method for Evaluation of Lattice Sums,
Phys. Rev., 117:1466 (1960). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and---: Madelung Constants of the Cubic Perovskite Structures, J. Chem.
Phys., 33:1 (1960). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and - - - : Born Repulsive Energy in Sodium Chloride and Potassium
Chloride Crystals, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 23:1671 (1962). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and - - - : Ionic Sizes and Born Repulsion Parameters in the NaCl-type
Alkali Halides. I. The Huggins-Mayer and Pauling Forms, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 26 :31 (1964). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : See also M. P. Tosi.
Funes, A. J., and R. V. Coleman: Magnetoresistance of Copper Single Crystals,
Phys. Rev., 131:2084 (1963). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : See also R. V. Coleman.
Furukawa, Y.: Magnetoresistance of Heavily Doped Germanium at Low Temperature,
J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 18:737 (1963). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : Magnetoresistance of Heavily Doped n- and p-type Germanium at 4.2°K,
Fuschillo, N., J. N. Bierly, and F. J. Donahoe: Transport Properties of the Pseudo-
binary Alloy 8ystem Bi 2 Te,-uSe., .T. Phys. Chem. Solid.,,, 8 :430 (1959). (Sec.
3-11.)
Gaidukov, Yu. P.: Topology of the Fermi Surface of Gold, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz.,
37:1281 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also N. E. Alekseevskii.
Galasiewicz, Z.: Generalization of the Method of Supplementary Variables to Systems

Composed of Two Kinds of Particles, Acta Phys. Polon., 16:49 (1956). (Sec.
11-7.)
- : On the Equivalence of the Zubarev Method and the Bohm-Pines Method for
Systems of Two Types of Particles, Acta Phys. Polon., 15:79 (1956). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Interaction with the Sound Quanta in a System Consisting of Two Kinds of
. Charged Particles, the Method of Supplementary Variables, Progr. Theoret.
Phys. (Kyoto), 17:613 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
Galatry, L., and F. G. Schuller: Champ en retour et deplacement de la frequence de
vibration d'une molecule polaire clans un milieu nonpolaire, Compt. Rend.,
244:749 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and - - - : Champ en retour et deplacement de la frequence de vibration
d'une molecule polaire clans un milieu polaire, Compt. Rend., 245 :901 (1957).
(Sec. 8-6.)
Galkin, A. A., and A. P. Korolyuk: Anisotropy of the Absorption of Ultrasound in
Metals in a Magnetic Field, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 36:1307 (1959). (Sec.
3-9.)
- - - and---: Oscillations in the Absorption Coefficient of Sound in Tin at Low
Temperature, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 37:310 (1959). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - , E. A. Kaner, and A. P. Korolyuk: A New Type of Oscillation of the Absorp-
tion Coefficient of Ultrasound in a Magnetic Field, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR,
134:74 (1960). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - , V. P. Naberezhnykh and V. L. Melnik: Cyclotron Resonance in Aluminum,
Fiz. Tver. Tela, 5:201 (1963). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , a n d V. L. Melnik: Effective Masses of Electrons Corresponding to the
de Haas-van Alphen Effect in Aluminum, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 44:127
(1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : See also P. A. Bezuglyi.
Galperin, F. M.: On the Number of 3d Electrons in the Transition Metals, Dokl.
Akad. Nauk SSSR, 132:801 (1960).
Galt, J. K., W. A. Yager, F. R. Merritt, B. B. Cetlin, and H. W. Dail, Jr.: Cyclotron
Resonance in Metals: Bismuth, Phys. Rev., 100:748 (1955). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , a n d H: W. Dail, Jr.: Cyclotron Resonance Effects in Graphite, Phys.
Rev., 103:1586 (1956). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , F. R. Merritt, W. A. Yager, and H. W. Dail, Jr.: Cyclotron Resonance Effects
in Zinc, Phys. Rev. Letters, 2:292 (1959). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , W. A. Yager, F. R. Merritt, B. B. Cetlin, and A. D. Brailsford: Cyclotron
Absorption in Metallic Bismuth and Its Alloys, Phys. Rev., 114:1396 (1959).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - and F. R. Merritt: Cyclotron Resonance Observations in Zinc, "The Fermi
Surface," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1960, p. 159. (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , a n d P.H. Schmidt: Cyclotron Resonance Observations in Cadmium,
- - - : See also W. S. Boyle.
Galvanov, V. V.: Forbidden-band Width in Indium Antimonide, Zh. Eksperim. i
Teor. Fiz., 27:651 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
Gandelman, G. M., and E. S. Pavlovskii: Quantum-mechanical Calculation of Pres-
sure in Solids, Zh. Eksperim. Teor. Fiz., 38:Jl76 (1960). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Quantum-mechanical Derivation of the Equation of State of Iron, Zh.
Gantmakher, V. F.: A Method for Measuring the Electron Momentum in a Metal,
Zh. Eksperim. i. Teor. Fiz., 42:1416 (1962).
436 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, ANO METALS
- - - : Investigation of the Fermi Surface of Tin by the Size Effect, Zh. Eksperim.
i Tear. Fiz., 44:811 (1963). (Sec. 5-1.)
Garcia-Moliner, F., and S. Simons: An Extension of the General Variational Principle
of Transport Theory, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 63:848 (1957).
- - - : Magnetoresistance and Fermi Surface of Alkali Metals, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), 72:996 (1958). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : On the Fermi Surface of Copper, Phil. Mag., 3:207 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : A Variational Calculation of Electronic Transport in a Magnetic Field, Proc.
Roy. Soc. (London), A249:73 (1959).
Garfinkel, M., and P. Lindenfeld: Lattice Conductivity of Tin, Phys. Rev., 110:883
(1958).
- - - : See also W. S. Corak.
Garland, C. W., and L. J. Slutsky: Lattice Dynamics of Hexagonal Close-packed
Metals, II. Frequency Spectrum, J. Chem. Phys., 28:331 (1958). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Comment on the Elastic Properties of Beta Brass, Phys. Rev., 136:A1696
(1964).
- - - : See also L. J. Slutsky.
Garlick, G. F. J., J. M. Hough, and R. A. Fatehally: The Nature of Binding in Cad-
mium Telluride, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 72:925 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
Infrared Phosphor-semiconductors, ·J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:449
(1959).
Garrett, C. G. B.: Organic Semiconductors, Semicond. Phys. Conj., Prague, 1960,
Academic Press Inc., New York, p. 844.
Gashimzade, F. M.: The Energy Structure of Complex Semiconductors and Spectrum
of Holes in Compounds with Wurtzite-type Structure, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:2059
(1962).
- - - : Band Structure of A 11 B 1YC~-type Semiconductor Compounds Having the
Chalcopyrite Structure, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1199 (1963).
Gaskell, T.: The Collective Treatment of a Fermi Gas, II, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
77:1182 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : The Collective Treatment of Many-body Systems, III, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), 80:1091 (1962). (Sec. 11-7.)
Gaspar, R.: Coherent Scattering of X-rays and High-speed Electron Rays by Atoms.
The Atomic Form Factor, Acta Phys. Hung., 3:59 (1953). (Sec. 6-2.)
- - - : -Uber die Bindung des metallischen Aluminiums, Acta Phys. Hung., 2:31
(1954). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Uber eine Approximation des Hartree-Fockschen Potentials <lurch eine
Universelle Potentialfunktion, Acta Phys. Hung., 3 :263 (1954). (Sec. 10-2.)
- - - and P. Csavinsky: Uber die Theorie der Binding von zweiwertigen zweiatomigen
Ionenmolekiilen. Bindung der Erdalkalimetalloxyde, Acta Phys. Hung., 6:65
(1955). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and B. Molnar: -Uber die Bindung des metallischen Silbers, Acta Phys. Hung.,
6:119 (1956). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Theoretical Interpretation of the Optical and Electrical Properties of Tellu-
rium, Selenium, and Their Alloys, Acta Phys. Hung., 7:313 ·(1957). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Plane Wave Method with a Modified Potential Field, Acta Phys. Hung.,
9:79 (1958).
Gautier, F.: Structure clectronique des alliages a base de nickel et du cobalt, J. Phys.
Radium, 23:738 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Structure electronique des impuretes clans le nickel. Application a la diffusion
magnetique des neutrons par des alliages desordonnes a base de nickel, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 24:387 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Gavenda, J. D., and B. C. Deaton: Resonant Absorption of Ultrasound by Open-orbit

Electrons in Cadmium, Phys. Rev. Letters, 8:208 (1962). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : See also B. C. Deaton, R. W. Morse.
Geballe, T. H., and G. W. Hull: Isotopic and Other Types of Thermal Resistance in
Germanium, Phys. Rev., 110:773 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , C. Herring, and J. E. Kunzler: Phonon-drag Thermomagnetic Effects in
n-germanium, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:347 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also J. A. Carruthers, C. Herring, H. J. Hrostowski, F. J. Morin.
Geilikman, B. T.: Magnetic Interaction between Electrons and Anomalous Diamagne-
tism, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 32:1206 (1957).
Gell-Mann, M., and K. A. Brueckner: Correlation Energy of an Electron Gas at
High Density, Phys. Rev., 106:364 (1957). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
- - - : Specific Heat of a Degenerate Electron Gas at High Density, Phys. Rev.,
106:369 (1957). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
Genensky, S. M., and G. F. Newell: Vibration Spectrum and Heat Capacity of a
Chain Polymer Crystal, J. Chem. Phys., 26:486 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
Genkin, G. M.: Kinetic Treatment of Cyclotron Resonance in Semiconductors, Fiz.
Tverd. Tela, 4:2116 (1962). (Sec. 3-8.)
Gerath, R., and K. Hubner: Phonon Mean Free Path in Silicon between 77 and
250°K, Phys. Rev., 134:A235 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
Gershtein, E., T. Savitskaia, and L. Stilbans: A Study of the Thermoelectric Properties
of Lead Telluride, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 2:2472 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
Gesi, K., Y. Takagi, and T. Takeuchi: The Hall Effect of Titanium Hydrides, J.
Phys. Soc. Japan, 18:306 (1963). (Sec. 2-4.)
Gevers, R.: The Transport of Injected Electrons and Holes in a Semiconductor,
Physica, 21:888 (1955).
Ghose, A., H. Palevsky, D. J. Hughes, I. Pelah, and C. M. Eisenhauer: Lattice
Vibrations in Germanium by Scattering of Cold Neutrons, Phys. Rev., 113:49
(1959). (Sec. 8-1.)
Gibbons, D. F.: Observation of de Haas-van Alphen Type Oscillation in the Acousto-
magnetic Attenuation of Zinc, Phil. Mag., 6:445 (1961). (Secs. 3-9, 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - and L. M. Falicov: Acoustic Measurements of the Electronic Structure of
Zinc and Cadmium, Phil. Mag., 8:171 (1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
Gibson, A. F., and E.G. S. Paige: An Interpretation of Certain Transport Properties
in Germanium Containing Parallel Arrays of Edge Dislocations, Phil. Mag.,
3:950 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.) ·
- - - : See also J. B. Arthur.
Gibson, J.B., and J.M. Keller: Modified Deformable Potential for Thermal Scattering
of Electrons, Phys. Rev., 106:476 (1957).
Gilbert, R· E., and K. Lonsdale: Anisotropic Temperature Vibrations in Crystals.
I. Direct Measurements of Debye Factors for Urea, Acta Cryst., 9:697 (1956).
(Sec. 8-6.)
Gilet, G., and G. Dolling: Normal Vibrations of /j Brass, Phys. Rev., 138:Al053
(1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
Gillis, J., and G. Weiss: Nature of the Singularities in the Spectrum of a One-dimen-
sional Ionic Lattice, Phys. Rev., 115:1520 (1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
Gilvarry, J. J.: Grtineisen's Coastant for Some Metals, J. Chem. Phys., 23:1925
(1955). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : The Lindemann and Griineisen Laws, Phys. Rev., 102:308 (1956). (Sec.
8-6.)
- - - : Griineisen's Law and the Fusion Curve at High Pressure, Phys. Rev., 102:317
(1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Equation of the Fusion Curve, Phys. Rev., 102:325 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Griineisen Parameter for a Solid under Finite Strain, Phys. Rev., 102:331
(1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Amplitudes of Thermal Vibration at Fusion, Phys. Rev., 103:1700 (1956).
(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Variation of the Amplitude of Thermal Vibration on the Fusion Curve, Phys.
Rev., 104:908 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Temperature-dependent Equations of State of Solids, J. Appl. Phys., 28:1253
(1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
Ginzburg, V. L.: Some Remarks on Phase Transitions of the Second Kind and the
Microscopic Theory of Ferroelectric Materials, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:2031 (1960).
(Sec. 8-5.)
Girifalco, L.A., and R. A. Lad: Energy of Cohesion, Compressibility, and the Potential
Energy Functions of the Graphite System, J. Chem. Phys., 25:693 (1956). (Sec.
10-4.)
- - - and J. R. Streetman: A Theoretical Calculation of the Relaxation of Atoms
Surrounding a Vacancy in the Body-centered Cubic Lattice, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 4:182 (1958). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and V. G. Weizer: Application of the Morse Potential Function to Cubic
Metals, Phys. Rev., 114:687 (1959). (Sec. 10-4.)
Giterlnan, M. Sh.: On Multielectron Theory of Ionic Crystals, Fiz. Metal. i Metalloved.,
5:364 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : See also V. L. Vinetskii, S. V. Vonsovskii.
Gitser, D. V., and G. A. Ivanov: Electrical Properties of Single Crystals of Bismuth
and Its Alloys. I. Galvanomagnetic Properties of Pure Bismuth. II. Galvano-
magnetic Properties of Bismuth-Tellurium Alloys (Solid Solutions), Fiz. Tverd.
Tela, 2:1457, 1464 (1960). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - and---: On the Density of Electron States in the Conduction Band of
Bismuth, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 5:1406 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Glaser, V., and B. Jaksic: Methods of Solution of the Bloch Integral Equation at
Low Temperatures, Periodicum Math. Phys. Astron. (Zagreb), 12:257 (1957).
- - - and---: Generalization of the Variation Principle in the Theory of Electrical
Conductivity, Nuovo Cimento, 7:259 (1958).
Glasser, M. L.: Summation over Feynman Histories: Charged Particles in a Uniform
Magnetic Field, Phys. Rev., 133:B831 (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Magnetic Properties of Nearly Free Electrons: Nonoscillatory Magnetic
Susceptibility, Phys. Rev., 134:A1296 (1964); 135:AB2 (1964).
Glauberman, A. E.: Contribution to the Theory of Polar Crystals in an External
Electric Field, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 108:49 (1956).
- - - , V. V. Vladimirov, and I. V. Stasyuk: A New Form of the Polar Model of
Crystals, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 126:543 (1959).
- - - , - - - , and---: Theory of Elementary Perturbations in Atomic Crystals,
Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:133 (1960).
- - - : See also I. V. Stasyuk.
Glick, A. J., and R. A. Ferrell: Single-particle Excitations of a Degenerate Electron
Gas, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.), 11:359 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
Glicksman, M.: Galvanomagnetic Effects in a Semiconductor with Two Sets of
Spheroidal Energy Surfaces, Phys. Rev., 102:1496 (1956). (Sec. 2-4.)
---and S. M. Christian: Conduction Band Structure of Germanium-Silicon Alloys,
Phys. Rev., 104:1278 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Effect of Impurity Scattering on the Magnetoresistance of n-type Germanium,
Phys. Rev., 108:264 (1957). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- : The Magnetoresistance of Electrons in InP and GaAs, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,

8:511 (1959). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
Glinchuk, M. D., and M. F. Deigen: Theory of Local Electron Centers Close to the
Surface of a Semiconductor, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:405 (1963).
Gobrecht, A., and A. Tausend: Optische Eigenschaften und Bandermodell des Selens,
Z. Physik, 161:205 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
Gold, A.: Model for Electronic Structure of K and L Bands in Alkali Halides, Phys.
Rev., 123:1965 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Calculation of Excitation Energies in "Tightly-bound" Solids, Phys. Rev.,
124:1740 (1961). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Impurity States in Solid Neon, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 18:218 (1961).
Gold, A. V.: An Experimental Determination df the Fermi Surface in Lead, Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc. London, A261:85 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : The Density of States in Lead, Phil. Mag., 6:70 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , D. K. C. MacDonald, W. B. Pearson, and I. M. Templeton: The Thermo-
electric Power of Pure Copper, Phil. Mag., 6:765 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and M. G. Priestley: The Fermi Surface in White Tin, Phil. Mag., 6:1089
(1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also J. R. Anderson.
Gold, L., and L. M. Roth: Galvanomagnetic Theory for Electrons in Germanium
and Silicon: Magnetoresistance in the High-field Saturation Limit, Phys. Rev.,
103:61 (1956). (Secs. 2-4, 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - , W. M. Bullis, and R. A. Campbell: Theory of Cyclotron Resonance Absorption
in Many-valley Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 103:1250 (1956). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : Anisotropy of the Hot-electron Problem in Semiconductors with Spheroidal
Energy Surfaces, Phys. Rev., 104:1580 (1956).
- - - : Secular Solution of Cyclotron Resonances for Electrons in Germanium, J.
Electron., 2:131 (1956). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Density of States for Warped Spherical Energy Surfaces: Zeroth Order
Solution for Holes in Silicon and Germanium, J. Electron., 2:323 (1957). (Sec.
3-11.)
---and L. M. Roth: Galvanomagnetic Theory for n-type Germanium and Silicon:
Hall Theory and General Behavior of Magnetoresistance, Phys. Rev., 107:358
(1957). (Secs. 2-4, 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : Plasma Approach to Metallic Conduction, Nature, 181:1316 (1958). (Sec.
11-7.)
- - - : Non-linear Phenomenological Theory of Plasma Oscillations, J. Electron.
Control, 4:219 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Hot-electron Behavior in Germanium under the Influence of a Magnetic
Goldberg, C., E. N. Adams, and R. E. Davis: Magnetoconductivity in p-type Germa-
nium, Phys. Rev., 106:865 (1957). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - and W. E. Howard: Magnetoresistance Symmetry Relations in n-Germanium,
Phys. Rev., 110:1035 (1958). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
Golden, S.: Statistical Theory of Many-electron Systems. General Considerations
Pertaining to Thomas-Fermi Theory, Phys. Rev., 106:604 (1957). (Sec. 10-1.)
- - - : Statistical Theory of Many-electron Systems. Discrete Bases of Representa-
tion, Phys. Rev., 107:1283 (1957). (Sec. 10-1.)
- - - : Statistical Theory of Electronic Energies, Rev. Mod. Phys., 32:322 (1960).
(Sec. 10-1.)
Goldsmid, H.J.: Heat Conduction in Bismuth Telluride, Proc. Phy.~. Soc. (London),
72:17 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Recent Studies of Bismuth Telluride and Its Alloys, J. Appl. Phys., 32

(suppl.) :2198 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
Goldstone, J.: Derivation of the Brueckner Many-body Theory, Proc. Roy.· Soc.
(London), A239:267 (1957). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
- - - and K. Gottfried: Collective Excitations of Fermi Gases, Nuovo Cimento,
13:849 (1959). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
Golikova, 0. A., and L. S. Stilbans: An Investigation of the Hall coefficient of p-
Germanium as a Function of Magnetic Field and Temperature, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
3:3115 (1961). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Gombas, P.: Theory of Metals, Nature, 157:668 (1946). (Sec. 10-1.)
- - - : Zur Theorie der Metalle, Hung. Acta Phys., 1 :1 (1947). (Sec. 10-1.)
- - - : "The Theory of, and Methods for Solving, Many-particle Problems in Wave
Mechanics," Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, 1950. (Sec. 10-1.)
- - - : tlber die· Zustandsgleichung der Alkalimetalle, Ann. Physik, 9:70 (1951).
(Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Zur Theorie der Edelmetalle und der Alkalimetalle, Acta Phys, Hung., 1:301
(1952). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Erweiterung der Hartree-Fockschen Gleichungen durch die Korrelation der
Elektronen, Acta Phys. Hung., 4:187 (1954). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Losung der mit der Korrelation erweiterten Grundgleichung des statistischen
Atoms fur von null verschiedene Drucke, Acta Phys. Hung., 5:123 (1955). (Sec.
11-7.)
- - - and 0. Kunvari: tlber die Zustandsgleichung der Edelgasatome, Acta Phys.
Hung., 5:339 (1955). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : tlber die Druckabhangigkeit der Bahndrehimpulsverteilung der Elektronen
im Atom, Acta Phys. Hv:ng., 7:365 (1957).
- - - : Calculation of Polarizabilities. I. Freil Atoms, Acta Phys. Hung., 10:101
(1959).
- - - : Calculation of Polarizabilities. II. Dependence of the Polarizability on the
Atomic Volume, Acta Phys. Hung., 11:201 (1960).
- - - : Zur Erweiterung des statistischen Atommodells mit der Korrelationskorrek-
tion, Ann. Physik, 7:1 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Zur Theorie des metallischen Silbers, Z. Naturforsch., 15a:531 (1960). (Sec.
3-11.)
- - - : tlber die Korrelationsenergie und das Korrelationspotential eines Elektro-
nengases, Acta Phys. Hung., 13:233 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Zur Herleitung der Grundgleichung der statistischen Theorie des Atoms,
Acta Phys. Hung., 13:455 (1961). (Sec. 10-1.)
- - - : Zur Korrelationskorrektion des statistischen Atommodells, Acta Phys. Hung.,
14:83 (1962). (Sec. 10-1.)
---and T. Szondy: Hohere Naherungen desstatistischen Atommodells, in welchem
die Elektronen nach der Hauptquantenzahl gruppiert sind, I, Acta Phys. Hung.,
14:335 (1962). (Sec. 10-1.)
--.-: tlber statistischen Naherungen im Vielelektronenproblem, Phys. Letters,
3:160 (1963). (Sec. 10-1.)
- - - : tl'ber statistische Naherungen fiir Vielelektronenprobleme, Z. Physik, 172 :293
(1963). (Sec. 10-1.)
- - - : Present Sta.te of the Statistical Theory of Atoms, Rev. Mod. Phys., 35:512
(1963). (Sec. 10-1.)
Gonzalo, J. A., and J. R. Lopez-Alonso: Statistical Theory for Ferroelectricity in
Tri-glycine Sulfate, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 25:303 (1964).
Goodenough, J. B.: Jahn-Teller Distortions Induced by Tetrahedral-site Fe 2+ Ions,

Goodman, B.: Adiabatic vs. Bloch Approximation in Lattice Scattering of Electrons,
Phys. Rev., 110:888 (1958).
- - - : See also F. Bassani.
Goodman, R. R.: Cyclotron Resonance in Germanium, Phys. Rev., 122:397 (1961).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also J.M. Luttinger.
Gorban, I. S.: Optical Absorption and Energy Level Structure of Cuprous Oxide,
Ukr. Fiz. Zh., 6:281 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and S. N. Rudko: Optical Properties of SiC Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1368
(1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Gordeev, G. V.: The Problem of Internal Breakdown in Nonpolar Semiconductors,
Fiz. 7'verd. Tela, 2 :611 (1960).
- - - : Low-frequency Plasma Oscillations in Non-polar Semiconductors, Fiz. Tverd.
Tela, 4:3144 (1962).
Gordon, A. N., and E. H. Sondheimer: The Evaluation of the Surface Impedance in
the Theory of the Anomalous Skin Effect in Metals, Appl. Sci. Res., B3:297
(1953). (Sec. 5-1.)
Gordon, W. L., A. S. Joseph, and T. G. Eck: Low Field de Haas-van Alphen Studies
of the Fermi Surface of Magnesium, "The Fermi Surface," John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, 1960, p. 84. (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : See also A. S. Joseph, R. W. Starke.
Gorkun, Yu. I., and K. B. Tolpygo: Theory of Transport Phenomena in Semicon-
ductors Similar to p-type Germanium, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:2903 (1961). (Sec.
3-11.)
Gorlich, P., and H. Hora: Theory of Photoelectric Emission, Optik, 16:116 (1958).
Gornyi, N. B.: Discrete Energy Losses of Electrons at Reflection from Mo02 Surface,
Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 31 :132 (1958).
Goroff, J., and L. Kleinman: Deformation Potentials in Silicon. III. Effects of a
General Strain on Conduction and Valence Levels, Phys. Rev., 132:1080 (1963).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Gosar, P.: A New Method for Solving Multiple Scattering Problems in Inhomogeneous
Media, Nuovo Cimento, 6:1437 (1957).
- - - : Propagation of Waves through a Sheet of the Medium with a Cubic Periodic
Structure, Nuovo Cimento, 7:742 (1958).
Goscinski, 0., and J. L. Calais: Some Comments on the AMO Method for the Ground
State of the Hydrogen Molecule, Arkiv Fysik, 29:135 (1965).
Gourary, B. S., and F. J. Adrian: Approximate Wave Functions for the F Center,
and Their Application in the Electron Spin Resonance Problem, Phys. Rev.,
106:1180 (1957).
- - - and P. J. Luke: Approximate Wave Functions for the M-center by the Point-
ion Lattice Method, Phys. Rev., 107:960 (1957).
- - - : Approximate Wave Functions for the U Center by the Point-ion Lattice
Method, Phys. Rev., 112:337 (1958).
- - - and A. A. Maradudin: Absorption and Emission Spectra of an Electron in a
One-dimensional Deep Trap, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 13:88 (1960).
Gourceaux, M.: Une representation mathematique simple de !'influence de la frequence
sur l'indice de refraction complexe des metaux; application a la transparence
des metaux alcalins pour le rayonnement ultraviolet, Compt. Rend., 249:1338
(1959). (Secs. 3-11, 5-5.)
Sur la transparence des metaux alcalins dans !'ultraviolet, Compt. Rend.,

249:2020 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
Grabner, L.: Longitudinal Hall Effect, Phys. Rev., 117:689 (1960). (Sec. 2-4.)
Granato, A., J. de Klerk, and R. Truell: Dispersion of Elastic Waves in Sodium
Chloride, Phys. Rev., 108:895 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
Green, B. A., Jr., and B. S. Chandrasekhar: Observation of Oscillatory Magneto-
striction in Bismuth at 4.2°K, Phys. Rev. Letters, 11:331 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Greene, M. P., and W. Kohn: Resistivity of Solid and Liquid Sodium, Phys. Rev.,
137:A513 (1965). (Sec. 3-11.)
Greene, R. F.: Cooling of Hot Electrons by Acoustic Scattering in Degenerate Semi-
conductors, J. Electron. Control, 3:387 (1957).
- - - : See also R. L. Longini.
Greenfield, A. J.: Hall Coefficients of Liquid Metals, Phys. Rev., 136:Al589 (1964).
(Sec. 2-4.)
Greenwood, D. A.: The Boltzmann Equation in the Theory of Electrical Conduction
in Metals, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 71:585 (1958).
- - - : Electrical Conduction in a One-dimensional Disordered Potential, Proc. Phys.
Soc. (London), 79:1282 (1962).
- - - : A Note on the Theory of Thermal Conduction in Metals, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), 80:226 (1962).
- - - : See also J.M. Conway.
Grenville-Wells, H. J.: Anisotropic Temperature Vibrations in Crystals. II. The
Effect of Changes in Atomic Scattering Factors and Temperature Parameters on
the Accuracy of the Determination of the Structure of Urea, Acta Cryst., 9:709
(1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also K. Lonsdale.
Grimes, C. C., A. F. Kip, F. Spong, R. A. Stradling, and P. Pincus: Cyclotron Reson-
ance Involving Current Sheets in Aluminum, Phys. Rev. Letters, 11:455 (1963).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Cyclotron Resonance in Sodium and Potassium, Phys. Rev.,
132:1991 (1963). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Grimley, T. B.: The Normal Mode Frequencies of Chemisorbed Atoms and Molecules,
Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) 79:1203 (1962). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Bopp's Approximation to the Energy of an N-electron System, Proc. Phys.
Soc. (London), 84:178 (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
Grissie, A. D. C.: The de Haas-van Alphen Effect at High Magnetic Fields in Cad-
mium, Phil. Mag., 9:847 (1964). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
Groschwitz, E., and R. Wiesner: -Ober den Beitrag der Elektronen zu den optischen
Eigenschaften von Halbleitern, Z. Angew. Phys., 8:391 (1956). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and K. Siebertz: The Problem of Plasma Oscillations and Waves in Semi-
conductors, Z. Naturforsch., 11a:482 (1956). (Sec. 11-7.)
Gross, E. F., B. S. Razbirin, and M. A. Yakobson: The Line Spectrum of the Basic
Absorption Edge and the Structure of Cadmium Sulfide Crystals, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz.,
27:207 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , B. P. Zakharachenya, and B. E. Razbirin: Magneto-optical Effects in· the
Absorption Spectrum of Cadmium Sulfide Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:3083
(1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , G. K. Kiluzhnaya, and D. S. Nadvetskii: The Complex Structure of the
Absorption Spectrum of Gallium Phosphide Single Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
3:3543 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
Gross, I. E. P.: Analytical Methods in the Theory of Electron Lattice Interactions,
Ann. Phys. (N.Y.), 8:78 (1959).
Groves, S., and W. Paul: Band Structure of Gray Tin, Phys. Rev. Letters, 11:194
(1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Gschneidner, K. A., Jr.: Physical Properties and Inter-relationships of Metallic and
Semimetallic Elements, Solid State Phys., 16:275 (1964).
Gubanov, A. I.: Scattering of Electrons in a Liquid Due to Violation of Long-range
Order, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 30:862 (1956).
- - - : Electron Scattering on Thermal Oscillations in a Liquid, Zh. Eksperirn. i Teor.
Fiz., 31:462 (1956).
- - - : Mean Free Path of Electrons in Liquid and Amorphous Conductors, Zh.
Tekhn. Fiz., 26:1651 (1956).
- - - : Electrical Conductivity, Thermal Conductivity, Thermal e.m.f., and Hall and
Nernst Constants for Amorphous Substances with Electronic Conductivity,
Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:3 (1957). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : Change in Properties of Semiconductors on Fusion, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27 :2510
(1957).
- - - and A. A. Nranyan: Dependence of the Frequency Spectrum of a Simple
Cubic Lattice· on Deformation, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1678 (1963). (Sec. 8-6.)
Guenault, A. M., and D. K. C. MacDonald: Electron and Phonon Scattering. IL
Thermoelectricity in Rubidium, Cesium, and Alloys at Very Low Temperatures,
Guentert, 0. J.: Effects of Layer Faults in Diamond Structures on X-ray Diffraction
Patterns, J. Appl. Phys., 28:1515 (1957).
Guertin, R. F., and F. Stern: Effective Fields in Cubic Lattices with Extended Charges,
Phys. Rev., 134:A427 (1964).
Gulyaev, Y. V.: Scattering of Current Carriers on Impurity Centers, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
1:422 (1959).
- - - : See also V. L. Bonch-Bruevich, S. F. Edwards.
Gummel, H., and M. Lax: Thermal Ionization and Capture of Electrons Trapped in
Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 97:1469 (1955).
- - - and---: Thermal Capture of Electrons in Silicon, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.),
2:28 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
Gunnerson, E. M.: The de Haas-van Alphen Effect in Aluminum, Phil. Trans. Roy.
Soc., A249:299 (1957). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
Gunther, L.: Lattice-vibration Effects Due to Impurities in an Alkali Halide, Phys.
Rev., 138:A1697 (1965). (Sec. 8-6.)
Gupta, K. P., C.H. Cheng, and P. A. Beck: Review of the Electronic Specific Heat of
bee and fee Solid Solutions of First Long Period Transition Elements, J. Phys.
Radium, 23:721 (1962). (Sec. 1-4.)
Gurevich, A. V.: Simplification of the Equations for the Distribution Function of
Electrons in Plasma, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 32:1237 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
Gurevich, L. E., and Z. I. Uritskii: The Oscillation of the Absorption Coefficient of a
Crystal in a Magnetic Field in the Region of the Direct Photoeffect, Zh. Tekhn.
Fiz., 28 :932 (1958).
- - - and---: On the Theory of the Long Wave Absorption in Crystals, Fiz.
Tverd. Tela, 1 :1298 (1959). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and G. M. Nedlin: Thermoelectric Coefficients of Metals in Strong Magnetic
Fields and the Effect of Drag of Electrons by Phonons, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor.
Fiz., 37:765 (1959).
- - - and I. P. Ipatova: Faraday Effect in Semiconductors with Free Carriers :n a
Strong Magnetic Field, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 37 :1324 (1959).
- - - and Z. I. Uritskii: Theory of Infrared Absorption in Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
2:1239 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS
---and G. M. Nedlin: Thermal EMF of Semiconductors in a Quantizing Magnetic

Field Taking into Account Drag Exerted on Electrons by Phonons, Fiz. Tverd.
Tela, 3:2779 (1961).
- - - and I. P. lpatova: Absorption of Electromagnetic Waves by Homopolar
Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4: 2065 (1962). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and I. N. Yassievich: Theory of the Ferromagnetic Hall Effect, Fiz. Tverd.
Tela, 4:2854 (1962). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - and A. L. Efros: Effect of Spin on the Shubnikov-de Haas Oscillations, Zh.
- - - and I. Ya. Korenblit: Electrical Conductivity and the Galvanomagnetic
Coefficients of Semi-metals and Degenerate Semiconductors in Strong Electric
Fields, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 54:2150 ((1963). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - and I. V. Ioffe: Theory of Current Instability in Semiconductors and Semi-
metals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 5:2674 (1963).
- - - : See also Y. A. Bychkov.
Gurevich, V. L.: Oscillations of the Conductivity of Metallic Films in Magnetic
Fields, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 35:668 (1958). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : Ultrasonic Absorption in Metals in a Magnetic Field, I, II, Zh. Eksperim.
i Teor. Fiz., 37:71, 1680 (1959). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - : The Theory of the Thermal Conductivity of Dielectrics, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
1:1474 (1959).
- - - , V. G. Skobov, and Yu. A. Firsov: Giant Quantum Oscillations in the Acous-
tical Absorption by a Metal in a Magnetic Field, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz.,
40:786 (1961). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - : On the Theory of Sound Absorption in Piezoelectrics, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
4:909 (1962).
- - - , Yu. A. Firsov, and A. L. Efros: A New Type of Magnetoresistance Oscilla-
tions in Semiconductors and Semimetals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:1813 (1962). (Sec.
3-10.)
- - - and V. D. Kagan: Absorption of Ultrasonics in Piezoelectric Semiconductors,
Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:2441 (1962).
Gurgenishvili, G. E., M. G. Phkakadze, and Z. K. Saralidze: Magnetic-optical Absorp-
tion in the Valence Band of Germanium, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:554 (1964). (Secs.
3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also G. A. Baramidze.
Gurney, R. W.: Lattice Vibrations m Graphite, Phys. Rev., 88:465 (1952). (Sec.
8-6.)
- - - : The Scattering of Slow Neutrons in Polycrystalline Media, Phys. Rev.,
88:466 (1952).
Guro, G. M.: Decay Law for Concentration of Non-equilibrium Charge Carriers in
Semiconductors, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 33:158 (1957).
- - - : On the Theory of the Photo-electromagnetic Effect in Semiconductors, Zh.
Tekhn. Fiz., 28:1036 (1958).
- - - : Characteristic Times of the Steady-state Electronic Processes in Semicon-
ductors, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1 :3 (1959).
Gurvich, Yu. A.: Cyclotron Resonance of Hot Electrons, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 5:2786
(1963). (Sec. 3-8.)
Gurzhi, R. N.: A Quantum .Kinetic Equation for Electrons in a Metal, Zh. Rksperim.
i Teor. Fiz., 33:451 (1957).
- - - and M. Ya. Azbel: Electronic Relaxation Time in a High-frequency Electro-
magnetic Field, and the Surface Impedance of a Metal, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz.,
38:524 (1960).
- - : See also M. Ya. Azbel.

Guseva, G. I., and G. G. Taluts: On the Theory of Collective Excitations of the
Electron System in a Solid, Fiz. Metal. i Metalloved., 7:658 (1959). (Sec. 11-7.)
Guthrie, G. L., S. A. Friedberg, and J.E. Goldman: Specific Heats of Some Copper-
rich Copper-Nickel Alloys at Liquid Helium Temperatures, Phys. Rev., 113:45
(1959). (Sec. 1-4.)
- - - : Heat Capacity of Pseudo-copper below 4.2°K, Phys. Rev., 113:793 (1959).
(Sec. 1-4.)
Gutzwiller, M. C.: Correlation of Electrons in a Narrows Band, Phys. Rev., 137:A1726
(1965).
Haas, C., and J. A. A. Ketelaar: Width of Infrared Reflection Bands, Phys. Rev.,
103:564 (1956). (Sec. 5-5.)
---and---: The Effective Field and the Frequency of Overtones and Combina-
tion Bands in the Vibration Spectra of Crystals, Physica, 22:1286 (1956). (Sec.
8-6.)
Haase, R.: Zur Theorie der Thermoelektrizitat, Z. Naturjorsch., 11a:681 (1956).
Hadzi, D.: Far Infrared Bands of Some Crystals with Strong Hydrogen Bonds,
J. Chem. Phys., 34:1445 (1961). (Sec. 5-5.)
Haering, R.R., and P.R. Wallace: The Electric and Magnetic Properties of Graphite,
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(1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Note on the Motion of Electrons and Holes in Perturbed Lattices, Can. J.
Phys., 37:47 (1959).
- - - : See also W. P. Dumke, P. B. Miller.
Haga, E.: On the Theory of the Thermoelectricity in Two-band Semiconductors,
J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 14:35 (1959).
- - - : Infrared Absorption of Semiconductors at Low Temperatures, J. Phys. Soc.
Japan, 19:2030 (1964). (Sec. 5-5.)
Haga, S., and H. Kimura: Free-carrier Infrared Absorption in III-V Semiconductors.
IV. Inter-conduction Band Transitions, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 19:1596 (1964).
(Sec. 5-5.)
Hagstrum, H. D.: State Density in the Valence Band of Silicon, J. Chem. Phys.
Solids, 8:211 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
Hajdu, J.: Zur Theorie der magnetischen Widerstandsii.nderung, II, Z. Physik,
160:481 (1960). (Sec. 3-10.)
Haken, H.: -Uber die Struktur der Losung des Mehrelektronen-problems in Festkorper
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Halford, J. 0.: I. Normal Frequencies of a One-dimensional Crystal. II. An Approx-
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19:1375 (1951). (Sec. 8-6.)
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(1952). (Sec. 8-6.)
Hall, G. L.: Nordheim's Theory of the Resistivity of Alloys, Phys. Rev., 116:604 (1959).
Hall, L. H.: Ultrasonic Attenuation in Metals in the Fluid-dynamic Approximation,
Phys. Rev., 136:A1136 (1964). (Sec. 3-9.)
Halpern, J., B. Lax, and Y. Nishina: Quantum Theory of Interband Faraday and
Voigt Effects, Phys. Rev., 134:A140 (1964). (Sec. 3-8.)
Halpern, V.: Overlap Functions in Planar Crystals, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:1495
(1963).
Hambleton, K. C., C. Hilsum, and B. R. Holeman: Determination of the Effective
Ionic Charge of Gallium Arsenide from Direct Measurements of the Dielectric

'
-
--"-~r
~?;
.>?_- -
-
-
Constant, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 77:1147 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.) --i~~~i
Hanamura, E., T. Inui, and Y. Toyozawa: Cyclotron Resonance of Hot Electrons in
Pure Germanium, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 17:666 (1962). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.) ;"it
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Handler, P.: Energy Level Diagrams for Germanium and Silicon Surfaces, J. Phys. !.e-_1
Chem. Solids, 14:1 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.) ~-•1
Haneman, D.: Free Bonds in Semiconductors, Semicond. Conj., Exeter, 1962, Institute
of Physics and the Physical Society, London, 1962, p. 842.
Hanlon, J. E., and A. W. Lawson: Effective Ionic Charge in Alkali Halides, Phys.
Rev., 113:472 (1959). (Sec. 9-5.)
Hanna, I. I., and E. H. Sondheimer: Electron and Lattice Conduction in Metals,
Harbecke, G.: Absorption Edge in Ferroelectric SbSI under Electric Fields, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 24:957 (1963). (Sec. 8-5.)
Hardy, J. R.: Lattice Vibrational Spectrum of Sodium Chloride, Phil. Mag., 4:1278
(1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and A. M. Karo: Lattice Vibrations of Sodium Chloride: Experimental and
Theoretical Heat Capacity, Phil. Mag., 5:859 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.) -j
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(1961). (Sec. 8-6.) l
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Phil. Mag., 7:315 (1962). (Sec. 8-6.)
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Impurity Centers, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 79:1154 (1962).
- - - : See also A. M. Karo.
Harman, T. C., A. J. Strauss, D. H. Dickey, M. S. Dresselhaus, G. B. Wright, and
J. G. Mavroides: Low Electron Effective Masses and Energy Gap in Cd,Hg,_, Te,
Phys. Rev. Letters, 7:403 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
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Mercury Selenide, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 25:931 (1964). (Sec. 2-4.)
Harper, A. F. A., W.R. G. Kemp, P. G. Klemens, R. J. Tainish, and G. K. White:
The Thermal and Electrical Conductivity of Chromium at Low Temperatures,
Phil. Mag., 2:577 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
Harper, P. G.: Single Band Motion of Conduction Electrons in a Uniform Magnetic
I
j-
Field, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), A68:874 (1955).

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A68:879 (1955).
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Phys. Soc. (London), B69:1095 (1956).
----: The Interaction of Electrons with Lattice Vibrations, Proc. Phys. Soc.
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(1959).
- - - : See also J. J. O'Dwyer.

Barrick, N. J.: Use of Infrared Absorption in Germanium to Determine Carrier
Distributions for Injection and Extraction, Phys. Rev., 103:1173 (1956). (Sec.
3-11.)
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(Sec. 3-11.)
Harrison, M. J.: Magnetic Field Dependence of Ultrasonic Attenuation, Phys. Rev.
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- - : See also M. H. Cohen.
Harrison, R. J., and A. Paskin: On "Screened Impurity Potentials in Metals," J.
Phys. Soc. Japan, 16:1902 (1960).
Harrison, W. A.: Scattering of Electrons by Lattice Vibrations in Non-polar Crystals,
Phys. Rev., 104:1281 (1956).
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(Sec. 3-11.)
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(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also M. H. Cohen.
Hart, E. W.: Conduction Band Polarization in Dilute Alloys, Phys. Rev., 106:467
(1957).
Harvey, W.W.: The Relation between the Chemical Potential of Electrons and Energy
Parameters of the Band Theory as Applied to Semiconductors, J. Phys. Chem.
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Hasegawa, A., and J. Yamashita: Density Matrix Approach to a Simple Hot Electron
Problem, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 23:875 (1962).
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Hasegawa, H.: Theory of Cyclotron Resonance in Strained Silicon Crystals, Phys.
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Hashimoto, H., M. Mannami, and T. Naiki: Dynamical Theory of Electron Diffrac-
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Haslett, J. C., and W. F. Love: Galvanomagnetic Effects in n-InSb at Low Tempera-
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Hass, M.: Infrared. Lattice Reflection Spectra of LiCl, LiBr, KF, RbF, and CsF,
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Hattori, M., and K. Yamada: Low Lying Energy Loss in Silver Films, J. Phys. Soc.
Japan, 18:200 (1963).
---,---,and H. Suzuki: Plasma Resonance Absorption in Thin Metal Films,
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Hattori, T., and M. C. Steele: Self-magnetoresistance and Pinch Effect in Bismuth,

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Haug, A.: Adiabatische Naherung und Wechselwirkungsglieder in der Theorie
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Haynes, J. R., and J. A. Hornbeck: Trapping of Minority Carriers in Silicon. II.
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---,J.M. Luttinger, E. H. Sondheimer, and P. J. Stiles: The Orbital Diamagnetic
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Hedgcock, F. T., and W. B. Muir: De Haas-van Alphen Effect in Zinc Manganese
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Heikes, R. R., and W. D. Johnston: Mechanism of Conduction in Li-substituted
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---:Thede Haas-van Alphen Effect in Alloys, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), A69:505
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(Sec. 3-11.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY .. BOOK LIST 449
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(Sec. 3-8.)
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Hoerni, J., and W. A. Wooster: Determination of Elastic Constants of Lithium Fluo-
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Hopfield, J. J.: Classical Explanation of the Anomalous Magnetoresistance of Bismuth,
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(Sec. 8-1.)
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Hughes, A. J., and J. Callaway: Energy Bands in Body-centered and Hexagonal
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Hughes, D. J., H. Palevsky, W. Kley, and E. Tunkelo: Atomic Motions in Water by
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Hughes, D. S., and C. Maurette: Dynamic Elastic Model of Iron, Aluminum, and
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Huldt, L., and T. Staflin: Valence Band Structure of Silicon, Phys. Rev. Letters, 1:313
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Hulliger, F., and E. Mooser: Electrical Properties of Anomalously Composed Dal-
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Humphrey, J. N., and R. L. Petritz: Photoconductivity in Lead Selenide: Theory of
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Huntington, H. B.: Surface Energies for a Free Electron Metal, Phys. Rev., 75:1627
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Hurley, A. C., J.E. Lennard-Jones, and J. A. Pople: The Molecular Orbital Theory
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Hutner, R. A., E. S. Rittner, and F. K. du Pre: Concerning the Work of Polarization
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Hwa, R. C.: Effects of Electron-Electron Interactions on Cyclotron Resonances in
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Ichikawa, Y. H.: Theory of Collective Oscillation of Electrons in Solids, Progr.
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Ichimura, H., Quant.um Statistical Mechanics of Electron-Phonon System, Progr.
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Indenbom, V. L., and M. A. Chernysheva: Construction of the Thermodynamic
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Ingard, U., and D. C. Pridmore-Brown: Scattering of Sound by Sound, J. Acoust. Soc.
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Inoue, M.: Landau Levels and Cyclotron Resonance in Graphite, J. Phys. Soc. Japan,
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Inui, T., and Y. Uemura: Theory of Color Centers in Ionic Crystals, I, II, Progr.
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Ioffe, A. F.: Two New Applications of the Peltier Effect, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 26:478 (1956).
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Irie, T.: Magnetoresistance Effect of Lead Sulfide Group of Semiconductors. I.
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Itakura, M., and H. Toyoda: Electrical Conductivity and Hall Coefficient of CdS
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Ivanchik, I. I.: The Macroscopic Theory of Ferroelectrics, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:3731
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Ivanov, G. A., and A. M. Popov: The Mean Free Path of Carriers in Bismuth and in
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Izuyama, T.: Electron Interaction in Very Long Linear Conjugated Molecules. II.
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Izyumov, Y. A.: The Spectrum of Elementary Excitations of the Electron System of
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Jones, M. C., and E. H. Sondheimer: Cyclotron Resonance in Metals at High Fre-
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Joseph, A. S., W. L. Gordon, J. R. Reitz, and T. G. Eck: Evidence for Spin-Orbit
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Joseph, R. J., and B. D. Silverman: Optical Modes of the Perovskite Structure, J.
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Juli, G. W.: An Experimental Investigation of Characteristic Electron Energy Losses
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(Sec. A2-1.)
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Jaswal, S.S., and D. J. Montgomery: Lattice Vibration Eigenvectors and Applications
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Jeffrey, G. A., G. S. Parry, and R. L. Mozzi: Study of the Wurtzite-type Binary Com-
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Jennings, L. D., D.R. Chipman, and J. J. De Marco: Measurement of the Scattering
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- - - and V. M. Nabutovskii: Effect of a Slightly Nonuniform Magnetic Field on the

Resonance Effect in Metals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:685 (1962).
- - - : Anomalous Penetration of Metals by an Electromagnetic Field, Zh. Eksperim.
i Teor. Fiz., 44:1036 (1963).
- - - : See also M. Ya. Azbel, A. A. Galkin.
Kanzaki, H.: Point Defects in Face-centered Cubic Lattice. I. Distortion around
Defects. II. X-ray Scattering Effects, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 2:24, 107 (1957).
Kao, L. P., and E. Katz: Phenomenological Theory of Anisotropic Isothermal Galvano-
magnetic Effects, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 6:223 (1958). (Sec. 2-4.)
Kao, Y. H.: Cyclotron Resonance Studies of Fermi Surfaces in Bi, Phys. Rev., 129:1122
(1963). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , R. D. Brown III, and R. L. Hartman: Shubnikov-de Haas Effect and Cyclotron
Resonance in a Dilute Bi-Sb Alloy, Phys. Rev., 136:A858 (1964). (Secs. 3-8,
3-11.)
Kapitsa, M. L., S. A. Fredrikhov, and A. R. Shulman: Characteristic Energy Losses
on Reflection of Electrons from Monocrystals of Alkali Halides, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
2:517 (1960).
Kaplan, H.: Remarks on Force Constant Models for Lattice Dynamics, Phys. Rev.,
126:1905 (1962). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Impurity States Associated with Subsidiary Energy-band Minima, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 24:1593 (1963).
Kaplan, J. I.: Thermomagnetic Anisotropy, Phys. Rev., 99:1808 (1955).
Kaplunova, E. I., and K. B. Tolpygo: Temperature Dependence of the Hall Coefficient
in Semiconductors with Constant Carrier Concentration, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27 :2246
(1957). (Sec. 2-4.)
Karavaev, G. F., N. V. Kudryavtseva, and V. A. Chaldyshev: Structure of the Elec-
tron Energy Spectrum in Th,P,-type Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:3471 (1962).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Karo, A. M.: Lattice Vibrations in Alkali Halide Crystals. I. Lithium and Sodium
Halides. II. Potassium and Rubidium Halides, Cesium Fluoride, J. Chem. Phys.,
31:1489 (1959); 33:7 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and J. R. Hardy: Lattice Dynamics and Specific Heat Data for Rocksalt
Structure Alkali Halides, Phys. Rev., 129:2024 (1963). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also J. R. Hardy.
Karplus, M., and K. M. Watson: Structure of a Many-particle Quantum-mechanical
Medium, Phys. Rev., 107:1205 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
Karpus, A. S., and I. B. Batarunas: Complex Band Structure of Semiconductors of
Sb,S, Type, Litov. Fiz. Sbornik, 1:315 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
Kaschluhn, F.: Zur spezifischen Warme von Metallelektronen, Ann. Physik, 19:94
(1956). (Sec. 1-4.)
Kashcheev, V. N., and M. A. Krivoglaz: The Theory of Inelastic Scattering of
Neutrons by Impurity Centers in Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:3167 (1961).
- - - : On the Infrared Absorption Theory in Crystals Including Three-Phonon
Interactions, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1358 (1963). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Theory of Infrared Light Absorption in Crystals. Four-phonon Interaction,
Kashiwase, Y., and Y. Kainuma: The Study of the Lattice Vibration of KBr by the
Measurement of X-ray Diffuse Scattering, J. Phy~. Soc. Japan, 20:461 (1965).
(Sec. 8-1.)
Kasuya, T.: On the Theory of Thermal Conductivity of Monovalent Metals, Progr.
Theoret. Phys. (Kyoto), 13:561 (1955). (Secs. 3-11, 8-6.)
- - - : A Theory of Impurity Conduction, I, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 13:1096 (1958).
- - - : The General Theory of Transport: The Difference between Electric Field

and Density Gradient, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 14:410 (1959).
---and K. Yamada: Electrical and Thermal Conductivity of Monovalent Metals;
The Influences of Coulomb Interaction, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 14:416 (1959).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Katana, P. M.: Many-particle Quantum Green's Function in the Theory of Multi-
phonon Transitions, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:1710 {1962).
Kato, N.: The Energy Flow of X-rays in an Ideally Perfect Crystal: Comparison
between Theory and Experiment, Acta Cryst., 13:349 (1960).
Katz, E.: Note on Frequency Spectra of Simple Solids from Specific Heat Data, J.
Chem. Phys., 19:488 (1951). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also L. P. Kao.
Katz, J. I., S. A. Rice, Sang-ii Choi, and J. Kortner: On the Excess Electron and Hole
Band Structures and Carrier Mobility in Naphthalene, Anthracene, and Several
Polyphenyls, J. Chem. Phys., 39:1683 {1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Katzin, L. I.: Regularities in the Absorption Spectra of Halides, J. Chem. Phys.,
23:2055 {1955). (Sec. 5-5.)
Kaus, P. E.: Theory of Interstitial Impurity States in Semiconductors, Phys. Rev.,
109:1944 (1958).
- - - : Role of Negative Effective Mass in Negative Resistance, Phys. Rev. Letters,
3:20 (1959).
- - - and W. K. R. Watson: Dispersion Relations for Bloch Waves, Phys. Rev.,
120:44 (1960).
Kawamura, H.: The Deformation Potential of Potassium Chloride, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 6:256 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , M. Fukai, U. Imai, and K. Tomishima: Cyclotron Resonance of Hot Electrons
in Germanium, Semicond. Conj., Exeter, 1962, Institute of Physics and the
Physical Society, London, 1962, p. 629. (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , H. Saji, M. Fukai, K. Sekido, and I. Imai: Cyclotron Resonance Line Broaden-
ing Due to Carrier-Carrier Interaction in Germanium, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 19:288
(1964). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : See also M. Fukai, E. Otsuka.
Keffer, F., and A. M. Portis: Study of the Wurtzite-type Binary Compounds. II.
· Macroscopic Theory of the Distortion and Polarization, J. Chem. Phys., 27:675
(1957).
- - - : Study of the Wurtzite-type Binary Compounds. IV. Theory of Double
Refraction, J. Chem. Phys., 32:62 (1960). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : The Effective Ionic Charge in CdS, J. Chem. Phys., 33:1267 (1960). (Sec.
3-11.)
- - - : See also M. H. Cohen.
Keldysh, L. V.: On the Behavior of Nonmetallic Crystals in Strong Electric Fields,
Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 33:994 (1957).
- - - : Effect of Crystal Lattice Vibrations on Electron-Hole Pair Production in a
Strong Electric Field, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 34:962 (1958).
- - - : Effect of a Strong Electric Field on the Optical Properties of Non-conducting
Crystals, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 34:1138 {1958). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Kinetic Theory of Impact Ionization in Semiconductors, Zh. Eksperim. i
Teor. Fiz., 37:713 (1959).
- - - : Effect of Ultrasonics on the Electron Spectrum of Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
4 :2265 {1962).
- - - and Yu. V. Kopaev: The Energy Spectrum of a Degenerate Semiconductor
with an Ionic Lattice, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1411 (1963).
Keller, R. A.: Electronic Conductivity in Molecular Crystals: An Alternative to the

Bloch-function Approach, J. Chem. Phys., 38:1076 (1963).
Kelley, P. L.: Nonlinear Effects in Solids, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:607 (1963).
Kelly, D. C., H. Margenau, and S. C. Brown: Cyclotron Resonance: Method for
Determining Collision Cross Sections for Low-energy Electrons, Phys. Rev.,
108:1367 (1957). (Sec. 3-8.)
Kelly, H.P.: Correlation Effects in Atoms, Phys. Rev., 131:684 (1963). (Secs. 10-6,
11-7.)
- - - and A. M. Sessler: Correlation Effects in Many-fermion Systems: Multiple-
particle Excitation Expansion, Phys. Rev., 132:2091 (1963). (Secs. 10-6, 11-7.)
- - - : Correlation Effects in Many Fermion Systems. II. Linked Clusters, Phys.
Rev., 134:A1450 (1964). (Secs. 10-6, 11-7.)
- - - : Many-body Perturbation Theory Applied to Atoms, Phys. Rev., 136:B896
(1964). (Secs. 10-6, 11-7.)
Kemmey, P. J., and E. W. J. Mitchell: The Magnetoresistance of p-type Semicon-
ducting Diamond, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A263:420 (1961). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
Kemp, J. C., and V. I. Neeley: Wave Functions for F Centers in MgO, Phys. Rev.,
132:215 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Kemp, W. R. G., P. G. Klemens, A. K. Sreedhar, and G. K. White: The Thermal and
Electrical Conductivity of Silver- Palladium and Silver-Cadmium Alloys at Low
Temperatures, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A233:480 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , and R. J. Tainish: Lattice Thermal Conductivity of Some Copper
Alloys, Australian J. Phys., 10:454 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also J. A. Birch, A. F. A. Harper.
Kestner, N. R., and 0. Sinanoglu: Study of Correlation in He-like Systems Using
Exactly Soluble Model, Phys. Rev., 128:2687 (1962). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and---: Effective Intermolecular Pair Potentials in Nonpolar Media, J.
Chem. Phys., 38:1730 (1963). (Sec. 11-7.)
Ketterson, J. B.: Ultrasonic Attenuation in Antimony. II. De Haas-van Alphen
Oscillations, Phys. Rev., 129:18 (1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - and Y. Eckstein: De Haas-Shubnikov Effect in Antimony, Phys. Rev., 132 :1885
(1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : See also Y. Eckstein.
Keyes, R. J., S. Zwerdling, S. Foner, H. H. Kolm, and B. Lax: Infrared Cyclotron
Resonance in Bi, InSb and InAs with High Pulsed Magnetic Fields, Phys. Rev.,
104:1804 (1956). (Secs. 2-7, 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also B. Lax, S. Zwerdling.
Keyes, R. W.: Piezoresistancein Bismuth, Phys. Rev., 104:665 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Isotropic Approximation to the Magnetoresistance of a Multivalley Semi-
conductor, Phys. Rev., 109:43 (1958). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : Interpretation of Magnetoconductivity in n-type Germanium and Silicon,
Phys. Rev., 111:34 (1958). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : Volumes of Activation for Diffusion in Solids, J. Chem. Phys., 29:467 (1958).
- - - : Effects of Electron-Electron Scattering on the Electrical Properties of Semi-
conductors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 6:1 (1958).
- - - : High-temperature Thermal Conductivity of Insulating Crystals: Relationship
to the Melting Point, Phys. Rev.,116:564 (1959).
- - · : The Effects of Elastic Deformation on the Electrieal Conductivity of Semi-
conductors, Solid State Phys., 11:149 (1960).
- - - : Hydrogen-like Impurity States in Axially Symmetric Crystals, I BM .J. Res.
Develop., 6:65 (1961).
- - - : See also E. N. Adams, R. J. Sladek.
Khaikin, M. S.: Cyclotron Resonance in Tin, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 37:1473
(1959). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : The Problem of Cyclotron Resonance in Tin, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz.,
39:513 (1960). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - ~ Direct Measurement of the Momentum of Conductivity Electrons in a Metal,
- - - and R. T. Mina: Investigation of the Fermi Surface in Lead by the Cyclotron
Resonance Technique, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 42:35 (1962). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Investigation of the Shape of a Cross-section of the Fermi Surface of Tin,
- - - , R. T. Mina, and V. S. Edelman: Cyclotron Resonance and Quantum Oscilla-
tions of the Surface Resistance of Bismuth, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 43:2063
(1962). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Khartsiev, V. E.: Simple Methods of Investigation of the Band Structure of Some
Semiconductor Compounds, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:1713 (1957).
- - - : Investigation of the Symmetry of the Energy Zones of the Compounds CdSb
and ZnSb, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:983 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
Khatsishivili, G. R.: On the Overhauser Effect in Non-metals, II, Zh. Eksperim. i
Teor. Fiz., 35:1031 (1958).
Kholodenko, L. P.: Contribution to the Thermodynamical Theory of the Ferro-
Electric Properties of Barium Titanate, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 31:244 (1956).
(Sec. 8-5.)
Kihare, T., and S. Koha: Convex-core Model of Molecules in Crystalline State, J.
Phys. Soc. Japan, 14:247 (1957).
- - - : See also Y. Midzuno.
Kinase, W., and H. Takahashi: Theory of Spontaneous Deformation of Barium
Titanate, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 10:942 (1955). (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - , Y. Ishibashi, and K. Matsuura: On the Lattice Vibration of Cubic BaTiOa,
J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 19:264 (1964). (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - , - - - , a n d Y. Kurasawa: On Ferroelectricity and Antiferroelectricity of the
AO.-type Crystal, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 19:273 (1964). (Sec. 8-5.)
Kindig, N. B., and W. E. Spicer: Band Structure of Cadmium Sulfide-Photoemission
Studies, Phys. Rev., 138:A561 (1965). (Sec. 3-11.)
King, H. W., and T. B. Massalski: Lattice Spacing Relationship and the Electronic
Structure of hep fl-phase Based on Silver, Phil. Mag., 6:669 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also T. B. Massalski.
Kingston, A. E.: Van der Waals Forces for the Inert Gases, Phys. Rev., 135:A1018
(1964). (Sec. A5-7.)
Kingston, R.H.: Review of Germanium Surface Phenomena, J. Appl. Phys., 27:101
(1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
Kip, A. F., D. N. Langenberg, B. Rosenblum, and G. Wagoner: Cyclotron Resonance
in Tin, Phys. Rev., 108:494 (1957). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance in Metals, Experimental, "The Fermi Surface," John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1960, p. 146. (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance in Solids, Contemp. Phys., 1:355 (1960). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - , D. N. Langenberg, and T. W. Moore: Cyclotron Resonance in Cu, Phys.
Rev., 124:359 (1961). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also R. N. Dexter, G; Dresselhaus, C. C. Grimes, F. W. Spong.
Kirsch, J., and P. B. Miller: Doppler-shifted Cyclotron Resonance and Alfven Wave
Damping in Bismuth, Phys. Rev. Letters, 9:421 (1962). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Doppler-shifted Cyclotron Resonance and Alfven Wave Damping in Bismuth,
Phys. Rev., 133:A1390 (1964). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Kirzhnits, D. A.: On the Behavior of the Distribution Function of a Many-particle

System near the Fermi Surface, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 34:1625 (1958).
(Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Correlation Energy of an Inhomogeneous Electron Gas, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor.
Fiz., 36:1198 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
Kittel, C.: Note on the Correlation through Anharmonic Force Theory of the Com-
pressibility Modulus and Thermal Expansion Coefficient of KBr at Low Tem-
peratures, J. Chem. Phys., 16:850 (1948). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Theory of Antiferroelectric Crystals, Phys. Rev., 82:729 (1951). (Sec.
8-5.)
- - - : Domain Boundary Motion in Ferroelectric Crystals and the Dielectric Con-
stant at High Frequency, Phys. Rev., 83:458 (1951). (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - : Experimental Evidence on the Band Structure of Germanium and Silicon,
Physica, 20:829 (1954). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Resonance Experiments and Wave Functions of Electrons in Metals, Proc.
10th Solvay Conj., Brussels, 1954, p. 159.
- - - : Dorfman's Proposal Regarding Cyclotron Resonance in Ferromagnetic Sub-
stances, Phys. Rev., 108:1097 (1957). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance in Crystals, Nuovo Cimento Suppl., 6:1140 (1957).
(Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : Energy Absorption by Charge Carriers of Negative Effective Mass in Crystals,
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S., 46:744 (1959).
- - - : Internal Magnetic Field in the de Haas-van Alphen Effect in Iron, Phys.
Rev. Letters, 10:339 (1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : See also G. Dresselhaus, A.H. Kahn.
Kjeldaas, T., Jr., and W. Kohn: Theory of the Diamagnetism of Bloch Electrons,
Phys. Rev., 106:806 (1957).
- - - : Theory of Ultrasonic Cyclotron Resonance in Metals at Low Temperatures,
Phys. Rev., 113:1473 (1959). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - and T. Holstein: Oscillatory Magneto-acoustic Effect i11 Metals, Phys. Rev.
Letters, 2:340 (1959). (Sec. 3-9.)
Klauder, J. R., and J.E. Kunzler: Higher Order Open Orbits and the Interpretation
of Magnetoresistance and Hall Effect Data for Copper, "The Fermi Surface,"
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1960, p. 125. (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Transverse-even Voltage: a High-field Galvanomagnetic Effect
Associated with Open Orbits in Metals, Phys. Rev. Letters, 6:179 (1961). (Sec.
3-10.)
- - - and---: Concerning the Fermi Surface Topology of Metals and Open
Orbits from Magnetoresistance and Hall Effect Data, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
18:256 (1961). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : The Modification of Electron Energy Levels by Impurity Atoms, Ann. Phys.
(N.Y.), 14:43 (1961).
- - - : The Calculation of Metallic Hall Constants: Topological Aspects and Appli-
cation to Copper, Bell System Tech. J., 40:1349 (1961). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : See also J. E. Kunzler.
Klein, A., and R. Prange: Perturbation Theory for an Infinite Medium of Fermions,
Phys. Rev., 112:994 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Many-particle Approach to the One-electron Problem in Insulators and
- - - : See also G. D. Dang.
Klein, C. A.: Pyrolytic Graphites: Their Description as Semimetallic Molecular Solids,
J. Appl. Phys., 33:3338 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
Klein, M. V.: Phonon Scattering by Lattice Defects, Phys. Rev., 131:1500 (1963).
(Sec. 8-6.)
Kleiner, W.: Excited Donor Levels in Silicon, Phys. Rev., 97:1722 (1955). (Sec.
3-11.)
- - - and L. M. Roth: Deformation Potential in Germanium from Optical Absorp-
tion Lines for Exciton Formation, Phys. Rev. Letters, 2:334 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also S. Zwerdling.
Kleinman, D. A., and W. G. Spitzer: Infrared Lattice Absorption of GaP, Phys. Rev.,
118:110 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Anharmonic Forces in the GaP Crystal, Phys. Rev., 118:118 (1960). (Sec.
8-6.)
Kleinman, L.: Deformation Potentials in Si. I. Uniaxial Strain, Phys. Rev., 128:2614
(1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Covalent Bonding in Semiconductors, Semicond. Conf., Exeter, 1962, Institute
of Physics and the Physical Society, London, 1962, p. 552.
- - - : Deformation Potentials in Silicon. II. Hydrostatic Strain and the Electron-
Phonon Interaction, Phys. Rev., 130:2283 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also J. Goroff.
Klemens, P. G.: The Scattering of Low-frequency Lattice Waves by Static Imper-
fections, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), A68:1113 (1955). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : On the Theory of Thermal Conductivity of Pure Metals at Low Temperature,
- - - : Electrical Resistance Due to Lattice Imperfections in Metals, Can. J. Phys.,
34:1212 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Thermal Conductivity of Solids at Low Temperatures, "Handbuch der
Physik," vol. 14, Springer-Verlag OHG, Berlin, 1956, p. 198. (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Some Scattering Problems in Conduction Theory, Can. J. Phys., 36:441
(1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Thermal Resistance Due to Isotopic Mass Variation, Proc. Phys. Soc. (Lon-
don), A70:833 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Thermal Conductivity and Lattice Vibrational Modes, Solid State Phys.,
7:1 (1958). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Thermal Resistance Due to Isotopes and Other Point Defects, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 8:345, 361 (1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Deviations from Matthiessen's Rule and Lattice Thermal Conductivity of
Alloys, Australian J. Phys., 12: 199 (1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Anharmonic Attenuation of Localized Lattice Vibrations, Phys. Rev., 122:443
(] 961). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Localized Modes and Spin-Lattice Interactions, Phys. Rev., 126:1795 (1962).
(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also J. A. Birch, A. F. A. Harper, W. R. G. Kemp, K. S. Krishnan.
Klemperer, 0., and J. P. G. Shepherd: Characteristic Energy Losses of Electrons in
Solids, Advan. Phys., 12:355 (1963). (Sec. 5-3.)
Klick, C. C., and R. Maurer: The Mobility of Electrons in Diamond, Phys. Rev.,
81:124 (1951). (Sec. 3-11.)
Klimontovich, Yu. L., and S. V. Temko: Quantum Kinetic Equation for a Plasma
with Correlation Taken Into Account, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 33:132 (1957).
(Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and---: On the Kinetic Equations for a System of Particles Interacting
with Lattice Oscillations, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 36:1141 (1958).
Klinger, M. I.: Theory of the Hall Effect in Ionic Semiconductors, Zh. Eksperim. i
Teor. Fiz., 29:439 (1955). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : Contribution to the Theory of Galvanomagnetic Phenomena in Semiconduc-

tors, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 31:1055 (1956). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - and M. M. Chaban: The Question of the Faraday Effect in Semiconductors,
Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 2~:938 (1956).
- - - : Theory of Hall and Nernst Effects in a Semiconductor with an Impurity
Band, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 26:2185 (1956). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : Remarks on the Low-temperature Anomalies in the Impurity Semiconductors,
Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:1915, 1919 (1957).
- - - and P. I. Voronyuk: Galvanomagnetic Effects in n-type Germanium and
Silicon Single Crystals for Strong Magnetic Fields, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:1609
(1957). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - and Yu. I. Zozulya: Theory of Semiconductors with Excited Impurity Band,
Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:2285 (1957).
- - - : The Theory of Transport Phenomena, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:2780 (1957).
- - - and P. I. Voronyuk: Magneto-resistive Effects inn-Ge Type Semiconductors
Located in Strong Magnetic Fields, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 33:77 (1957).
(Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : Magnetic Susceptibility of Semiconductors with an Impurity Band in a Strong
Magnetic Field, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 33:379 (1957).
- - - and G. A. Makarycheva: On the Theory of Semiconductors with an Excited
Impurity Band, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 28:264 (1958).
- - - : A Statistical Theory of the Electrical Conductivity of Semiconductors, I,
Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1:861 (1959).
- - - : The Statistical Theory of Kinetic Phenomena, II, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1:1225
(1959).
- - - : Concerning the Statistical Theory of Electrical Conductivity of Semicon-
ductors, Fiz. Tverd. 'Tela, 1:1385 (1959).
- - - : On the Theory of Linear Irreversible Processes in a Strong Magnetic Field,
Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:1342 (1961).
- - - : Theory of Transport Phenomena in Semiconductors with Low Mobility, I,
II, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:3075, 3086 (1962).
- - - : Theory of Low-temperature Transport Phenomena in Semiconductors with
Low Mobility, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 150:289 (1963).
- - - : See also A.G. Samoilovich.
Klyachkin, V. I.: The Theory of Ferroelectrics and Antiferroelectrics, Fiz. Tverd.
Tela, 1:1874 (1959). (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - : Theory of Orientation Ordering of Dipole Crystals, Fiz. 'f.'verd. Tela, 2 :1390
(1960). (Sec. 8--5.)
Knox, .R. S., and D. L. Dexter: Solid State Luminescence Theory and Oscillator
Stre~gths in KCl:Tl, Phys. Rev., 104:1245 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.}
- - - : Inversion Symmetry of the M Center, Phys. Rev. Letters, 2:87 (1959).
- - - : Configuration Interaction in Alkali Halide Phosphors, Phys. Rev., 116:1095
(1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Excited States of Cesium Halide Crystals, Phys. Rev., 133:A498 (1964).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Atomic Multipole Interactions in Rare-gas Crystals, Phys. Rev., 136:A166
(1964).
- - - : See a.lso F. Bassani, T. P. Das, J.E. Rohinson.
Koba, S.: Convex-core Model of Molecules in Crystalline State, II, J. Phys. Soc.
Japan, 16:627 (1961).
Kobelev, L. Ya.: Calculating the Correlation in a System of Particles Using Green's
Double-particle Function, Fiz. Metal. i Mettaloved., 6:750 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
-466 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS
- - - : The Effect of Correlation on the Frequency of Plasma Oscillations, Fiz. Metal.

i Metalloved., 6:948 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : See also A. Voloshinskii.
Koch, J. F., and A. F. Kip: Azbel-Kaner Resonance in Tin with Magnetic Field
Perpendicular to the Surface, Phys. Rev. Letters, 8:473 (1962). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , R. A. Stradling, and A. F. Kip: Some New Aspects of Cyclotron Resonance in
Copper, Phys. Rev., 133:A240 (1964). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Koehler, T. R., and R. K. Nesbet: Adiabatic Theory of the Electron-Phonon Inter-
action, Phys. Rev., 136:A638 (1964).
Koenig, S. H., and G. R. Gunther-Mohr: The Low-temperature Electrical Conduc-
tivity of n-type Germanium, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 2:268 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Hot and Warm Electrons-A Review, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:227 (1959).
- - - and R. D. Brown, III: Thermal Oscillations inn-type Germanium at Low
Temperature, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 10:201 (1959). (Secs. 3-11, 8-6.)
- - - , - - - , a n d W. Schillinger: Electrical Conduction inn-type Germanium at
Low Temperatures, Phys. Rev., 128:1668 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Kohn Effect in Na and Other Metals, Phys. Rev., 136:A1693 (1964).
Kogan, Sh. M.: On Temperature-dependent Quantum Green's Functions, Fiz. Tverd.
Tela, 2:1196 (1960).
- - - : On the Theory of Hot Electrons in Semiconductors, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:2474
(1962).
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Kohler, M.: Allgemeine Theorie der Abweichungen von der Matthiessenschen Regel,
Z. Physik, 126:495 (1949).
Kohn, W.: Effective Mass Theory in Solids from a Many-particle Standpoint, Phys.
Rev., 106:509 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
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.(1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
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(1958).
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72:1147 (1958).
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Phys. Rev., 116:1460 (1959).
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Point of View, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:45 (1959). (Sec. 11-7.)
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Letters, 2:393 (1959). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and J. M. Luttinger: Ground-state Energy of a Many-fermion System, Phys.
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Electron Gas, Phys. Rev., 123:1242 (1961). (Secs. 3-8, 3-9.)
---and M. Luming: Orbital Susceptibility of Dilute Alloys, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
24:851 (1963).
- - - : Theory of the Insulating State, Phys. Rev., 133:Al71 (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
---and L. J. Sham: Quantum Density Oscillations in an Inhomogeneous Electron
Gas, Phys. Rev., 137:Al697 (1965). (Sec. 11-7.)
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Luttinger, E. J. Woll, Jr.
Kojima, T.: Electronic States of the F-center in Lithium Fluoride, I, II, J. Phys. Soc.
Japan, 12:908, 918 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
Kolodziejczak, J., B. Lax, and Y. Nishina: Semiclassical Dispersion Theory oflnter-
band Magneto-optical Effects, Phys. Rev., 128:2655 (1962).
- - - : See also B. Lax, Y. Nishina.
Kolomiec, B. T.: Glassy Semiconductors, Semicond. Phys. Conj., Prague, 1960,
Academic Press Inc., New York, 1961, p. 884.
Kolomoets, N. V.: The Thermoelectric Properties of Some Compounds and Alloys
with a Highly Degenerate Electron Gas, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 28:936 (1958).
- - - and M. V. Vedernikov: Thermoelectric Properties of Ferromagnetic Metals
and Their Alloys, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:2735 (1961).
Komatsu, K., and T. Nagamiya: Theory of the Specific Heat of Graphite, J. Phys.
Soc. Japan, 6:438 (1951). (Sec. 1-4.)
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(1955). (Sec. 1-4.)
- - - : Interpretation of the Specific Heat of Various Graphites at Very Low Tem-
peratures, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 25:707 (1964).
Komiya, H., K. Masumoto, and H. Y. Fan: Optical and Electrical Properties and
Energy Band Structure of ZnSb, Phys. Rev., 133:A1679 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Kondorskii, E. I., A. V. Cheremushkina, and N. Kurbaniuyazov: Hall Effect in
Ferromagnetic Metals and Alloys, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:539 (1964). (Sec. 2-4.)
Konstantinov, 0. V., and V. I. Perel: Quantum Theory of Spatial Dispersion of
Electric and Magnetic Susceptibilities, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 37 :786 (1959).
Kontorova, T. A.: On the Question of the Rational Definition of the Mobility of the
Current Carriers in Semiconductors, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 26:670 (1956).
- - - : On the Question of the Scattering of Current Carriers in Semiconductors with
the Ionic Type of Bond, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:269 (1957).
Koonce, C. S.: Collective Strain Splitting of Acceptor States in Silicon, Phys. Rev.,
134:A1625 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Korenblit, I. Ya.: Galvanomagnetic Effects in Bi 2Te, with Anisotropic Scattering,
Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:3083 (1960). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : Galvanomagnetic Phenomena in Semiconductors with Anisotropic Electron
Scattering, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:168 (1962). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : See also L. E. Gurevich, A.G. Samoilovich.
Korenblit, L. L., and T. Ya. Shrzifeld: Theory of Well-conducting Semiconductors. I.
Equilibrium of the Electron Gas in Semiconductors. II. Electrical Conductivity,
Thermo-emf, Hall Effect, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 25:1019, 1182 (1955). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - , D. V. Mahovets, and S. S. Shalyt: Structure of the Conduction Band and
Electron Scattering Mechanisms in InSb, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:559 (1964). (Sec.
3-11.)
- - - : See also A. G. Samoilovich.
Korhonen, U.: On the Deformation of the Electron Distribution of Ions in Some
Alkali Halide Crystals, Ann. Acad. Sci. Fennicae, ser. AI, paper 221, 1956.
(Sec. 3-11.)
Korol, E. N., and K. B. Tolpygo: Dynamics of ZnS-type Crystal Lattices Having
Ions with Variable Fractional Charges, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6 :2193 (1963). (Sec. 8-6.)
Korolyuk, A. P., and T. A. Prushchak: A New Type of Quantum Oscillation of the
Coefficient of Absorption of Ultrasound, Zh. Ekspcrim. i 'Teor. Fiz., 41 :J 689
(1961). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - : "Giant" Quantum Oscillations of the Acoustic Absorption Coefficient in
Bismuth, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:3323 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also A. A. Galkin.
Korovin, L. I.: Interaction of Impurity Center Electrons with Acoustic Vibrations

in a Uniaxial Crystal, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:905 (1957).
- - - and Yu. A. Firsov: Concerning the Structure of the Hole Zone of Tellurium,
Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 28:2417 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Calculation of the Index of Refraction near the Fundamental Absorption
Edge in Atomic Semiconductors, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1:1311 (1959). (Sec. 5-5.)
---and T. Yu. Bulashevich: Oscillations of the Absorption Coefficient in Tellurium
in a Magnetic Field Directed along the Crystal Optic Axis, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
2:2795 (1960). (Secs. 2-7, 3-11.)
- - - : Refractive Index Oscillations in a Strong Magnetic Field in the Intrinsic
Absorption Edge Region in Semiconductors, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:1790 (1961).
- - - : Semiconductor Magnetooptical Absorption Spectrum for Arbitrarily Shaped
Electronic !so-energy Surfaces, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:2202 (1961). (Sec. 3-8.)
Korringa, J.: On the Resistivity Anomalies in Some Diluted Alloys, Can. J. Phys.,
34:1290 (1956).
- - - and J. A. Daunt: Susceptibility and Entropy of F-centers in Alkali Halides
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- - - : Dispersion Theory for Electrons in a Random Lattice with Applications to
the Electronic Structure of Alloys, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 7:252 (1958).
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- - - : Dynamical Decomposition of a Large System, Phys. Rev., 133:A1228 (1964).
Korsunskii, M. I., and Ya. E. Genkin: Determination of the Fermi Level from X-ray
Emission Bands, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 26:1031 (1961).
Korsunskii, V. M., and M. P. Lisitsa: Infrared Absorption and Structure of the Hole
Band of Tellurium, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:1619 (1960). (Secs. 3-11, 5-5.)
Kosevich, A. M., and I. M. Lifshits: The de Haas-van Alphen Effect in Thin Metal
Layers, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 29:743 (1955). (Sec. 3-9.)
---:Thede Haas-van Alphen Effect in a Varying Magnetic Field, Zh. Eksperim. i
Teor. Fiz., 33:735 (1957). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - : The de Haas-van Alphen Effect in Pulsed Magnetic Fields, Zh. Eksperim. i
Teor. Fiz., 36:738 (1958). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - and V. V. Andreev: The Quantum Analogue of the Collision Integral for Elec-
trons in Magnetic and Electric Fields, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 38:882 (1960).
- - - : See also I. M. Lifshits.
Koshino, S.: On the Electron-Lattice Interaction in Non-polar Semiconductors,
Progr. Theoret. Phys. (Kyoto), 18:23 (1957).
Koster, G. F., and J. C. Slater: Wave Functions for Impurity Levels, Phys. Rev.,
94:1392 (1954); 96:1167 (1954). (Sec. A2-1.)
- - - : Theory of Scattering in Solids, Phys. Rev., 96:1436 (1954). (Sec. A2-2.)
- - - and J. C. Slater: Simplified Impurity Calculation, Phys. Rev., 96:1208 (1954).
(Sec. A2-l.)
Kothari, L. S., K. S. Singwi, and S. Visvanathan: Scattering of Cold Neutrons in
Liquid Metals and the Entropy of Disorder, Phil. Mag., 1:560 (1956).
Kotkin, G. L.: Ultrasonic Absorption in Metals, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 36:941
(1959). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - : Contribution to the Theory of Absorption of Ultrasonic Waves by Metals
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Kovalchik, T. L., and Yu. P. Maslakovcts: The Influence of Impurities on the Elec-
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3-11.)
Kovalev, 0. V.: Possible Changes of the Symmetry Ok During a Second-order Phase
Transition, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:1220 (1960).
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Traps, Phys. Rev., 103:1648 (1956).
- - - : Simplified Theory of One-carrier Currents with Field-dependent Mobilities,
J. Appl. Phys., 29:1082 (1958).
- - - , F. Herman, and M. C. Steele: Role of Single Phonon Emission in Low-field
Breakdown of Semiconductors at Low Temperatures, Phys. Rev. Letters, 2:394
(1959).
- - - : A Simplified Theory of Two-carrier, Space-charge-limited Current Flow in
Solids, RCA Rev., 20:682 (1959).
- - - : See also S. Tosima.
Landau, L. D.: Theory of Fermi Liquids, Zh. Eksperim. i Tear. Fiz., 30:1058 (1956).
(Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Properties of the Green's Functions of Particles in Statistics, Zh. Eksperim. i
Tear. Fiz., 34:262 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Contribution to the Theory of the Fermi Liquid, Zh. Eksperim. i Tear. Fiz.,
35:97 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
Landauer, R.: Conductivity of Cold-worked Metals, Phys. Rev., 82:520 (1951).
- - - : On the Interaction of a Dislocation and a Charged Solute Ion, Phil. Mag.,
45:1216 (1954).
- - - : Spatial Variation of Currents and Fields Due to Localized Scatterers in
Metallic Conduction, IBM J. Res. Develop., 1:223 (1957).
Landsberg, P. T.: Defects with Several Trapping Levels in Semiconductors, Proc.
Phys. Soc. (London), B69:1056 (1956).
- - - : A Contribution to the Recombination Statistics of Excess Carriers in Semi-
conductors, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B70:282 (19.57).
- - - : Magnetic Field Effects on Electron Population in Semiconductors, Proc.
Phys. Soc. (London), 71:69 (1958).
- - - and A. R. Beattie: Auger Effect in Semiconductors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
8:73, 85 (1959).
- - - : See also A. R. Beattie.

Lane, G. S., A. S. Huglin, and J. Stringer: Hall-effect Studies in Zinc and Cadmium,
Phys. Rev., 136:A1060 (1964). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.) ·
Lang, I. G.: Application of the Method of the Density Matrix to the Problem of
Conductivity Electrons Interacting with Lattice Vibrations, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
2:2330 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : A Study of Two-phonon Processes by the Density-matrix Method, Fiz. Tverd.
Tela, 3:2573 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : See also A. I. Anselm.
Lang, L. G., and N. C. Hien: Electron Momentum Distributions in Single-crystal
Cd, Phys. Rev., 110:1062 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
Lang, W.: Geschwindigkeitsverlust mittelschneller Elektronen beim Durchgang durch
diinne Metallfolien, Optik, 3:233 (1948). (Sec. 5-3.)
Langbein, D.: Solution of the Bloch Integral Equation for Electrons in Metals in an
Electric Field over the Whole Temperature Range, Z. Physik, 162:123 (1958).
- - - : Elektrische Leitungsphii.nomene in anisotropen Medien. I. Stark konvergente
Losmigen linearer Operatorgleichungen, insbesondere der Blochschen lntegral-
gleichung. II. Der elektrische Widerstand elliptisch anisotroper Modell, Z.
Physik, 162 :542 (1961); 166:22 (1962).
- - - : Elektrische Leitungsphii.nomene in anisotropen Medien. III. Galvano-
magnetische Effekte. IV. Ein weiteres Modell fiir das Wechselwirkungsmatrix-
element Elektronen-Phonen, Z. Physik, 167:83, 96 (1962). (Sec. 2-4.)
Langenberg, D. N., and T. W. Moore: Cyclotron Resonance in Aluminum, Phys. Rev.
Letters, 3:137 (1959). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - and---: Cyclotron Resonance in Copper, Phys. Rev. Letters, 3:328 (1959).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - and S. M. Marcus: Azbel-Kaner Cyclotron Resonance in Gold, Phys. Rev.,
136:A1383 (1964). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , J. J. Quinn, and S. Rodriguez: Giant Quantum Oscillations of the Attenuation
of Transverse Acoustic Waves in a Longitudinal Magnetic Field in Metals, Phys.
Rev. Letters, 12:104 (1964). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - : See also E. Burstein, A. F. Kip, S. M. Marcus, P. J. Stiles.
Langer, J. S., and S. H. Yosko: The Shielding of a Fixed Charge in a High-density
Electron Gas, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 12:196 (1960).
- - - and V. Ambegaokar: Friedel Sum Rule for System of Interacting Electrons,
Phys. Rev., 121:1090 (1961).
Larach, S., R. E. Shrader, and C. F. Stocker: Anomalous Variation of Band Gap with
Composition in Zinc Sulfo- and Seleno-tellurides, Phys. Rev., 108:587 (1957).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Lasher, G., and F. Stern: Spontaneous and Stimulated Recombination Radiation in
Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 133:A553 (1964).
Last, J. T.: Infrared-absorption Studies on Barium Titanate and Related Materials,
Phys. Rev., 106:1740 (1957). (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - : See also W. Shockley.
Laval, J.: Theorie atomique de l'elasticite cristalline excluant !es forces centrales,
Compt. Rend., 238:1773 (1954). (Sec. 8-6.)
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(1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : L'Elasticite du milieu cristallin. I. L'energie potentielle d'un cristal et les
constantes de rappel atomiques. II. Dynamique des ondes elastiques. III. Les
deformations lineaires (elasticite statique), J. Phys. Radium, 18:247, 289, 369
(1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Energie potentielle et elasticite du milieu cristallin, Bull. Soc. Franc. Mineral.

Crist., 80:18 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
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du milieu cristallin), J. Phys. Radium, 19:509 (1958). (Sec. 8-6.)
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Phys., 30:222 (1958). (Sec. 8-1.)
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Radium, 20:1, 449 (1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Les Tensions thermiques dans le milieu cristallin, J. Phys. Radium, 20:577
(1959).
Lawless, W. N., and R. C. Devries: Oxygen Polarizability and Point-dipole Theory in
the Carbonate Minerals, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 26:1119 (1964). (Sec. 4-4.)
Lax, B., and J. G. Mavroides: Statistics and Galvanomagnetic Effects in Germanium
and Silicon with Warped Energy Surfaces, Phys. Rev., 100:1650 (1955). (Secs.
2-4, 3-11.)
- - - , K. J. Button, H.J. Zeiger, and L. M. Roth: Analysis of Cyclotron Absorption
in Bismuth, Phys. Rev., 102:715 (1956). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
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in Graphite, Phys. Rev., 106:1466 (1957). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
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Rev. Mod. Phys., 30:122 (1958).
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Semiconductors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:311 (1959).
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4:16 (1960).
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- - - , J. G. Mavroides, H. J. Zeiger, and R. J. Keyes: Infrared Magnetoreflection
in Bismuth. I. High Fields, Phys. Rev. Letters, 6:241 (1960). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - and---: Cyclotron Resonance, Solid State Phys., 11:261 (1960). (Sec.
3-8.)
- - - , - - - , H. J. Zeiger, and R, J. Keyes: Cyclotron Resonance in Indium
Antimonide at High Magnetic Fields, Phys. Rev., 122:31 (1961). (Secs. 3-8,
3-11.)
- - - and Y. Nishina: Theory of Interband Faraday Rotation in Semiconductors,
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MTT-9:83 (1961).
- - - and Y. Nishina: Interband Faraday Rotation in III-V Compounds, J. Appl.
Phys., 32(suppl.):2128 (1961). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance, Science, 134:1333 (1961). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : Magneto-spectroscopy in Semiconductors, Semicond. Phys. Conj., Prague,
1960, Academic Press Inc., New York, 1961, p. 321. (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - , J. G. Mavroides, and D. F. Edwards: Nonlinear Interband and Plasma
Effects in Solids, Phys. Rev. Letters, 8:166 (1962). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : Effective Mass Measurements in Semiconductors, Semicond. Conj., Exeter.
1962, Institute of Physics and the Physical Society, London, 1962, p. 265.
----, J. G. Mavroides, and J. Kolodziejczak: Dispersion Theory, Interband and
Plasma Effects, Semicond. Conj., Exeter, 1962, Institute of Physics and the
Physical Society, London, 1962, p. 353. (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : See also R. N. Brown, R. N. Dexter, J. Halpern, R. J. Keyes, J. Kolodziejczak,
J. G. Mavroides, Y. Nishina, L. M. Roth, Y. Shapira, G. B. Wright, H. J.
Zeiger, S. Zwerdling.
Lax, M.: Multiple Scattering of Waves, Rev. Mod. Phys., 23:287 (1951). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Multiple Scattering of Waves. IL The Effective Field in Dense Systems,.
Phys. Rev., 85:621 (1952). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : The Franck-Condon Principle and Its Application to Crystals, J. Chem.
Phys., 20:1752 (1952). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - : Localized Perturbations, Phys. Rev., 94:1391 (1954). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and J. L. Lebowitz: Moment Singularity Analysis of Vibration Spectra, Phys.
Rev., 96:594 (1954). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and E. Burstein: Infrared Lattice Absorption in Ionic and Homopolar Crystals,
Phys. Rev., 97:39 (1955). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and---: Broadening of Impurity Levels in Silicon, Phys. Rev., 100:592
(1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and R. Sachs: Frequency Dependence of the a.c. Resistance _of Thin Semi-
conducting Films, Phys. Rev., 107:650 (1957).
- - : Generalized Mobility Theory, Phys. Rev., 109:1921 (1958).
- - - : Optical Properties of Diamond Type Crystals, Phys. Rev. Letters, 1 :131 (1958).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Quadrupole Interactions and the Vibration Spectra of Diamond Type Crystals,
- - : Giant Traps, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:66 (1959).
- - - : Cascade Capture of Electrons in Solids, Phys. Rev., 119:1502 (1960).
- - - : Present Status of Semiconductor Surface Physics, Semicond. Phys. Conf.,
Prague, 1960, Academic Press Inc., New York, 1961, p. 484.
- - - : Quantum Relaxation, the Shape of Lattice Absorption, and Inelastic Neutron
Scattering, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 25:487 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also E. Burstein, H. Gummel, J. R. Haynes.
Layzer, A. J.: Properties of One-particle Green's Function for Nonuniform Many-
fermion Systems, Phys. Rev., 129:897 (1963). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Single-particle Excitations in Dense Electron Gas Containing Positive Point
Charges, Phys. Rev., 129:908 (1963). (Sec. 11-7.)
Lazarev, A. N., and A. S. Zaitseva: Valent Hydroxil Vibrations in Ferroelectric
KH2PO, and KD2P0 4 Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:3026 (1960). (Sec. 8-5.)
Lazukin, V. N.: Cyclotron Resonance, Usp. Fiz. Nauk, 59:553 (1956). (Sec. 3-8.)
LeBlanc, 0. H., Jr.: Band Structure and Transport of Holes and Electrons in Anthra-
cene, J. Chem. Phys., 35:1275 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
LeCorre, Y.: Dissymetrie du tenseur des efforts et ses consequences, J. Phys. Radium,
17:934 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
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infini, J. Phys. Radium, 17:1020 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Electrical Polarization of Elastic Waves in Crystals and Optical Dispersion,
Rev. Mod. Phys., 30:229 (1958). (Sec. 8-6.)
LeCouteur, K. J.: The Dirac Density Matrix, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 84:837 (1964).
Leder, L. B., H. Mendlowitz, and L. Marton: Comparison of the Characteristic
Energy Losses of Electrons with the Fine Structure of the X-ray Absorption
Spectra, Phys. Rev., 101:1460 (1956). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Electron Characteristic Energy Losses in Metals and Compounds, Phys.
Rev., 103:1721 (1956). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : See also L. Marton.
Lee, P. M., and L. Pincherle: The Electronic Band Structure of Bi2Tea, Proc. Phys.
Soc. (London), 81 :461 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also L. Pincherle.
Lee, T. D., and C. N. Yang: Many-body Problem in Quantum Mechanics and Quantum
Statistical Mechanics, Phys. Rev., 105:1119 (1957). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
Lee, Y. C., and N. Tzoar: Frequency-dependent Relaxation Time of Electron-Phonon

Systems in a Homogeneous Magnetic Field, Phys. Rev., 136:Al326 (1964).
Leech, J. W.: The Influence of Retardation on the London-Van der Waals Forces,
Phil. Mag., 46:1328 (1955). (Sec. A5-7.)
- - - : Irreversible Thermodynamics and Kinetic Theory in the Derivation of Thermo-
electric Relations, Can. J. Phys., 37:1044 (1959).
- - - : Anharmonic Forces and the Einstein Model of a Crystal, Can. J. Phys.,
37 :1067 (1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
Lefkowitz, I.: Comments on the Neutron Spectrum of Ferroelectric and Paraelectric
BaTiO,, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 80:868 (1962). (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - : See also I. Pelah.
Lehman, G. W., and H. M. James: Interaction of Impurities and Mobile Carriers in
Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 100:1698 (1955).
- - - , T. Wolfram, and R. E. De Warnes: Axially Symmetric Model for Lattice
Dynamics of Metals with Application to Cu, Al, and ZrH2, Phys. Rev., 128:1593
(1962). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also R. E. De Warnes, T. Wolfram.
Lehmann, C., and G. Leibfried: Lattice Theory of Screw Dislocation in Alkali Metals,
Leibfried, G., and E. Schlomann: Wiirmeleitung in elektrisch isolierenden Kristallen,
Nachr. Akad. Wiss. Goettingen Math.-Physik. Kl., Ila:71 (1954).
- - - : Gittertheorie der mechanischen und thermischen Eigenschaften der Kristalle,
"Handbuch der Physik," vol. 7, Springer- Verlag OHG, Berlin, 1955, p. 1.
(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and H. Hahn: Zur Temperaturabhangigkeit der elastischen Konstanten von
Alkalihalogenidkristallen, Z. Physik, 160:497 (1958). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and W. Ludwig: Gleichgewichtsbedingungen in der Gittertheorie, Z. Physik,
160:80 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and - - - : Theory of Anharmonic Effects in Crystals, Solid State Phys.,
12:276 (1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also G. Lehmann.
Leigh, R. S.: A Theory of the a, a' Phases in the Al-Zn System, Phil. Mag., 42:876
(1951). (Sec. 3-11.)
Leighton, R. B.: The Vibrational Spectrum and Specific Heat of a Face-centered
Cubic Crystal, Rev. Mod. Phys., 20:165 (1948). (Sec. 8-6.)
Leman, G.: Influence des conditions aux limites sur la densite electronique dans un
reseau periodique, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 13:221 (1960).
- - - : Sur la structure electronique des impuretes metalliques dans !'approximation
des liaisons fortes, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 20:50 (1961).
- - - : See also J. Friedel.
Lenham, A. R., and D. M. Traherne: The Optical Constants of Single Crystals of
Cadmium and Zinc, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 83:1059 (1964). (Secs. 3-11, 5-5.)
Lerner, L. S.: Shubnikov-de Haas Effect in Bi, Phys. Rev., 127:1480 (1962). (Secs.
2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : Shubnikov-de Haas Effect in Bi, II, Phys. Rev., 130:605 (1963). (Secs.
2-4, 3-11.)
Lcsnik, A. G.: Atomic Interaction in Iron-Chromium Alloy Systems, Dokl. Akad.
Nauk SSSR, 122:385 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
Leverton, W. F., and A. J. Dekker: Hall Coefficient and Resistivity of Evaporated
Bismuth Layers, Phys. Rev., 81:156 (1951). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Levin, E. R., and E. L. Offenbacher: Theory of Dielectric Constants of LiF, Phys.
Rev., 118:1142 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
Levin, M. L.: An Elementary Derivation of the Formula for the Electromagnetic
Energy in a Dispersive Medium, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 29:252 (1956}.
Levine, H.B.: Diagram Expansions in Quantum Statistics, Phys. Fluids, 3:225 (1960).
(Sec. 11-7.)
Levinger, B. W., and D. R. Frankl: Power-induced Shifts of Cyclotron Resonances in
the Valence Band of Germanium, Phys. Rev. Letters, 6:12 (1960). (Secs. 3-8,
3-11.)
- - - and---: Cyclotron Resonance Measurements of the Energy Band Parame-
ters of Germanium, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 20:281 (1961). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also E. M. Conwell.
Levy, H. A., S. W. Peterson, and S. H. Simonsen: Neutron Diffraction Study of the
Ferroelectric Modification of Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate, Phys. Rev.,
93 :1120 (1954). (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - : See also S. W. Peterson.
Li, J.C. M., and Tsuan Wu Ting: Thermodynamics for Elastic Solids in the Electro-
static Field. I. General Formulation, J. Chem. Phys., 27 :693 (1957).
Liberman, D., J. T. Waber, and D. T. Cromer: Self-consistent-field Dirac-Slater Wave
Functions for Atoms and Ions. I. Comparison with Previous Calculations, Phys.
Rev., 137:A27 (1965). (Sec. 11-3.)
Liboff, R. L.: Vibrations in a Cold Electronegative Dipole Lattice, Phys. Rev., 134:A407
(1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
Lidiard, A. B.: Vacancy Pairs in Ionic Crystals, Phys. Rev., 112 :54 (1958).
- - - : See also I. M. Boswarva, J. D. Eshelby, R. E. Howard, M. J. Stephen.
Lieberman, D.S., and S. Zirinsky: A Simplified Calculation for the Elastic Constants
of Arbitrarily Oriented Single Crystals, Acta Cryst., 9:431 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
Liebermann, I.: On the Pressure Dependence of Sound Absorption in _Liquids, J.
Acoust. Soc. Am., 28:1253 (1956).
Lien, W. H., and N. E. Phillips: Low-temperature Heat Capacities of Potassium,
Rubidium, and Cesium, Phys. Rev., 133:Al370 (1964). (Sec. 1-4.)
Lifshits, I. M., and S. I. Pekar: Tamm Connected States of Electrons on the Surface
of a Crystal and the Surface Oscillations of the Atoms of a Lattice, Usp. Fiz.
Nauk, 56:531 (1955). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and A. M. Kosevich: Theory of Magnetic Susceptibility of Metals at Low
Temperatures, Zh. Eksperim. i Tear. Fiz., 29:730 (1955).
- - - , M. Ya. Azbel, and M. I. Kaganov: On the Theory of Galvanomagnetic
Phenomena in Metals, Zh. Eksperim. i Tear. Fiz., 30:220 (1956). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : Quantum Theory of Electrical Conductivity of Metals in a Magnetic Field,
Zh. Eksperim. i Tear. Fiz., 30 :814 (1956). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - and G. I. Stepanova: Oscillation Spectrum of Disordered Crystal Lattices,
Zh. Eksperim. i Tear. Fiz., 30:938 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - , M. Ya. Azbel, and M. I. Kaganov: On the Theory of Galvanomagnetic
Phenomena in Metals, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 31:63 (1956). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - and G. I. Stepanova: The Effect of Ordering on the Energy Spectrum of
Phonons, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 31 :1.56 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Some Problems of the Dynamic Theory of Non-ideal Crystal Lattices, Nuovo
Cimento Suppl., 3 :711 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Quantum Theory of Electrical Conductivity of Metals in a Magnetic Field,
Zh. Ek8perim. i Tear. Fiz .. 32:1509 (1957). (Sec. 3-lO.)
----- and A. M. Kosevich: On the Theory of the Shubnikov-de Haas Effec.:t, Zh.
Eksperirn. i Tear. Fiz., 33:88 (1957). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - and---: Theory of the Shubnikov-de Haas Effect, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
4:1 (1958). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : Quantum Theory of the Electrical Conductivity of Metals in a Magnetic

Field, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 4:11 (1958). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - and V. G. Peschanskii: Galvanomagnetic Characteristics of Metals with Open
Fermi Surfaces, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 35:1251 (1958). (Sec. 3-10.)
---·and M. I. Kaganov: Electron Resonance in Crossed Electric and Magnetic
Fields, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 37:555 (1959).
- - - and V. G. Peschanskii: Galvanomagnetic Properties of Metals with Open
Fermi Surfaces, II, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 38:188 (1960). (Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : High-pressure Anomalies of Electron Properties of a Metal, Zh. Eksperim. i
Teor. Fiz., 38:1569 (1960).
- - - : Quantized Cyclotron Resonance in Metals, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 40:1235
(1961). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - , M. Ya. Azbel, and A. A. Slutskin: Theory of Quantum Cyclotron Resonance
in Metals, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 43:1464 (1962). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - and M. I. Kaganov: Some Problems of the Electron Theory of Metals. II.
Statistical Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Electrons in Metals, U sp. Fiz.
Nauk, 78:411 (1962).
- - - : See also N. E. Alekseevskii, M. Ya. Azbel, I.E. Dzyaloshinskii, M. I. Kaganov,
A. M. Kosevich.
Likhter, A. I., and V. V. Kechin: Investigation of the Dependence of the Galvano-
magnetic Effects in Graphite on Temperature and Pressure, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
5:3066 (1963). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : See also R. G. Arkhipov.
Linde, J. 0.: Electrical Resistivity Properties of Noble Metal Alloys, Physica, 24:8109
(1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
Lindhard, J.: On the Properties of a Gas of Charged Particles, Kgl. Danske Videnskab.
Selskab Mat.-Fys. Medd., 28:8 (1954). (Sec. 11-7.)
Lindquist, R. E., and A. W. Ewald: Optical Constants of Single-crystal Gray Tin in
the Infrared, Phys. Rev., 135:A191 (1964). (Sec. 5-5.)
Ling, R. C.: X-ray Scattering by Liquid-metal Alloys (A Kinetic Approach), J. Chem.
Phys., 25:614 (1956).
Lipkin, H. J.: Collective Description of Electron Interactions without Subsidiary
Conditions, Phys. Rev. Letters, 2:159 (1959). (Sec. 11-7.)
Lippmann, H.J., and F. Kuhrt: Einfluss der Geometrie auf Halleffekt und magneti-
schen Widerstandseffekt bei rechteckformigen Halbleiterproben, N aturwiss.,
45:156 (1958). (Sec. 2-4.)
Lisitsa, M. P., and G. A. Kholodar: The Infrared Absorption and the Energy-band
Structure of Cuprous Oxide, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:2117 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also V. M. Korsunskii.
Litzman, 0.: A Method for Calculating the Vibrations of a Perturbed Atomic Chain,
Ciech. J. Phys., 7:410 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Localized Vibrations of a Perturbed Diatomic Linear Chain, Czech. J. Phys.,
7:690 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Localized Vibrations in a Simple Cubic Lattice: One Impurity Atom,
Interaction with Six Nearest Neighbors, Czech. J. Phys., 8:633 (1958). (Sec.
8-6.)
- - - : Moments of Frequency Spectrum and Thermodynamic Functions of Crystals
with Defects, Czech. J. Phys., 9:692 (195~). (Sec. 8-6.)
Liu, L.: Valence Spin-Orbit Splitting and Conduction g Tensor in Si, Phys. Rev.
Letters, 6:683 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
Liu, S. S., and A. M. Toxen: Magnetoacoustic Effect in Noble Metals, Phys. Rev.,
138:A487 (1965). (Sec. 3-9.)
Loh, E., and J. C. Phillips: Band Structure Effects in Photoconductivity of Semi-

Lombardi, E., and L. Jansen: Stability of Crystals of Rare-gas Atoms and Alkali
Halides in Terms of Three-body Interactions. II. Alkali-halide Crystals, Phys.
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Loudon, R.: Selection Rules for Defect-activated Lattice Bands and Vib_ronic Transi-
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Lyden, H. A.: Measurement of the Conductivity Effective Mass in Semiconductors
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.482 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS
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-\,;fl
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Crystals, I, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 32:520 (1957). (Secs. 3-11, 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : Electrical, Optical, and Elastic Properties of Diamond-type Crystals. II.
Lattice Vibrations with Calculation of Atomic Dipole Moments, Zh. Eksperim. i
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- - - : Normal Coordinates for Retardation Interactions in Crystal Lattice, Dokl.
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- - - : Higher Approximations in the Ewald Method, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:908 (1960).
(Secs. 9-5, 10-4.)
- - - : The Dipole Approximation in the Microscopic Theory of Crystals. I. Lattice
Vibrations as Affected by Electronic Dispersion, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2 :2629 (1960). I
(Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : Conditions for the Existence of Spatial Dispersion in Crystals, Fiz. Tverd.
Tela, 4:2075 (1962). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
I!.
Maslen, V. W.: The Fermi, or Exchange, Hole in Atoms, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), !
A69 :734 (1956). j
t
Mason, W. P., and B. T. Matthias: Theoretical Model for Explaining the Ferro-
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- - - and - - - : Piezoelectric, Dielectric, and Elastic Properties of ND 4 D2PO 4 ,
Phys. Rev., 88:477 (1952). (Sec. 8-5.)
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(Sec. 8-5.)
- - - : Effect of Dislocatfons on Ultrasonic Wave Attenuation in Metals, Bell System
Tech. J., 34:903 (1955). (Sec. 3-9.)
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- - - and H. E. Bommel: Ultrasonic Attenuation at Low Temperatures for Metals
in the Normal and Superconducting States, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 28:930 (1956).
(Sec. 3-9.)
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n-type Germanium and p-type Silicon and Their Use in Determining an Intrinsic
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- - - and - - - : Ultrasonic Wave Propagation in Doped n-Germanium and
p-Silicon, Phys. Rev., 134: A1387 (1964). .(Seq. 3-9.)
Massalski, T. B.: Intermediate Phases and Electronic Structure, from "Theory of
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Masterson, K. S., .Tr., and K. Sawada: Energy of the Many-fermion Normal System,
Phys. Rev., 133:A1234. (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
Matossi, F.: Theory of Dynamic Quenching of Photoconductivity and Luminescence,
J. Electrochem. Soc., 103:662 (1956).
Matsubara, T.: Quantum-statistical Mechanics of Electron-Phonon System, Progr.
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(Kyoto), 14:351 (1955).
Matsudaira, N.: Interaction of Solid State Plasmon with Radiation. II. Optical
Absorption of Thin Metal Films, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 18:380 (1963).
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Matsuura, K.: Interaction between Plasma Oscillation and Radiation Field, I, II,
J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 18:1319, 1649 (1963).
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Matthias, B. T., and J. P. Remeika: Ferroelectricity in Ammonium Sulfate, Phys.
Rev., 103:262 (1956). (Sec. 8-5.)
Mattheiss, ~- F.: Energy Bands for V,X Compounds, Phys. Rev., 138:Al12 (1965).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Mattis, D. C.: Phonon Free Path in an Isotopic Mixture, Phys. Rev., 106:721 (1957).
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111:403 (1958). (Sec. 5-1.)
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Matyas, M., and J. Skacha: Magnetoresistance Measurements on p-type GaSb,
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Matysina, Z. A., and A. A. Smirnov: Theory of the Electrical Resistance of Ordered
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Mavroides, J. G., and B. Lax: Magnetoresistance of Holes in Germanium and Silicon
with Warped Energy Surfaces, Phys. Rev., 107:1530 (1957). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , K. J. Button, and Y. Shapira: Oscillatory Quantum Effects in the
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May, R. M.: Diamagnetism of Electrons in a Weak Periodic Potential, Progr. Theoret.
Phys. (Kyoto), 23:400 (1960).
Mayburg, S.: Effect of Pressure on the Low Frequency Dielectric Constant of Ionic
Mazur, P., E. W. Montroll, and R. B. Potts: Effect of Defects on Lattice Vibrations.
Localized Vibration Modes in a Linear Diatomic Chain, J. Wash. Acad. Sci.,
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Mead, C. A.: Quantum Theory of the Refractive Index, Phys. Rev., 110:359 (1958).
(Sec. 5-5.)
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11:358 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
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Megaw, H. D.: Origin of Ferroelectricity in Barium Titanate and Other Perovskite-
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Meiklyar, P. V.: Light Absorption in Silver Halides, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:148 (1962).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Meltzer, B.: A New Approach to the Theory of Electrical Conductivity of Solids,

Physica, 23:118 (1957).
Memory, J. D.: Ring Currents in Pentacyclic Hydrocarbons, J. Chem. Phys., 38:1341
(1963).
Men, A. N.: The Frequency Spectrum of a Chain of Atoms, Taking Account of Inter-
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Mendelson, K. S., and H. M. James: Wave Functions and Energies of Shallow
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Mendelssohn, K., and H. Montgomery: Scattering of Phonons and Electrons by
Imperfections in a Metal, Phil. Mag., 1:718 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
Mendlowitz, H.: Optical Constants of Aluminum, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 76:664
(1960). (Secs. 3-11, 5-5.)
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Mercouroff, W.: Observation des effets quantiques associes a la resonance cyclotron
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3-8, 3-11.)
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quantiques, Phys. Status Solidi, 2:282 (1962). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Merriam, M. F.: Brillouin Zone Effects, Superconductivity, and Fermi Surface of
Indium Alloys, Phys. Rev. Letters, 11:321 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Merton, L.: Calculation of the Lattice Vibrations in Crystals with the Zinc Blende
Structure, "Semiconductors and Phosphors," Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Brunswick,
Germany, 1958, p. 587. (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Calculation of the Lattice Vibrations in Crystals with Zinc Blende Structure.
I. Lattice Vibrations Ignoring Coulomb Field. II. Effect of Coulomb Field on
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Mertsching, J.: Zur Theorie der Ultraschallabs0rption von Metallen im Magnetfeld
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Messier, J., and J.M. Flores: Temperature Dependence of Hall Mobility and µy/µn
for Si, J. Phys. Chem. Solid-&, 24:1539 (1963). (Sec. 2-4.)
Meyer, A.: Effect of Lattice Vibrational Spectrum on Intrinsic Electrical and Thermal
Resistivity of Metals, Phys. Rev., 116:339 (1959).
- - - and R. F. Wood: Electronic Structure of the M Center in LiCl and LiF, Phys.
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Meyer, H.J. G.: Infrared Absorption by Conduction Electrons in Germanium, Phys.
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Midzuno, Y., and T. Kihara: Non-additive Intermolecular Potential in Gases. I.
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Migdal, A. B.: Interactions between Electrons and the Lattice Vibrations in a Normal
Metal, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 34:1438 (1958).
Mikoshiba, N.: On Magneto-acoustic Resonance in Metals, J. Phys. Soc. Japan,
13:759 (1958).
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Miller, G. F., and M. J.P. Musgrave: On the Propagation of Elastic Waves in Aeolo-
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Miller, P. B., and R.R. Haering: Cyclotron Resonance in Metals with H Perpendicu-
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Letters, 11:537 (1963).
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(Sec. 3-9.)
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Miller, R. A., and C. 8. Smith: Pressure Derivatives of the Elastic Constants of LiF
and NaF, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 26:1279 (1964).
Miller, Yu. G.: Investigation of Electrical Transport in Metals and Semiconductors
under the Influence of the Hall Electric Field, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:2383 (1961).
(Sec. 2-4.)
Mironov, A. G.: Theory of an Electron Plasma in a Magnetic Field. Effect of the
Coulomb Interaction on the Magnetic Susceptibility, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:1654
(1961).
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Mitchell, D. L., and R. F. Wallis: Interband Faraday Rotation in Germanium, Phys.
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Mitchell, E.W. J.: A Review of Recent Work on Diamond, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
8:444 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
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Mitra, G. B., and S. K. Mitra: Griineisen's Rule and the Thermal Expansion of
Metals, Nature, 179:1295 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and B. V. Gokhale: Elastic and Force Constants of a Simple Tetragonal
Crystal, J. Chem. Phys., 26:1655 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
Mitra, S. S.: Vibration Spectra of Solids, Solid State Phys., 13:2 (1962). (Sec.
8-6.)
Mitskevich, V. V.: Dynamical Theory of NaCl-type Ionic Crystals. I. Thermal and
Elastic Properties. II. Dielectric and Optical Properties, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
3:3022, 3036 (1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
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(1962). (Sec. 8-6.)
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tion of Certain Ptoperties of Ionic Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1552 (1963).
(Sec. 8-6.)
Mitsui, T.: Theory of the Ferroelectric Effect in Rochelle Salt, Phys. Rev., 111 :1259
(1958). (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - : See also E. Nakamura.
Miyakawa, K.: New Derivation of Elastic Equations for Trigonal Holoaxial Crystals,
Phys. Rev., 107 :677 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
Miyake, 8. J.: Theory of Cyclotron Resonance Line Broadening. I. Local Frequency
Modulation Caused by Impurities, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 20:412 (1965). (Sec. 3-8.)
Miyata, T., R. Sano, and T. Tomiko: Optical Studies on NaCl Crystals, J. Phys. Soc.
Japan, 19:2233 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Miyazawa, H., K. Suzuki, and H. Maeda: Evidence for the (110) Swelling Constant
Energy Surface for Heavy Holes in Silicon, Phys. Rev., 131:2442 (1963). (Sec.
3-11.)
Moch, P., M. Balkanski, and P. Aigrain: Structure de bande de rutile deduite des
proprietes optiques et electriques, Compt. Rend., 261:1373 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
Mohanty, G. P., and L. V. Azaroff: Distribution of Electrons in CdS Crystals, Phys.
Rev., 120:1224 (1960).
-490 INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS
Moizhes, B. Ya., and Y. N. Obraztsov: On the Theory of the Transverse Photo-

magnetic Effect, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:1446 (1957).
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Tverd. Tela, 1 :1770 (1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - , R. V. Parfenev, F. A. Chudnovskii, and A. L. Efros: Approximate Calculation
of the Average Group Velocity of Phonons in Cubic Lattices, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
3:1933 (1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
Moliere, G.: Solution of Boltzmann Equation for Multiple Scattering of Electrons
(in Foils), Nuovo Cimento, 7:720 (1958).
Moliner, F. G.: On the Fermi Surface of Copper, Phil. Mag., 3:207 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
Moll, J. L.: The Evolution of the Theory for the Voltage-Current Characteristic of
p-n Junctions, Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs., 46:1076 (1958).
Montgomery, H.: The Thermal Conductivity of Lead at Low Temperatures, Proc.
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Montroll, E. W.: Dynamics of a Square Lattice, J. Chem. Phys., 16:575 (1947).
(Sec. 8-6.)
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Moore, E. J.: On the Galvanomagnetic, Thermomagnetic, and Thermoelectric Effects
in Isotropic Metals and Semiconductors, Australian J. Phys., 11:235 (1958).
(Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Moore, N.: Energy of Interaction of Two Helium Atoms, J. Chem. Phys., 33:471
(1960). (Sec. A5-6.)
Moore, T. W., and F. W. Spong: Cyclotron Resonance in Al, Phys. Rev., 126:846
(1962); 126:2261 (1962). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
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Mooser, E.: Ein Gerat zur graphischen Bestimmung der Fermi-Grenzenergie in
Halbleitern, Z. Angew. Math. Phy.~., 4:433 (1953).
- - - : Magnetic Susceptibility of Impurity-trapped Electrons and Holes in Semi-
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Morel, P.: Evaluation of the Contribution of the Umklapp-processes to the Electron-
Phonon Interaction, Phys. Rev. Letters, 1:244 (1958).
Morgan, T. N.: Application of the Uncertainty Principle to Electron Scattering by
Phonons in Solids, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:1657 (1963).
Mori, H.: The Quantum Statistical Theory of Transport Phenomena. II. On the
Theory of Metallic Conductivity, Progr. Theoret. Phys. (Kyoto), 9:473 (1953).
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11:1029 (1956).
- - - and J. Ross: Transport Equation in Quantum Gases, Phys. Rev., 109:1877
(1958).
Mori, S., S. Shigetomi, and Y. Koga: Electrical Properties of InSc, J. Phys. Soc. Japan,
18:308 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Morimoto, T.: Three-hand Model for the Galvanornagnetic Effects in Bismuth, J.
Morin, F. J., T. H. Geballe, and C. Herring: Temperature Dependence of the Piezo-
resistance of High-purity Silicon and Germanium, Phys. Rev., 106:525 (1957).
(Sec. 3-11.)
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Morita, A.: Theory of Impurity Levels. II. Polar Crystals, J. Phys. Soc. Japan,
18:1437 (1963).
- - : See also Y. Abe.
Morris, R. G., R. D. Redin, and G. C. Danielson: Semiconducting Properties of
Mg2Si Single Crystals, Phys. Rev., 109:1909 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
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Morrison, S. R.: Recombination of Electrons and Holes at Dislocations, Phys. Rev.,
104:619 (1956).
- - - : See also J. Bardeen.
Morse, R. W.: Ultrasonic Attenuation in Metals by Electronic Relaxation, Phys. Rev.,
97 :1716 (1955). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - , H. V. Bohm, and J. D. Gavenda: Electron Resonances with Ultrasonic Waves
in Copper, Phys. Rev., 109:1394 (1958). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
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Copper Crystal at Low Temperatures, Phys. Rev. Letters, 2:250 (1959). (Secs.
3-9, 3-11.)
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(1959). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - , A. Myers, and C. T. Walker: Fermi Surfaces of Gold and Silver from Ultrasonic
Attenuation, Phys. Rev. Letters, 4:605 (1960). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : The Fermi Surfaces of the Noble Metals by Ultrasonics, "The Fermi Surface,"
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Metals by Ultrasonics, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 33:699 (1961). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
Moskowitz, A.: Analysis of Rotatory Dispersion Curves, Rev. Mod. Phys., 32:440
(1960). (Sec. 5-5.)
Moskowitz, J. W.: Study of the Ha Ring in the Molecular Orbital and Alternant
Molecular Orbital Approximation, J. Chem. Phys., 38:677 (1963). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and M. P. Barnett: The Pi-electron Structure of the Benzene Molecule, J.
Chem. Phys., 39:1557 (1963). (Sec. 10-4.)
Moss, T. S.: Lead Salt Photoconductors, Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs., 43:1869 (1955).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Measurements on p-n Junctions in Lead Sulfide, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
B68:697 (1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
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and Phosphors," Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Brunswick, Germany, 1958,
p. 98.
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the Infrared Faraday Effect, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 74:131 (1959). (Secs.
3-8, 3-11.)
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Faraday Effect, Physica, 26:1142 (1959). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
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74:490 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , S. D. Smith, and K. W. Taylor: The Infrared Faraday Effect Due to Free
Carriers in Indium Antimonide, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:323 (1959). (Secs. 3-8,
3-11.)
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J. Appl. Phys., 32 (suppl.) :2136 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
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Undoped GaP, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 83:217 (1964). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
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Motizuki, K., and M. Sparks: Range of Excited Electrons and Holes in Metals and
Semiconductors, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 19:486 (1964).
Mott, N. F.: The Theory of the Formation of Protective Oxide Films on Materials, III,
Trans. Faraday Soc., 43:429 (1947).
- - - : Notes on Latent Image Theory, Photo. J., 88B:119 (1948).
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Elec. Res. Assoc., Ref. L/T216, 1949.
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(1961).
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A275:149 (1963). (Sec. 10-4.)
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Motulevich, G. P., and A. A. Shubin: Role of Interelectron Collisions in Metals in the
Infrared Region of the Spectrum, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 34:757 (1958).
(Sec. 5-5.)
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characteristics, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 37 :1770 (1959). (Sec. 5-5.)
Mrozowski, S.: Electrical Resistivity of Interstitial Compounds of Graphite, J. Chem.
Phys., 21:492 (1953). (Sec. 3-11.)
Murao, T.: Screening of Multipolar Interactions in Metals, J. Phys. Soc. Japan,
17 :341 (1962).
Murphy, E. L., and R.H. Good, Jr.: Thermionic Emission, Field Emission, and the
Transition Region, Phys. Rev., 102:1464 (1956).
Murrell, J. N.: The Mobility of Holes and Electrons in Organic Crystals, Mol. Phys.,
4:205 (1961).
Muser, H. A.: Thermodynamic Treatment of Electronic Processes in Semiconductor
Surface Layers, Z. Physik, 148:380 (1957).
Musgrave, M. J.P., and J. A. Pople: The Stability under Pressure of Crystals with the
Diamond or Zinc Blende Structure, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 23:321 (1962). (Sec.
10-4.)
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Soc. (London), A272:503 (1963).
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Muto, T.: Theory of the F-centers of Colored Alkali Halide Crystals. I. Structure
of the F-absorption Bands. II. Electronic Structure of F-centers-General
Theory, Progr. Theoret. Phys. (Kyoto), 4:181, 243 (1949). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and S. Oyama: Theory of the Temperature Effect of Electronic Energy Bands
in Crystals, Progr. Theoret. Phys. (Kyoto), 5:833 (1950).
Myasnikova, T. P., and A. F. Yutsenko: Changes in the Infrared Spectra of NH 4 HSO 4 ,
RbHSO,, and (NH,).SO, at Ferroelectric Transitions, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:G5~{
(1962). (Sec. 8-5.)
-.- - : See also P. A. Bazhulin.
Myers, A.: Use of High-frequency Sound Waves in the Investigation of Some Elec-
tronic Properties of Metals, Am. J. Phys., 29:143 (1961). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - : See also R. W. Morse.

Myszkowski, A., and S. Gomulka: Interaction of Electron on the Donor Center with
the Crystal Lattice in Germanium and Silicon, Phys. Rev., 134:A1102 (1964).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Nabarro, F. R. N.: The Axial Ratio of Zinc, and of the Eta and Epsilon Brasses,
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Nag, B. R., P. Das, and H. Paria: Hall Mobility and Magnetoresistance of Semi-
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Nagamiya, T.: Theory of Color Centers, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 7:354, 358 (1952).
(Sec. 5-5.)
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Nagy, E.: Phenomenes d'electroluminescence, J. Phys. Radium, 17:773 (1956).
Nagy, K.: Die Quantentheorie der elektromagnetische Strahlung in Dielektrika, Acta
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Nakajima, S.: A Note on Momentum Correlation and Diamagnetism, Proc. Phys.
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Nakamura, E., T. Mitsui, and J. Furuichi: A Note on the Classification of Ferro-
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Nakano, H.: A Method of Calculation of Electrical Conductivity, Progr. Theoret.
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Nardelli, G. F., and N. Terzi: Vibrational Properties of a Vacancy in Born-von
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Nardi, V.: On the Atomic Motions in Quasi-crystalline Argon, Nuovo Cimento, 7:545
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Narita, S., and S. Sugiyama: Some Optical Properties of ZnS Crystals, J. Phys. Soc.
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Nash, H. C., and C. S. Smith: Single-crystal Elastic Constants of Lithium, J. Phys.
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Nasledov, D. N., and S. V. Slobodchikov: Electrical Properties of GaP Crystals,
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Nathan, M: I., W. Paul, and H. Brooks: Interband Scattering inn-type Germanium,
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Nava, R., R. Azrt, I. Ciccarello, and K. Dransfeld: Hypersonic Absorption in Quartz
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Nelms, A. T., and I. Oppenheim: Data on the Atomic Form Factor: Computation
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Nelson, J. R.: Optical Absorption Spectrum of MgO by Reflectivity, Phys. Rev.,
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Nelson, R. C.: Organic Photoconductors. IV. Sign of the Charge Carrier, J. Chem.
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Nemnonov, S. A., and L. D. Finkelshtein: On the Nature of the Interatomic Inter-
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Nemoshkalenko, V.: The Structure of Electron Energy Spectrum of Iron-Cobalt
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Neronova, N. N., and N. V. Belov: Symmetry of Ferroelectrics, Dokl. Akad. Nauk
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N esbet, R. K.: Brueckner's Theory and the Method of Superposition of Configura-
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Neuberger, J., and R. D. Hatcher: Frequency Spectrum for a Two-dimensional Lattice,
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Neuringer, L. J.: Effect of Pressure on the Infrared Absorption of Semiconductors,
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Newell, G. F.: Vibration Spectrum of a Simple Cubic Lattice, J. Chem. Phys., 21:1877
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1
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Newman, R., and W.W. Tyler: Effect of Impurities on Free-hole Infrared Absorption
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Nicholas, J. F.: Effect of the Fermi Energy on the Stability of Superlattices, Proc.
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Nicholson, A. F.: Longitudinal Waves in a Chain of Atoms with Arbitrary Potential,
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Nierenberg, W. A.: A New Viewpoint in Computing Crystal Frequencies, J. Chem.
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Nigam, A. N.: Color Centers and X-ray Spectra of Potassium Halide Crystals,
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Nii, R.: Azbel-Kaner Cyclotron Resonance in n-type PbTe, J. Phys. Soc. Japan,
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Nikiforov, I. Ya.: The Form of the Conduction Band of Iron, Fiz. Metal. i Metalloved.,
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Nilsson-Froman, N.: On the Two-phonon Scattering of X-rays in Aluminum, Arkiv
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Nishina, Y., J. Kolodziejczak, and B. Lax: Oscillatory Interband Faraday Rotation
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Nitsovich, M. V.: On the Theory of the Diamagnetism of the Electron Gas in Crystals,
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Nitsovich, V. M.: On the Theory of Kinetic Phenomena in a Semiconductor with a
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Normantas, E., and G. E. Pikus: Thermomagnetic Effects in Semiconductors with
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Northrop, F. C.: Conduction Processes in Condensed Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Proc.
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Nozieres, P.: Une Description collective des electrons dans Jes solides, Compt. Rend.,
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· - - - and D. Pines: Correlation Energy of Free Electron Gas, Phys. Rev., 111:442
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Nranyan, A. A.: Third-order Elastic Constants of CsCl-type Crystals, Fiz. Tverd.
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Numata, H., and Y. Uemura: Analysis of Cyclotron Absorption in PbTe, J. Phys.
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Obraztsov, Yu. N.: The Nernst Effect in Atomic Semiconductors, Taking into Account
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(Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
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Ockman, N.: The Infrared and Raman Spectra of Ice, Advan. Phys., 7:199 (1958).
(Sec. 8-6.)
O'Dwyer, J. J.: A Note on the Electron Distribution Function in Insulators at High
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I
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I
l
Okada, T.: The Ellipsoid Model of the Galvanomagnetic Effects in Semiconductors, '
•I
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Okamura, K., and I. M. Templeton: The de Haas-van Alphen Effect in Rubidium,
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Okasaki, C., and T. Suita: Electronic Conduction in Ionic Crystals, I, J. Phys. Soc.
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Okatskii, V. S.: The Method of Homogeneous Static Deformation for Calculating
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Okazaki, M.: Landau Levels and Cyclotron Resonance of Holes in Germanium, J.
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Oliver, D. J.: Fluctuations in the Number of Electrons and Holes in a Semiconductor,
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Olmer, P.: Dispersion des vitesses des ondes acoustiques dans !'aluminium, Acta Cryst.,
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Olsen, T.: Lattice Thermal Conductivity in Copper Alloys, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
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Olson, R., and S. Rodriguez: Magneto-resistance of Single Crystals of Copper, Phys.
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Onsager, L.: Interpretation of the de Haas-van Alphen Effect, Phil. Mag., 43:1006
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Onuki, M., and N. Hase: Hall Mobility of Holes in CdS Crystals, J. Phys. Soc. Japan,
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Oriani, R. A.: A Survey of Theoretical Models for Primary Metallic Solutions, J.

Osaka, Y.: Renormalization Constant of Electron Gas, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 18:652
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(Sec. 3-9.)
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Otsuka, E., S. Nagata, K. Murase, and K. Yonemitsu: Cyclotron Resonance of Tin-
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- - - , - - - , - - ,-, and H. Kawamura: Cyclotron Resonance of Ge-Si Alloys,
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Ovsyannikova, I. A., and M. Ya. Shirobokov: The Dynamical Theory of Electron
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I. Pelah.
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Absorption in Compound Semiconductors, Semicond. Phys. Conj., Prague, 1960,
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Pamplin, B. R.: A Systematic Method of Deriving New Semiconducting Compounds
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Panchenko, V. V.: Temperature Dependence of the Dielectric Constant of Ionic
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Paranjape, B. V.: Field Enhanced Lattice Scattering in Semiconductors, Proc. Phys.
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498 NSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND METALS
Parfenev, R. V., A. M. Pogarskii, I. I. Farbshtein, and S.S. Shalyt: Galvanomagnetic

Properties of Tellurium, Structure of the Valence Band, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:3596
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Parker, R. A.: Lorentz Corrections in Rutile, Phys. Rev., 124:1713 (1961). (Sec. 5-5.)
Parkinson, D.: Atomic Polarizabilities, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 76:169 (1960).
(Sec. 5-5.)
Parmenter, R.H.: The Acoustoelectric Effect, Phys. Rev., 113:102 (1959).
Parrott, J. E.: Some Contributions to the Theory of Electrical Conductivity, Thermal
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Parry, W. E., and R. E. Turner: Green Functions in Statistical Mechanics, Rept.
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Parthasarathy, 8., D. 8. Guruswamy, and A. P. Desmukh: Brillouin Components in
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(Sec. 8-1.)
Paskin, A.: Contributions of One- and Two Phonon Scattering to Temperature
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Patrick, L.: Inequivalent Sites and Multiple Donor and Acceptor Levels in SiC
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Paul, D. I.: Non-equilibrium Phonon Distribution in Metals, Phys. Rev., 111:1086
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Paul, H.: Zur Theorie der Warmeleitung in Isolatoren, I, II, Z. Naturforsch., 14a:535,
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Paul, W., and D. M. Warschauer: Optical Properties of Semiconductors under
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R. Zallen.
Pauncz, R., J. de Heer, and P. 0. Lowdin: Studies on the Alternant Molecular
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Pearson, G. L., and C. Herring: Magneto-resistance Effect and the Band Structure of
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Pearson, W. B.: Resistance and Thermoelectric Measurements of Cold-worked Copper
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(Sec. 3-11.)
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Low Temperatures, Can. J. Phys., 38:1048 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
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Carried Out at the National Research Laboratories, Ottawa, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
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Pease, R. S., and G. E. Bacon: Ferroelectric Structure of Potassium Dihydrogen
Phosphate, Nature, 173:443 (1954). (Sec. 8-5.)
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Pekar, S. I.: The Crystal as a Multi-electron Problem and a Single-electron Approxi-
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Lattice Vibrations in Ge and ZrH by Scattering of Cold Neutrons, Phys. Rev.,
108:1091 (1957). (Sec. 8-1.)
---,I.Lefkowitz, W. Kley, and E. Tunkelo: Observations of Hydrogen Vibration
Frequencies in Phosphates by Means of Inelastic Scattering of Cold Neutrons,
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Penfield, R. H., and H. Zatzkis: Quantization of the Relativistic Harmonic Oscillator
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Penn, D.R.: Wave-number-dependent Dielectric Function of Semiconductors, Phys.
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Peretti, J.: Methode de calcul de la densite spectrale des frequences propres de vibra-
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- - - : Some Remarks about Frequency Spectra of Crystal Lattices, J. Phys. Chem.

Solids, 12:216 (1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
Perlin, Yu. E.: Capture of Conduction Electrons by Charged Defects in Ionic Crystals,
Perry, C. H., B. N. Khanna, and G. Rupprecht: Infrared Studies of Perovskite
Titanates, Phys. Rev., 135:A408 (1964). (Sec. 8-5.)
Pesnak, L.: Electron Bombardment Induced Conductivity in Selenium, Phys. Rev.,
79:171 (1950). (Sec. 3-11.)
Peterson, S. W., H. A. Levy, and S. H. Simonson: Neutron Diffraction Study of
Tetragonal Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate, J. Chem. Phys., 21:2084 (1953).
(Sec. 8-5.)
- - - : See also H. A. Levy.
Petritz, R. L.: Theory of Photoconductivity in Semiconducting Films, Phys. Rev.,
104:1508 (1956).
- - - : Theory of an Experiment for Measuring the Mobility and Density of Carriers
in the Space-charge Region of a Semiconductor Surface, Phys. Rev., 110:1254
(1958).
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Pfennig, H.: Der Einfluss der Umklapp-Prozesse auf den elektrischen Widerstand
der Metalle bei tiefen Temperaturen, Z. Physik, 155:332 (1959).
Phariseau, P.: The Diffraction of Light by Two Perpendicular Ultrasonic Waves,
Physica, 23:651 (1957). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - and J.M. Ziman: The Theory of the Electronic Structure of Liquid Metals,
Phil. Mag., 8:1487 (1963).
Philipp, H. R., and H. Ehrenreich: Observation of d Bands in 3-5 Semiconductors,
- - - a n d - - - : Optical Properties of Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 129:1550 (1963).
(Sec. 5-5.)
- - - a n d - - - : Intrinsic Optical Properties of Alkali Halides, Phys. Rev., 131 :2016
(1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
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Phillips, J. C.: Critical Points and Lattice Vibration Spectra, Phys. Rev., 104:1263
(1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and H. B. Rosenstock: Topological Methods of Locating Critical Points,
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113:147 (1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
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(Sec. 3-11.)
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(1960).
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance, Theory, "The Fermi Surface," John Wiley & Sons,
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133:A452 (1964). (Sec. 5-5.)
- : Ultraviolet Absorption of Insulators, III. fee Alkali Halides, Phys. Rev.,

136:AI705 (1964). (Secs. 3-11, 5-5.)
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136:Al714 (1964). (Secs. 3-11, 5-5.)
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136:AI721 (1964). (Secs. 3-11, 5-5.)
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- : See also E. Blount, D. Brust, W. Cochran, M. H. Cohen, H. Ehrenreich,
E. Loh.
Pick, R., and G. Sarma: Orthogonalized Plane Wave Method and Total Energy of a
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Pickard, G. L., and F. E. Simon: The Atomic Heats of Palladium, Sodium, and
Mercury at Low Temperatures, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 61:1 (1948). (Sec.
1-4.)
Picus, G., E. Burstein, and B. Henvis: Absorption Spectra of Impurities in Silicon. II.
Group V Donors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 1:75 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
---·, - - - , - - - , and M. Hass: Infrared Lattice Vibration Studies of Polar
Character in Compound Semiconductors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:282 (1959).
(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also E. Burstein, E. D. Palik.
Pike, E. R.: Second Quantization of the General Many Fermion Operator, Proc. Phys.
Soc. (London), 81:427 (1963). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : A New Identity in the Green's Function Approach to the Many-body
Problem, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 84:83 (1964). (Sec. 11-7.)
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Pikus, G. E.: Thermo- and Galvanomagnetic Effects in Semiconductors Taking
Account of Variations in Carrier Concentration. I. Thermo- and Galvanomag-
netic Effects in Weak Fields. II. Galvanomagnetic Effects in Strong Fields.
Thermal Conductivity of Electrons and Excitons, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 26:22, 36
(1956). (Sec. 2-4.)
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Fiz., 27:1606 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
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Carriers in Semiconductors, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 28:2390 (1958).
- - - and G. L. Bir: The Effect of Deformation on the Energy Spectrum and
Electrical Properties of p-type Germanium and Silicon, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1:154
(1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
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Germanium and Silicon, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1:1642 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
---and---: The Influence of Deformation on the Electrical Properties of p-typ e
Germanium and Silicon, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1:1828 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and---: Cyclotron and Paramagnetic Resonance in Strained Crystals,
- - - and -.--: Cyclotron and Paramagnetic Resonance in Deformed Crystals,
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Interact.ion, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:2908 (19f\l). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and G. L. Bir: Piezoresistance Effects in PbS-PbTe-type Crystals, Fiz. Tverd.
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Piller, H.: Electron Effective Mass in GaSb Determined by Faraday Rotation Measure-
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Pincherle, L., and J. M. Radcliffe: Semiconducting Intermetallic Compounds, Advan.
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Pines, D., and D. Bohm: Collective Description of Electron Interactions. II. Collec-
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(Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
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(Sec. 11-7.)
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Piper, W. W., P. D. Johnson, and D. T. F. Marple: Temperature Dependence of the
Optical Band Gap in ZnS, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:457 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
Pippard, A. B.: The Surface Impedance of Superconductors and Normal Metals at
High Frequencies. I. Resistance of Superconducting Tin and Mercury at
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- - - : The Surface Impedance of Superconductors and Normal Metals at High
J<'requencies. IV. Impedance at 9400 Mc/sec of Single Crystals of Normal and
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 8001( ·. LIST 503
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Pirenne, J.: On Onsager's Theory of Dielectrics and Spontaneous Polarization of
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Placzek, G., and L. van Hove: Crystal Dynamics and Inelastic Scattering of Neutrons,
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Platzman, P. M., and S. J. Buchsbaum: Wave Propagation along a Magnetic Field
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Pokatilov, E. P.: Scattering of Electrons by Acoustic Oscillations in Hexagonal Crys-
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Pople, J. A.: Dielectric Polarization of a Dipolar Lattice, Phil. Mag., 44:1276
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Popov, I. M.: Cross-sections of Possible Non-radiative Recombinations in Bernie on-
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Porfireva, N. N.: The Relationship between Intermolecular and Intramolecular Vibra-
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Taking into Account the Scattering of Current Carriers on the Optical and
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Potapov, L. P.: Relation between Specific Heat and the Thermal Scattering Factor
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Potter, R. J., and D. L. Dexter: Resistivity of Interstitials in Copper, Phys. Rev.,
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Poulet, H.: Sur le couplage des oscillations d'ions complexes ou de molecules dans la
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Powell, C. J.: The Origin of the Characteristic Energy Losses in Ten Elements, Proc.
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Powell, R. L., H. M. Roder, and W. J. Hall: Low-temperature Transport Properties
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Power, E. A., and S. Zienau: On the Physical Interpretation of the Relativistic Cor-
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Pozhela, Yu. K.: On the Question of the Effect of a Strong Electric Field in Semi-
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Prange, R. E., and L. P. Kadanoff: Transport Theory for Electron-Phonon Interac-
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Prasad, S. C., and W. A. Wooster: The Determination of the Elastic Constants of
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Institute of Physics and the Physical Society, London, 1962, p. 276. (Secs.
3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also H. J. Zeiger.
Ravich, Yu. I.: Concerning the Theory of Photomagnetoelectric Effects in Semi-
conductors with Complex Energy Bands, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:2366 (1960).
Rayne, J. A.: The Heat Capacity of Copper Below 4.2°K, Australian J. Phys., 9:189
{1956). (Sec. 1-4.)
- - : Heat Capacity of a Brasses below 4.2°K, Phys. Rev., 108:22 {1957). (Sec.1-4.)
- - : Heat Capacity of CuaAu below 4.2°K, Phys. Rev., 108:649 (1957). (Sec. 1-4.)
- - - : Heat Capacity of Dilute Magnesium-Aluminum Alloys below 4.2°K, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 7 :268 (1958). (Sec. 1-4.)
- - - : Temperature Dependence of the Absorptivity of Copper in the Near Infrared,
- - - : Optical Properties of Metals, "The Fermi Surface," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1960, p. 266. (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Band Structure of Noble Metal Alloys: Optical Absorption in Cu-Ge Alloys at
4.2°K, Phys. Rev., 121:456 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
---and B. S. Chandrasekhar: Fermi Surface of In from Magnetoacoustic Measure-
ments, Phys. Rev., 126:1952 (1962). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
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8:199 {1962). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
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(1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
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131:653 (1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
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133:All04 (1964). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
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Rebane, T. K.: Application of the Lattice Model to Semiconductors of the Lead Sulfide
Type, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 31:353 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
Redei, L. B.: The Electronic Properties of Tetrahedral Intermetallic Compounds.
II. Conduction Band in Diamond. III. A Many-electron Model for Calculating
the El~ctronic Excited States in IV-IV Compounds and III-V Compounds with
Zinc-blende Structure, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A270:373, 383 (1962). (Sec.
11-1.)
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Rediker, R. H., and A. R. Calawa: Magneto-tunneling in Lead Telluride, J. Appl.
Phys., 32(suppl.):2189 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
Redin, R. D., R. G. Morris, and G. C. Danielson: Semiconducting Properties of Mg,Ge
Single Crystals, Phys. Rev., 109:1916 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - · : See also R. G. Morris.
Reed, W. A., and J. A. Marcus: Topology of the Fermi Surface of Ga, Phys. Rev.,
126:1298 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and G. F. Brennert: Topology of Fermi Surface of Zn from Galvanomagnetic
Measurements, Phys. Rev., 130:565 (1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - and J. A. Marcus: Low-field Galvanomagnetic Coefficients of Ga, Phys. Rev.,

130:957 (1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - and E. Fawcett: High-field Magnetoresistance of bee Iron, Phys. Rev., 136 :A422
(1964). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
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Reitz, J. R.: Exchange Energy of Electrons in Metals and Ionic Crystals, J. Chem.
Phys., 22:595 (1954). (Sec. 11-7.)
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Reneker, D. H.: New Oscillatory Absorption of Ultrasonic Waves in Bismuth in a
Magnetic Field, Phys. Rev. Letters, 1:440 (1958). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
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(1959). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.) ·
Renneke, D.R., and D. W. Lynch: Infrared Lattice Vibrations and Dielectric Disper-
sion in Single-crystal Cr2Oa, Phys. Rev., 138:A530 (1965). (Sec. 8-6.)
Reuter, G. E. H., and E. H. Sondheimer: Theory of the Anomalous Skin Effect in
Metals, Nature, 161:394 (1948). (Sec. 5-1.)
- - - and---: The Theory of the Anomalous Skin Effect in Metals, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), A195:336 (1948). (Sec. 5-1.)
Reynolds, J. M., H. W. Hemstreet, T. E. Leinhardt, and D. D. Triantos: Hall Effect
in Bismuth at Low Temperature, Phys. Rev., 96:1203 (1954). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
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Rhodes, P.: The Bloch Integral Equation and Electrical Conductivity, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), A202:466 (1950).
Rhodes, R. G.: Structure of BaTiO 3 at Low Temperatures, Acta Cryst., 2:417 (1949).
(Sec. 8-5.)
Rickayzen, G.: On the Theory of the Thermal Capture of Electrons in Semiconductors,
Rigaux, C., and J. M. Thuillier: Phenomene de magnetoresistance negative dans les
semi-conducteurs, Compt. Rend., 242:2710 (1956). (Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : Etude de Ia structure de bandes de teIIure par les phenomenes de transport,
Compt. Rend., 253:81 (1961); J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 23:805 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
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Ritchie, R. H.: Plasma Losses by Fast Electrons in Thin Films, Phys. Rev., 106:874
(1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
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Phys. Rev., 114:644 (1959). (Sec. 11-7.)
Rittner, E. S., R. A. Hutner, and F. K. du Pre: Concerning the Work of Polarization
in Ionic Crystals of the NaCl Type. I. Polarization around a Single Charge in
the Rigid Lattice, J. Chem. Phys., 17:198 (1949).
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Phys., 19:1030 (1951). (Sec. 10-4.)
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101:1291 (1956).
- - - : See also F. K. du Pre, R. A. Hutner.
Robert, M.: Dispersion des ondes longitudinales se propageant suivant l'axe ternaire
dans l'aluminium, Bu.ll. Soc. Franc. Jl,fineral. Crist., 78:535 (1955). (Sec.
8-6.)
Roberts, B. W.: Magnetoacoustic Oscillations and Fermi Surface in Al, Phys. Rev.,
119:1889 (1960). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : Ultrasonic Cyclotron Resonance in Gallium, Phys. Rev. Letters, 6:453 (1961).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Roberts, C. S., and S. J. Buchsbaum: Motion of a Charged Particle in a Constant

Magnetic Field and a Transverse Electromagnetic Wave Propagating along the
Field, Phys. Rev., 136:A381 (1964).
Roberts, L. D., R. L. Becker, F. E. Obenshain, and J. 0. Thomson: Correlation of the
Mossbauer Isomer Shift and the Residual Electrical Resistivity for 197Au Alloys,
Phys. Rev., 137:A895 (1965). (Sec. 3-11.)
Roberts, L. M.: The Atomic Heats of Calcium, Strontium and Barium between 1.5°
and 20°K, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B70:738 (1957). (Sec. 1-4.)
- - - : The Atomic Heats of Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium between 1.5° and 20°K,
Roberts, S.: Dielectric Constants and Polarizabilities of Ions in Single Crystals and
Barium Titanate, Phys. Rev., 76:1215 (1949). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Revised Dielectric Parameters of Alkali and Halide Ions, Phys. Rev., 81:161
(1951). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Interpretation of the Optical Properties of Metal Surfaces, Phys. Rev., 100:1667
(1955). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Optical Properties of Nickel and Tungsten and Their Interpretation According
to Drude's Formula, Phys. Rev., 114:104 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - : Optical Properties of Cu, Phys. Rev., 118:1509 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
Roberts, V., and J.E. Quarrington: Accurate Measurements of Absorption in Indium
Antimonide and Gallium Antimonide, J. Electron., 1:152 (1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also G. G. MacFarlane.
Robins, D. A.: The Magnetic Susceptibility and Electrical Resistivity of Some Transi-
tion Metal Silicides, Phil. Mag., 3:315 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
Robins, J. L., and P. E. Best: Characteristic Electron Energy Loss Spectra of Some
Alkali Metals and Alkaline Earths, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 79:110 (1962).
(Sec. 5-3.)
- - - : Characteristic Electron Energy Loss Spectra of a Number of Solid Elements,
Robinson, J.E., F. Bassani, B. S. Knox, and J. R. Schrieffer: Screening Correction to
the Slater Exchange Potential, Phys. Rev. Letters, 9:215 (1962). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and S. Rodriguez: Ionized Impurity Scattering in Degenerate Many-valley
Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 136:A779 (1964).
- - - : See also F. Bassani.
Rocher, Y. A.: Emploi des niveaux lies virtuels dans les metaux des terres rares, J.
Rodberg, L. S.: The Many-body Problem and the Brueckner Approximation, Ann.
Phys. (N.Y.), 2:199 (1957). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
Rodot, :(\1.: Theorie de l'effet magneto-thermoelectrique transversal dans les semi-
conducteurs, Compt. Rend., 243:129 (1956).
- - - : Sur la dispersion des electrons par les modes optiques dans l'antimoniure
d'indium, Compt. Rend., 245:1051 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and H. Rodot: Structure de bandes et mecanismes de dispersion dans le tellure
et le seleniure de mercure monocristallins, Compt. Rend., 260:1447 (1960). (Sec.
3-11.)
Rodriguez, S.: Magnetic Field Dependence of Ultrasonic Attenuation in Metals at
Low Temperatures, Phys. Rev., 112:80 (1958). (Sec. 3-9.)
·---: Theory of Cyclotron Resonance in Metals, Phys. Rev., 112:l{il6 (1958).
(Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : Oscillations of the Velocity of Sound in Metals in a Magnetic Field, Phys. Rev.,
132:535 (1963).
- - - : See also D. N. Langenberg, R. Olson, J. J. Quinn, J.E. Robinson.
Rollins, B. V., and J.P. Russell: Impurity Conduction in Copper Doped Germanium,
Rollins, F. R., Jr., L. H. Taylor, and P. H. Todd, Jr.: Ultrasonic Study of Three-
phonon Interaction. II. Experimental Results, Phys. Rev., 136:A597 (1964).
(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also L. H. Taylor.
Ron, A., and N. Tzoar: Frequency-dependent Relaxation Time of Electron-Phonon
Systems. II. Effects of Finite Lifetime of the Phonon, Phys. Rev., 133:Al378
(1964).
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134:A70 (1964).
Rose, D. J.: Microplasmas in Silicon, Phys. Rev., 106:413 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
Rose, F. W. G., and D. J. Sandiford: An Easy Derivation of the Hole Lifetime in an
n-type Semiconductor with Acceptor Traps, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B68:894
(1955).
- - - , E. Billig, and J. E. Parrett: A Simple Derivation of the Thermoelectric Voltage
in a Non-degenerate Semiconductor, J. Electron. Control, 3:481 (1957).
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(London), 71 :699 (1958).
Rose-Innes, A. C.: Observation by Cyclotron Resonance of the Effect of Strain on
Germanium and Silicon, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 72:514 (1958). (Secs. 3-8,
3-11.)
- - - : See also R. F. Broom.
Rosenblum, B., and R. C. Duncan, Jr.: Some Quantum Aspects of Cyclotron Resonance
of Negative Masses, Semicond. Phys. Conf., Prague, 1960, Academic Press Inc.,
New York, 1961, p. 606. (Sec. 3-8.)
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Rosenstock, H. B., and G. F. Newell: Vibrations of a Simple Cubic Lattice, I, J.
Chem. Phys., 21:1607 (1953). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and H. M. Rosenstock: Vibrations of a Simple Cubic Lattice, II, J. Chem.
Phys., 21 :1608 (1953). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Dynamics of the Graphite Lattice, J. Chem. Phys., 21:2064 (1953). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : On the Optical Properties of Solids, J. Chem. Phys., 23:2415 (1955). (Sec.
5-5.)
- - - : On the Optical Properties of Solids, II, J. Chem. Phys., 27:1194 (1957). (Sec.
5-5.)
- - - : Critical Points in Three Dimensions, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 2:44 (1957).
(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Vibrations of a One-dimensional Ionic Lattice, Phys. Rev., 111:755 (1958).
(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Infrared Absorption by Sodium Chloride-type Lattices, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
4:201 (1958). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and C. C. Click: Vibrational Modes near Impurities, Phys. Rev., 119:1198
(1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Infrared Absorption by One-dimensional Ionic Lattices, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
16 :50 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Nature of Vibrational Modes in fonif' Crystals, Phys. Re11. 1 121:416 (1961).
(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also W. A. Bowers, J. C. Phillips.
Roth, H., Measurement of the Galvanomagnetic Effects in Pure Tellurium, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 8:525 (1959). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : See also W. Bernard.
Roth, L. M., and G. W. Pratt, Jr.: A Many-body Treatment of Dielectric Screening

for Impurity States and Excitons in Semiconductors, J. Phys. Chern. Solids, 8:47,
50 (1959). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
- - - , B. Lax, and S. Zwerdling: Theory of Optical Magnetoabsorption Effects in
- - - and----: g Factor of Electrons in Germanium, Phys. Rev. Letters, 3:217
(1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : g Factor and Donor Spin-lattice Relaxation for Electrons in Germanium and
Silicon, Phys. Rev., 118:1534 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Theory of Bloch Electrons in a Magnetic Field, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 23:433
(1962).
- - - : Theory of the Faraday Effect in Solids, Phys. Rev., 133:A542 (1964). (Sec.
3-8.)
- - - : See also P. N. Argyres, L. Gold, W. H. Kleiner, B. Lax, S. Zwerdling.
Ruffa, A. R.: Theory of Electronic Polarizabilities of Ions in Crystals; Application to
Alkali Halide Crystals, Phys. Rev., 130:1412 (1963). (Sec. 5-5.)
--:-: Theory of the Electronic Susceptibilities of Stoichiometric Rutile (Ti02),
Phys. Rev., 133:Al418 (1964).
Ruthemann, G.: Diskrete Energieverluste mittelschneller Elektronen beim Durchgang
<lurch diinne Folien, Ann. Physik, 2:113 (1948). (Sec. 5-3.)
Ryabinin, M. N.: The Longitudinal Magnetoresistance of Semiconductors of the
n-Germanium Type in the Quantum Limit, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:1310 (1961).
(Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
Ryder, E. J., and W. Shockley: Mobilities of Electrons in High Electric Fields, Phys.
Rev., 81 :139 (1951).
- - - : See also K. B. McAfee.
Saenz, A. W., and R. C. O'Rourke: Number of States and the Magnetic Properties of
an Electron Gas, Rev. Mod. Phys., 27:381 (1955).
Safford, G., V. Brajovic, and H. Boutin: An Investigation of the Energy Levels in
Alkaline Earth Hydroxides by Inelastic Scattering of Slow Neutrons, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 24:771 (1963). (Sec. 8-1.)
Sah, Chih-Tang, R. N. Noyce, and W. Shockley: Carrier Generation and Recombina-
tion in p-n Junctions and p-n Junction Characteristics, Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs.,
46:1228 (1957).
- - - and W. Shockley: Electron-Hole Recombination Statistics in Semiconductors
through Flaws with Many Charge Conditions, Phys. Rev., 109:1103 (1958).
Sah, P.: Application of the Augmented Plane Wave Method to a Liquid Model,
Saito, Y.: The de Haas-van Alphen Effect of InBi, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 17:716 (1962).
(Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
---:Thede Haas-van Alphen Effect in Antimony, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 18:452
(1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : Spin Splitting of the Landau Levels in Bismuth Observed by the de Haas-van
Alphen Effect, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 18:1845 (1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : The de Haas-van Alphen Effect in Antimony, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 19:1319
(1964). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - : See also T. Fukuroi.
Sakamoto, Y.: Madelung Constants of Simple Crystals Expressed in Terms of Bern's
Basic Potentials of 15 Significant Figures, J. Chem. Phys., 28:164 (1958). (Secs.
9-3, 10-4.)
Saksena, B. D., and S. Viswanathan: Principal Lattice Frequency of MgO, Proc. Phys.
Soc. (London), B69:129 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
Salkovitz, E. I., A. I. Schindler, and E. W. Kammer: Friedel Theory of Thermo-

electric Power Applied to Dilute Magnesium Alloys, Phys. Rev., 107:1549 (1957).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Salter, L.: On the Thermodynamics of Crystalline Lattices, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A233:418 (1955). (Sec. 8-6.)
Salter, L. S.: The Temperature Variation of the Scattering Properties of Crystals,
Advan. Phys., 14:1 (1965).
Samoilovich, A. G., and L. L. Korenblit: Degeneration of the Electron Gas in Semi-
conductors, U sp. Fiz. N auk, 67 :577 (1955).
- - - and M. I. Klinger: Theory of Semiconductors with a Zone of Impurities,
Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 26:2050 (1955).
- - - and V. M. Kondratenko: Contribution to the Theory of Atomic Semiconductors,
- - - and K. D. Tovstyuk: The Energy Spectrum of Current Carriers in Semi-
conductors of the Germanium Type, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:1753 (1957).
- - - and L. L. Korenblit: The Theory of Quanta! Kinetic Phenomena in Semi-
conductors, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:2673 (1957).
- - - , M. I. Klinger, and V. M. Nitsovich: On the Correlation between Electrons in
Narrow Impurity Bands in Semiconductors, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 27:2784 (1957).
- - - and V. M. Kondratenko:_Theory of Atomic Semiconductors. I. Derivation
of the Hamiltonian of an Atomic Semiconductor in a Polar Crystal Model, Ukr.
Fiz. Zh., 3:41 (1958).
- - - and S. L. Korolyuk: Theory of Elementary Excitations in Atomic Semi-
conductors, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 1:1592 (1959).
- - - and M. V. Nitsovich: On the Problem of Magnetic Susceptibility of Metallic
Lithium, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2 :341 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and V. D. Iskra: Effect of the Anisotropy of Crystals on the Thermal Vibration
of Atoms in Ge and Si, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:2827 (1960). (Sec. 8-6.)
---,I.Ya. Korenblit, I. V. Dakhovskii, and V. D. Iskra: Solution of the Kinetic
Equation for Anisotropic Electron Scattering, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:2939 (1961).
- - - , - - - , - - - , and---: The Anisotropy of Electron Scattering by Ionized
Impurities and Acoustic Phonons, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3 :3285 (1961).
Samokhvalov, A. A.: Ultra-high Frequency Dielectric Properties of a Group of Oxides
of 3d Transition Metals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:3593 (1961). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - - and A. G. Rustamov: Electric and Magnetic Properties of TiO, Fiz. Tverd.
Tela, 6:1202 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Sandor, E., and W. A. Wooster: The Elastic Constants of Vanadium Single Crystals,
Acta Cryst., 12:332 (1959). (Secs. 8-1, 8-6.)
Sannikov, D. G.: Electromagnetic and Acoustic Waves in Ferroelectrics, Fiz. Tverd.
Tela, 4:1619 (1962). (Secs. 8-5, 8-6.)
Sasaki, T.: Optical Constants of Germanium in the Extreme Ultraviolet Region, J.
- - - : See also H. Akao.
Sasaki, W., and M. Shibuya: Experimental Evidence of the Anisotropy of Hot Electrons
inn-type Germanium, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 11:1202 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
Sato, H.: Effects of Phonon Distributions on Hot Electrons in Semiconductors, J.
Phys. Soc. Japan, 18:55 (Hl63).
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance of Hot Electrons in n-type Germanium, J. Phys. Soc.
Japan, 18:60 (1963). (Secs: 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also K. Sugihara, R. Yamamoto, J.E. Zimmerman.
Sato, T.: Note on Collective Energy Losses in Metals, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 12:832
(1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - : See also K. Shogenji.

Satten, R. A.: Effects of Atomic Quadrupole Moments upon the Index of Refraction,
J. Chem. Phys., 26:766 (1957). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Crystalline Field Selection Rules: The Effect of Vibration-Electronic Inter-
action, J. Chem. Phys., 27:286 (1957). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : On the Theory of Electronic-Vibrational Interaction for Rare Earth and
Actinide Series Ions in Crystals. II. Octahedral Complexes, J. Chem. Phys.,
29:658 (1958). (Sec. 8-6.)
Sauermann, G.: Zur Behandlung des Mehrkiirperproblems der Festkiirperphysik,
Z. Physik, 163:435 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Eine Reduktion des Mehrkiirperproblems der Festkiirperphysik auf Teil-
systeme fur Elektronen und Gitter, Z. Physik, 169:198 (1962). (Sec. 11-7.)
Sawada, K.: Correlation Energy of an Electron Gas at High Density, Phys. Rev.,
106:372 (1957). (Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
- - - , K. A. Brueckner, J. Fukuda, and R. Brout: Correlation Energy of an Electron
Gas at High Density: Plasma Oscillations, Phys. Rev., 108:507 (1957). (Secs.
11-6, 11-7.)
- - - : See al&o K. A. Brueckner, J. Fukuda, K. S. Masterson, Jr.
Sawamoto, K.: Cyclotron Resonance in CdS, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 18:1224 (1963).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance in Cadmium Sulfide, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 19 :318 (1964).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Sax!, I.: The Quantum Theory of Multipole Radiation in a Dielectric, Czech. J. Phys.,
10:650 (1960). (Sec. 5-5.)
Scanlon, W. W.: Lifetime of Carriers in Lead Sulfide Crystals, Phys. Rev., 106:718
(1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Recent Advances in the Optical and Electronic Properties of PbS, PbSe,
PbTe, and Their Alloys, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:423, 442 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
Schechter, D.: Theory of Shallow Acceptor States in Si and Ge, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
23:237 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
Schey, H. M., and J. L. Schwartz: Quantum Corrections in the Thomas-Fermi Model,
Phys. Rev., 137:A709 (1965).
Schindler, A. I., and E. M. Pugh: The Hall Effect of Copper-Nickel Alloys, Phys.
Rev., 89:295 (1953). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : See also A. W. Overhauser, E. I. Salkovitz.
Schirber, J. E.: Determination of the Size of the "Necks" in Fermi Surfaces of Even-
valence Metals: Application to Lead, Phys. Rev., 131:2459 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Schmid, L.A.: Calculating of the Cohesive Energy of Diamond, Phys. Rev., 92:1373
(1953). (Secs. 10-4, 11-1.)
Schmitt, R. W.: Possible Approach to the Low-temperature Resistance Maximum in
Dilute Alloys of Transition Metals in Noble Metals, Phys. Rev., 103:83 (1956).
Schrieffer, J. R.: Mobility in Inversion Layers: Theory and Experiment, Semicond.
Surface Phys., 1957, p. 55.
- - - : See also J. Bardeen, F. Bassani, S. Engelsberg, D. Pines, J. E. Robinson.
Schroder, K., and C. E. McKain: Hall-effect Measurements on Chromium-Iron and
Chromium-Vanadium Alloys at Room and Liquid-nitrogen Temperatures, Phys.
Rev., 135:Al49 (1964). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Schultz, M. L., and G. A. Morton: Photoconduction in Germanium and Silicon, Proc.
Inst. Radio Engrs., 43:1819 (1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
I
Schulz, L. G.: The Experimental Study of the Optical Properties of Metals and the
Relation of the Results to the Drude Free Electron Theory, Adv. Phys., 6:102
(1957). (Secs. 5-4, 5-5.)
Schiitzer, W.: On Bohm-Pines Theory of Plasma, Anais. Acad. Brasil. Cienc., 28:419
(1956). (Sec. 11-7.)
Schweinler, H. C.: Ferroelectricity in the Ilmenite Structure, Phys. Rev., 87:5 (1952).
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Sclar, N.: Neutral Impurity Scattering in Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 104:1559 (1956).
Scott, A. B., and L. P. Bupp: Equilibrium between F-centers and Higher Aggregates
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Seeger, K.: Ionenstreuung warmer Elektronen in nichtentarteten unpolaren Halblei-
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Seidov, Yu. M., and V. S. Galishev: On the Interaction of the States of Two Zones in
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Seitz, F.: On the Mobility of Electrons in Pure Non-polar Insulators, Phys. Rev.,
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(Sec. 3-11.)
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Semenov, L. P.: Vibration Spectrum of Graphite, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:780 (1962).
(Sec. 8-6.)
Senko, M. E.: Order-Disorder Model Theory for Ferroelectric Effect in Dihydrogen
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Sewall, G. L.: Diamagnetism of Many-fermion Systems, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
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Shabanskii, V. P.: Heating of the Electron Gas and Transport Processes in Conductors,
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Shalyt, S. S.: Effective Electron Mass in Indium Arsenide, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:2887
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(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
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Sham, L. J.: Electron-Phonon Interaction by the Method of Pseudo-potentials, Proc.
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Shapira, Y., and B. Lax: Line Shape and Amplitude of Giant Quantum Oscillations
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Shaw, W. C., D. E. Hudson, and G. C. Danielson: Electrical Properties of Boron
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Sheka, D. I.: Spin-Orbital Splitting of Hole Bands in Diamond-type Crystals, Fiz.
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Shen, Y. R., and N. Bloembergen: Theory of Stimulated Brillouin and Raman Scatter-
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Sherry, P. B., and C. A. Coulson: The Vibrational Frequency Distribution of Graphite.
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Shibuya, M.: Hot Electron Problem in Semiconductors with Spheroidal Energy Sur-
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Shimanouchi, T.: Calculation of the Characteristic Values and Vectors for Vibrational
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Shinohara, S.: The Electronic Structures around Impurities in Monovalent Metals,
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Shirane, G., F. Jona, and R. Pepinsky: Some Aspects of Ferroelectricity, Proc. Inst.
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Shklyarevskii, I. N., and V. G. Padalka: The Anomalous Skin-effect and the Optical
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Shneider, A. D., and I. V. Gavrishchak: The Electrical Properties of p-type Semi-
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Shockley, W.: The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction
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Shoenberg, D.: De Haas-van Alphen Effect in Aluminium and Antimony, Nature,
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(Sec. 3-9.)
---:Thede Haas-van Alphen Effect, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 246:1 (1952). (Sec.
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---:Thede Haas-van Alphen Effect, Physica, 19:791 (1953). (Sec. 3-9.)
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Shogenji, K., and T. Sato: Oscillations of the Magnetoresistance _in p-type PbTe
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Shubenko, A. F., and S. V. Lapskii: The Optical Properties of Sb2Sa Single Crystals,
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Silin, V. P.: On the Theory of a Degenerate Electron Gas, Zh. Eksperim. i Tear. Fiz.,
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Silsbee, H.B., E. A. Uehling, and V. H. Schmidt: Deuteron Intraband Motion and
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Silverstein, S. D.: Influence of Electron Interactions on Metallic Properties. I.
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Simmons, R. 0., and R. W. Balluffi: Low-temperature Thermal Expansion of Copper,
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Simons, S.: The Absorption of Very High Frequency Sound in Dielectric Solids, Proc.
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Simpson, J. H.: Charge Distribution and Energy Levels of Trapped Electrons in Ionic
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Sinanoglu, 0.: On the Reduction of Many-electron Problems by Perturbation Theory,
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Singh, D. N., and W. A. Bowers: Vibrational Spectrum of Vanadium, Phys. Rev.,
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Singh, L.: A New Approach to the Diamagnetic Anisotropy of Benzene. The
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Sirota, N. N.: The Temperature Dependence of the Thermal Capacity of Solid Bodies,
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Sjolander, A.: Multi-phonon Processes in Slow Neutron (Incoherent) Scattering by

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Skyrme, T. H.: Collective Motion in Quantum Mechanics, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
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Slack, G .. A.: Thermal Conductivity of Potassium Chloride Crystals Containing Cal-
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Sladek, R. J.: Magnetoresistance Oscillations in Single-crystal and Polycrystalline
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Slater, J. C.: Electrons in Perturbed Periodic Lattices, Phys. Rev., 76:1592 (1949).
(Sec'll. 2-5, 2-6, Al-2, A2-1.)
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(Secs. 4-4, 8-5.)
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(Secs. 10-2, 11-7.)
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Sledzik, J.: Modified Bohm and Pines Collective Description of Electron Interactions
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Slutsky, L. J., and C. W. Garland: Elastic Constants of Magnesium.from 4.2°K to
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Slykhouse, T. E., and H. G. Drickamer: The Effect of Pressure on the Absorption Edge
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Smirnov, A. A., and E. A. Tikhonova: Concerning the Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays and Thermal Neutrons by Multi-component Substitutional Alloys, Fiz.

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-.--: See also V. M. Danilenko, A. M. Dykhne, Z. A. Matysina.
Smirnov, L. S., and V. S. Vavilov: Probability of Recombination Capture of Current
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Smith, G. E.: Anomalous Skin Effect in Bismuth, Phys. Rev., 116:1561 (1959).
(Sec. 3-11.)
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(Sec. 3-11.)
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Smith, H. M. J.: The Theory of the Vibrations and the Raman Spectrum of the
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Smith, R. A.: Infrared Photoconductors, Advan. Phys., 2:321 (1953).
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Smith, S. D., T. S. Moss, and K. W. Taylor: The Energy-dependence of Electron Mass
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Smolenskii, G. A.: New Ferroelectrics and Antiferroelectrics of Oxygen-octahedral
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Smolin, M. D.: The Problem qf the Temperature Dependence of Electrical Transport
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Smollett, M., and M. Blackman: Lattice Stability and Oriented Overgrowth, Proc.
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Snow, E. C., J. M. Canfield, and J. T. Waber: Total Energies from Numerical Self-
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Sobelman, I. I., and E. L. Feinberg: Some Optical Effects of Plasma Oscillations in a
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Sobolev, V. V.: Complex Structure of the Valence Band in II-VI Crystals, Fiz. Tverd.
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Sodha, M. S.: Variation of Mobility with Electric Field in Nondegenerate Semicon-
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Sokolov, A. V., V. I. Cherepanov, and I. B. Shteinberg: Dispersion Formulae of
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Sondheimer, E. H.: The Theory of the Thermoelectric Power of Metals, Proc. Cam-
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M. C. Jones, J. K. Mackenzie, G. E. H. Reuter.
Sosnowski, J., and J. Kozubowski: Phonon Dispersion Relations for Copper Single
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Sosnowski, L.: Contribution of Current Carriers in the Reflection of Light from Semi-
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Soule, D. E.: Magnetic Field Dependence of the Hall Effect and Magnetoresistance in
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Soven, P.: Relativistic Band Structure and Fermi Surface of Thallium, I, II, Phys.
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Sparnaay, M. J.: On the Additivity of London-Van der Waals Forces. An Extension
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- - - : Van der Waals Forces and Fluctuation Phenomena, Physica, 26:444 (Hl.59).
(Sec. A5-7.)
Spear, W. E., and J. Mort: Electron and Hole Transport in CdS Crystal, Proc. Phys.
Soc. (London), 81:130 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also A. R. Adams.
Spector, H. N.: Determination of Fermi Velocity by High-field Tilt Effect, Phys.

Rev., 120:1261 (1960).
- - - : Mapping of the Fermi Surface by a Combination of Geometric Resonance
and Tilt Effect, Phys. Rev. Letters, 6:407 (1961).
- - - : Magnetoacoustic Effects in Tilted Magnetic Fields, Phys. Rev., 125:1192
(1962). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - : Amplification of Acoustic Waves through Interaction with Conduction Elec-
trons, Phys. Rev., 127:1084 (1962).
- - - : Quantum Effects in the Amplification of Sound in the Presence of a Magnetic
Field, Phys. Rev., 132:522 (1963).
- - - : Mapping of the Fermi Surface by Means of Magneto-acoustic Resonances in
the Amplification of Sound, Phys. Letters, 5:24 (1963). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - : Quantum Resonances in the Amplication of Sound, Phys. Letters, 6:233 (1963).
- - - : Effect of an External Electric Field on the Velocity of Sound ih Semiconduc-
tors and Semimetals, Phys. Rev., 134:A507 (1964). (Sec. 3-9.)
Spicer, W. E., and A. H. Sommer: Intermetallic Semiconductors Containing Alkali
Metals, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:437, 442 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and R. E. Simon: Photoemissive Studies of the Band Structure of Silicon,
- - - : Photoemission and Band Structure of the Semiconducting Compound CsAu,
Phys. Rev., 125:1297 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and R. E. Simon: The Use of Photoemission to Investigate the Band Structure
of Silicon and Other Semiconductors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 23:1817 (1962).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Optical Transitions in Which Crystal Momentum Is Not Conserved, Phys.
Rev. Letters, 11:243 (1963).
- - - and C. N. Berglund: d Band of Copper, Phys. Rev. Letters, 12:9 (1964).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also C. N. Berglund, N. B. Kindig.
Spitzer, W. G., and H. Y. Fan: Infrared Absorption in Indium Antimonide, Phys.
Rev., 99:1893 (1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Determination of Optical Constants and Carrier Effective Mass
of Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 106:882 (1957). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and---: Infrared Absorption inn-type Silicon, Phys. Rev., 108:268 (1957).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and C. A. Mead: Conduction Band Minimum of CdTe, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
25:443 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also H. Y. Fan, D. A. Kleinman, C. A. Mead.
Spong, F. W., and A. F. Kip: Cyclotron Resonance in Aluminum, Phys. Rev., 137:
A431 (1965). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also A. F. Kip, T. W. Moore.
Spry, W. J., and P. M. Scherer: De Haas-van Alphen Effect in Graphite between 3
and 85 Kgauss, Phys. Rev., 120:826 (1960). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
Squire, C. F., C. V. Briscoe, M. H. Norwood, W. W. Scales, and F. J. Low: Lattice
Vibrations in Alkali Halides at Liquid Helium Temperatures from Experimental
Studies on Elastic Constants, Specific Heats, and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance,
Physica, 24:Sl70 (1958). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : 8t>e also C. V. Briscoe.
Squires, G. L.: Relation between the Vibration Frequencies of a Crystal and the
Scattering of Slow Neutrons, Phys. Rev., 103:304 (1956). (Sec. 8-1.)
Srivastava, P. L., and R. S. Srivastava: Specific Heats of Sodium and Potassium by
Toya's Method, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 81:586 (1963).
Stachowiak, H.: On the Open Electronic Orbits in Magnetic Field for Fermi Surface
in the Form of a Net, Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci. Ser. Sci. Tech., 10:409 (1962).
(Sec. 3-10.)
- - - : Open Electronic Orbits in a Magnetic Field for the Case of Fermi Surfaces
in the Form of a Net, Acta Phys. Polan., 23:383 (1963). (Sec. 3-10.)
Stark, R. W., T. G. Eck, W. L. Gordon, and F. Moazed: Magnetoresistance Investi-
gation of the Fermi Surface of Magnesium, Phys. Rev. Letters, 8:360 (1962).
(Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : Oscillatory Magnetic Breakdown in Zinc, Phys. Rev. Letters, 9:482 (1962).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , T. G. Eck, and W. L. Gordon: Galvanomagnetic Investigation of the Fermi
Surface of Magnesium, Phys. Rev., 133:A443 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Magnetic Breakdown Effects in the Galvanomagnetic Properties of Zinc,
Phys. Rev., 135:A1698 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Stasyuk, I. V., and A. E. Glauberman: The Many-electron Theory of Semiconductors
with Impurities, Ukr. Fiz. Zh., 6:642 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : See also A. E. Glauberman.
Statz, H., and G. A. de Mars: Electrical Conduction via Slow Surface States on Semi-
Stavitskaya, T. S., and L. S. Stilbans: The Effect of Degeneration on the Efficiency
of Semiconductor Thermoelectric Cells, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 28:484 (1958).
Steele, M. C.: Application of the Theory of Numbers to the Magnetic Properties of an
Electron Gas, Phys. Rev., 88:451 (1952).
- - - and J. Babiskin: Oscillatory Thermomagnetic Properties of a Bismuth Single
Crystal at Liquid Helium Temperatures, Phys. Rev., 98:359 (1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Oscillatory Galvanomagnetic Properties of Antimony Single Crystals at
Liquid Helium Temperatures, Phys. Rev., 99:1751 (1955). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also T. G. Berlincourt, T. Hattori, M. A. Lampert.
Stehle, P.: Calculation of Electron-Electron Scattering, Phys. Rev., 110:1458 (1958).
Steigmeier, E. F., and B. Abeles: Scattering of Phonons by Electrons in Ge-Si Alloys,
Phys. Rev., 136:Al149 (1964).
Steinberg, M. S.: Viscosity of the Electron Gas in Metals, Phys. Rev., 109:1486 (1958).
- - - : Magnetic Effects in the Attenuation of Transverse Acoustic Waves by Con-
duction Electron Transport, Phys. Rev., 110:772 (1958). (Sec. 3-9.)
- - - : Resonant Absorption of Sound in Metals, Phys. Rev., 110:1467 (1958).
(Sec. 3-9.)
- - - : Ultrasonic Attenuation and Dispersion in Metals at Low Temperatures,
Phys. Rev., 111 :425 (1958). (Sec. 3-9.)
Stephen, M. J., and A. B. Lidiard: The Faraday Effect in Semiconductors, J. Phys.
Chem. Solids, 9:43 (1959). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - and K. Zalewski: On the Classical Approximation Involved in the Thomas-
Fermi Theory, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A270:435 (1963). (Sec. 10-1.)
Stern, E. A., and R. A. Ferrell: Surface Plasma Oscillations of Degenerate Electron
Gas, Phys. Rev., 120:130 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : The Effect of Interactions on Determination of Fermi Surfaces, "The Fermi
Surface," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1960, p. 50. (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Correlation EffectR ou Electronic Spccifir Heat of Na, Phys. Rev., 121:397
(1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Effect of Interactions on Determination of Fermi Surfaces, Phys. Rev.,
112:1773 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Point-by-point Mapping of the Fermi Surface, Phys. Rev. Letters, 10:91 (1963).
---,J.C. McGroddy, and W. E. Harte: Polar Reflection Faraday Effect in Metals,
Phys. Rev., 136:Al306 (1964).
- - - : See also H. S. Bennett, R. A. Ferrell.
Stern, F., and R. M. Talley: Impurity Band in Semiconductors with Small Effective
Mass, Phys. Rev., 100:1638 (1955).
- - - and - - - : Optical Absorption in p-type Indium Arsenide, Phys. Rev.,
108:158 (1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Effects Associated with a Linear Energy Term in the Valence Band of Inter-
metallic Semiconductors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:277 (1959).
- - - : Aspherical 3d Electron Distribution in Body-centered Cubic Metals, Phys.
Rev. Letters, 6:675 (1961).
- - - : Elementary Theory of the Optical Properties of Solids, Solid State Phys.,
16:300 (1963). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Dispersion of the Index of Refraction near the Absorption Edge of Semi-
conductors, Phys. Rev., 133:A1653 (1964). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : See also R. F. Guertin, G. Lasher.
Sternglass, E. J.: Origin of the Characteristic Energy Losses of Electrons in Solids,
Nature, 178:1387 (1956). (Sec. 11-7.)
Sternheimer, R. M.: Electronic Polarizabilities of Ions from the Hartree-Fock Wave
Equations, Phys. Rev., 96:951 (1964). (Sec. A5-7.)
- - - : Electronic Polarizability of Atoms, Phys. Rev., 107:1565 (1957). (Sec. A5-7.)
Stevenson, M. J.: Cyclotron Resonance in CdAs2, Phys. Rev. Letters, 3:464 (1959).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : Cyclotron Resonance in II-V Semiconductors, Semicond. Phys. Conj., Prague,
1960, Academic Press Inc., New York, 1961, p. 1083. (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also D. C. Mattis.
Stewart, A. T., and B. N. Brockhouse: Vibration Spectra of Vanadium and an Mn-Co
Alloy by Neutron Spectroscopy, Rev. Mod. Phys., 30:250 (1958). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Li-Mg, a Nearly Free-electron Alloy, Phys. Rev., 133:A1651 (1964). (Sec.
3-11.)
- - - : See also B. N. Brockhouse, A. D. B. Woods.
Stickler, J. J., H.J. Zeiger, and G. S. Heller: Quantum Effects in Ge and Si, I, Phys.
Rev., 127:1077 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also C. J. Rauch.
Stiervalt, D. L., and R. F. Potter: Lattice Absorption Bands Observed in Silicon by
Means of Spectral Emissivity Measurements, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 23:99
(1962). (Sec. 5-5.)
Stilbans, L. S., B. I. Bok, and E. L. Lifshits: On a Carrier Scattering Mechanism in
Lead Telluride, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 111:1011 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : The Scattering Mechanism of Carriers on Phonon and Lattice Defects, J.
- - - : See also E. Gershtein, 0. A. Golikova, A. F. Joffe, T. S. Stavitskaya.
Stiles, P. J., E. Burstein, and D. N. Langenberg: De Haas-van Alphen Effect in p-type
PbTe and n-type PbS, J. Appl. Phys., 32(suppl.) :2174 (1961). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , and - - - : Observations of de Haas-van Alphen Oscillations in
p-type PbTe, Phys. Rev. Letters, 6:667 (1961). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , and---: Azbel-Kaner Cyclotrnn Resonance in p-type Pb Te, Phys.
Rev. Letters, 9:257 (1962). (Sec.s. 3-8, 8-11.)
- - - , - - - , and - - - : Landau Level Studies in p-type PbTe: Azbel-Kaner
Type Cyclotron Resonance, Semicond. Conj., Exeter, 1962, Institute of Physics
and the Physical Society, London, 1962, p. 577. (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also E. Burstein, J.E. Hebborn, L. R. Testardi.

Stinchcombe, R. B.: Quantum Theory of Magnetoresistance. I. Low Fields, Proc.
Stocker, D.: The Electronic Properties of Tetrahedral Intermetallic Compounds.
IV. The Determination of Valence Bonds by a Method of Linear Combination
of Bond Orbitals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A270:397 (1962). (Sec. 11-1.)
- - - : See also C. A. Coulson.
Stolz, H.: Zur Quantentheorie der magnetoakustischen Effekte in Metallen, Phys.
Status Solidi, 1:328 (1961).
- - - : Zur Quantentheorie transversaler akustischer Schwingungen in Plasma-modell
der Metalle, Phys. Status Solidi, 1:451 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
Stone, P. M., and P. L. Auer: Excitation of Electrostatic Waves near Electron Cyclo-
tron Harmonic Frequencies, Phys. Rev., 138:A695 (1965). (Sec. 3-8.)
Stoneley, R.: The Propagation of Surface Elastic Waves in a Cubic Crystal, Proc.
Roy. Soc. (London), A232:447 (1955).
Strachan, C.: Spin-Orbit Coupling and the Extraordinary Hall Effect, Proc. Phys.
Soc. (London), 73:433 (1959). (Sec. 2-4.)
Stratton, R.: Field Emission from Semiconductors, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), B68:
746 (1955). ·
- - - : The Influence of Interelectronic Collisions on Conduction and Breakdown
in Covalent Semiconductors, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A242:355 (1957).
- - - : The Effect of Free Electrons on Lattice Conduction at High Temperatures,
Phil. Mag., 2:422 (1957).
- - - : On the Surface Free Energy and Specific Heat of a Metal, Phil. Mag., 2:702
(1957).
- - - : On the Elementary Theory of Thermoelectric Phenomena, Brit. J. Appl.
Phys., 8:315 (1957).
- - - : The Influence of Interelectronic Collisions on Conduction and Breakdown
in Polar Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A246:1246 (1958).
- - - : On the Hot Electron Effect inn-type Germanium, J. Electron. Control, 5:157
(1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
Strizhevskii, V. L.: The Theory of Dispersion and Absorption of Light in Crystals,
- - - : The Theory of Raman Scattering in a Crystalline Medium, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
3 :2929 (1961). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Electromagnetic Field Quantization in a Dispersive Crystalline Medium, Fiz.
Tverd. Tela, 4:1492 (1962). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Approximation of the Theory of Polarizability in the Analysis of Raman
Light Scattering in Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 5:1511 (1963).
Stuckes, A. D.: Thermal Conductivity of Indium Antimonide, Phys. Rev., 107:427
(1957). (Sec. 3-11.)
Stiickmann, F.: Negative Photoeffekte in Halbleitern, Z. Physik, 143:348 (1955).
Stumpf, H.: Ein neues quantenmechanisches Prinzip der Leitfiihigkeit und eine
Kritik der Blochschen Theorie, Z. Naturforsch., 11a:259 (195~).
- - - and M. Wagner: Dynamische Elektron-Gitter-Kopplung in gestorten lonen-
kristallen, Z. Naturforsch., 15a:30 (1960).
- - - : See also E. Fues.
Sturrock, P. A.: Non-Linear Effects in Electron Plasmas, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
A242:277 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
Subashiev, V. K., and G. B. Dubrovskii: Indirect Transitions and the Structure of
the Valence Band of Silicon, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:1303 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Suchan, H. L., A. S. Baichan, and H. G. Drickamer: The Effect of Pressure on the
Absorption Edge of BaTi03 and Ti0 2, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 10:343 (1959).
(Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and H. G. Drickamer: The Effect of Pressure on the Absorption Edge of
Certain Molecular Compounds, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 11:111 (1959). (Sec.
5-5.)
Suchet, J. P.: Regles de prediction de la semiconductibilite dans les reseaux cristalins
mineraux, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 12:74 (1959).
- - - : Rayons atomiques, electronegativites et energies d'activation dans les com-
poses semiconducteurs mineraux, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 16:265 (1960).
- - - : Ionicites, charges effectives et mobilites electroniques dans les composes
semiconducteurs mineraux, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 21 :156 (1961).
Sueoka, 0.: Plasma Oscillation of Electrons in LiF, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 19:2239
(1964).
- - - and F. Fujimoto: Plasma Oscillation of Electrons in Alloy. II. Ag-Au Alloy,
J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 20:569 (1965).
- - - : See also F. Fujimoto.
Suffczynski, M.: The Optical Properties of the Noble Metals, Proc. Phys. Soc. (Lon-
don), 73:671 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and S. Michaelson: A Calculation of the Optical Constants of Noble Metals,
- - : Optical Constants of Metals, Phys. Rev., 117:663 (1960). (Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Faraday Effect for Direct Magneto-optical Transitions in Germanium, Proc.
Phys. Soc. (London), 77:1042 (1961). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - : Optical Properties of the Noble Metals, Phys. Status Solidi, 4:3 (1964).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Sugihara, K., and H. Sato: Electrical Conductivity of Graphite, J. Phys. Soc. Japan,
18:332 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Sugiyama, K., and A. Kobayashi: Piezoresistance and Magnetoresistance in Impurity
Conduction in Germanium, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 18:163 (1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Buhl, H., and N. R. Werthamer: Higher Random-phase Approximations in the Many-
body Problem, Phys. Rev., 122:359 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and D. R. Fredkin: Many-body Theory of Localized d States in Metals. I.
The Localized Moment, Phys. Rev., 131:1063 (1963). (Sec. 11-7.)
Sullivan, J. J.: Lattice Vibrations of Wurtzite Structure Crystals, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 26:1039 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
Supek, I.: Elektrische Leitfahigkeit der Metalle bei tiefen Temperaturen, Z. Physik,
149:324 (1957).
Buris, R. A.: Theory of a System of Interacting Fermi Particles, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
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Bussmann, G.: -Ober den Impuls der Schallquanten, I, II, Z. Naturforsch., lla:1
(1956); 13a:1 (1958).
Bussmann, J. A., and A. Thellung: Thermal Conductivity of Perfect Dielectric Crystal
in the Absence of Umklapp Processes, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 81:1122 (1963).
Sutton, P. M.: Computation of Mean Debye Temperature of Cubic Crystals from
Elastic Constants, II, Phys. Rev., 99:1826 (1955). (Sec. 8-6.)
Suzuki, H., M. Hattori, and K. Ariyama: Theory of Cyclotron Resonance in Aniso-
tropic Metals, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 16:1947 (1961). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - and K. Ariyama: Cyclotron Resonance in Thin Metallic Films, J. Phys. Soc.
Japan, 17:704 (1962). (Sec. 3-8.)
- - - : See also K. Hashimoto, M. Hattori.
Suzuki, T.: Electron Distribution in Cu 20 Crystal, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 16:501 (1961).
Swalen, J. D., and J. de Heer: Many-parameter Alternant Molecular Orbital Calcula-
tions for Large Cyclic Systems with Closed-shell Structure, J. Chem. Phys.,
40:378 (1964). (Sec. 10-4.)
Swan, J. B.: Characteristic Electron Energy Losses in Sodium and Potassium, Phys.
Rev., 135:Al467 (1964).
Swanson, J. A.: Saturation Hall Constant of Semiconductors, Phys. Rev., 99:1799
(1955). (Sec. 2-4.)
Syrkin, L. N.: Investigation of the Form of the Potential Contour for Ions in Perov-
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Szasz, L.: -Ober die Erweiterung der Hartree-Fockschen Nii.herung <lurch Korrela-
tionsfunktion, Z. Naturforsch., 14a:1014 (1959). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : -Ober die Berechnung der Korrelationsenergie der Atomelektronen, Z. Natur-
forsch., 16a:909 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : On the Evaluation of Integrals Occurring in the Theory of the Correlated
Electronic Wave Functions, J. Chem. Phys., 36:1072 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : Single Substitution Configurations, J. Chem. Phys., 37:193 (1962). (Sec.
11-7.)
- - - : Atomic Many-body Problem. I. General Theory of Correlated Wave Func-
tions, Phys. Rev., 126:169 (1962); II. The Matrix Components of the Hamiltonian
with Respect to Correlated Wave Functions, J. Math. Phys., 3:1147 (1962).
(See. 11-7.)
- - - : Pair Correlations in the Be Atom, Phys. Letters, 3:263 (1963). (Sec. 11-7.)
Szigeti, B.: Polarizability and Dielectric Constant of Ionic Crystals, Trans. Faraday
Soc., 46:155 (1949). (Secs. 8-6, 9-5.)
- - - : Compressibility and Absorption Frequency of Ionic Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A204:51 (1950). (Secs. 8-6, !l-5.)
- - - : Higher-order Terms in the Dielectric Constant of Ionic Crystals, Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London), A262:217 (1959). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : The Infrared Spectra of Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A268:377 (1960).
(Secs. 5-5, 8-6.)
- - - : The Magnitude of the Anharmonic Contribution to the Static Dielectric
Constant, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A261:274 (1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Impurity Activated Infrared Absorption in Valency Crystals, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 24:225 (1963). .
Sziklas, E. A.: Collective Oscillations in a Dense Electron Gas Containing a Fixed
Point Charge, Phys. Rev., 138:Al070 (1965).
Taft, E. A., and L. Apker: Photoelectric Emission Associated with /3-band Absorption
in Alkali Iodides, J. Chem. Phys., 20:1648 (1952). (Secs. 3-11, 5-5.)
- - - , H. R. Philipp, and L. Apker: Photoelectric Emi8sion from the Valence Band
in AgBr, Phys. Rev., 110:876 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : Optical Properties of Graphite, Phys. Rev., 138:A197 (1965).
(Secs. 3-11, 5-5.)
- - - : See also L. Apker, H. R. Philipp.
Takagi, S.: On the Temperature Diffuse Scattering of Electrons. I. Derivation of
General Formulae. II. Applications to Practical Problems, J. Phys. Soc. Japan,
13 :278, 287 (1958). (Sec. 8-1.)
Takagi, Y.: Ferroelectricity and Antiferroelectricity of Some Ionic Crystals, Proc.
Intern. Conj. Theoret. Phys., Tokyo, 1953, p. 824. (Sec. 8-5.)
- - - : Bee al~o K. Gesi.
Takahasi, H.: Tables of Lorentz l<'ields for Cubic Lattice, J. Phys. Soc . .Japan, 19 :499
(1964).
Tamashke, 0.: Uber die mathematischen Grundlagen der quantenmechanischen
Elektronentheorie in unendlichen Kristallgittern, Ann. Physik, 8:76 (1961).
Tanaka, K., S. Tanuma, and T. Fukuroi: Transverse Galvanomagnetic Effect of

Bismuth Single Crystal in a Strong Magnetic Field, Sci. Rept. Res. Inst. Tohoku
Univ., A13:67 (1961). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.) ·
Tanaka, M.: Non-local Correlation Effect on Periodic Field, Antiscreening, Progr.
Tanaka, S., M. Kobayashi, E. Hanamura, and K. Uchinokura: Microwave Absorption
in Silicon at Low Temperatures, Phys. Rev., 134:A256 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also H. Ichimura.
Tang, C. L.: Higher Order Coherent Raman Effects, Phys. Rev., 134:A1166 (1964).
Tani, S.: Effect of Lattice-Electron Interaction on the Landau Diamagnetism, Progr.
Tanisaki, S.: X-ray Study on the Ferroelectric Phase Transition of NaNO2, J. Phys.
Soc. Japan, 18:1181 (1963). (Sec. 8-5.)
Tarasov, L. V.: Experimental Determination of the Spectrum of Thermal Vibrations
in Crystals with Any Symmetry with the Aid of One-phonon Incoherent Scatter-
ing of Cold Neutrons, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:1431 (1961). (Sec. 8-1.)
Tauber, G. E.: A Generalized Variational Principle for Transport Phenomena, Can.
J. Phys., 36:1308 (1958).
- - - and L. Soffer: Transport Phenomena in Semiconductors for Warped Energy
Surfaces, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:138 (1959).
- - - : Variational Principle for Transport Phenomena, J. Franklin Inst., 268:175
(1959).
- - - : Transport Properties in Germanium and Silicon, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 23:7
(1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
Tauc, J.: Electronic Phenomena in Semiconductors with a Temperature Gradient,
Czech. J. Phys., 6:108 (1956).
- - - : Generation of an e.m.f. in Semiconductors with Nonequilibrium Current
Carrier Concentrations, Rev. Mod. Phys., 29:308 (1957).
- - - : A Note on the Theory of the Anomalous Thermoelectric Phenomenon in
Semiconductors, Czech. J. Phys., 7:376 (1957).
- - - : On the Origin of Electromotive Forces in Semiconductors, "Semiconductors
and Phosphors," Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Brunswick, Germany, 1958,
p. 486.
- - - : Electron Impact Ionization in Semiconductors, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:219
(1959).
- - - and E. Antoncik: Optical Observation of Spin-Orbit Interaction in Germanium,
- - - and A. Abraham: Optical Investigation of the Band Structure of Ge-Si Alloys,
- - - : Optfoal Properties of Semiconductors, Semicond. Conj., Exeter, 1962, Institute
of Physics and the Physical Society, London, 1962, p. 333. (Sec. 5-5.)
Tavernier, J.: Remarques concernant la formule de Ziman sur la conductivite thermi-
que des cristaux, Compt. Rend., 246:2490 (1957).
Taylor, J. C.: The Electron-Phonon Interaction According to the Adiabatic Approxi-
mation, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 62:693 (1956).
Taylor, L. H.: Pressure Dependence of Resistance of Germanium, Phys. Rev., 80:919
(1950). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and F. R. Rollins, Jr.: Ultrasonic Study of Three-phonon Interactions. I.
Theory, Phys. Rev., 136:A591 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also F. R. Rollins, Jr.
Taylor, P. L.: The Boltzmann Equation for Conduction Electrons, Proc. Roy. Soc.
(London), A276:200 (1963).
- - - : The Relaxation Time of Conduction Electrons in the Noble Metals, Proc.

- - - : Changes in Electrical Resistance Caused by Incoherent Electron-Phonon
Scattering, Phys. Rev., 136:A1333 (1964).
Taylor, W. J.: Distribution of Vibrational Frequencies of a Crystal by Fourier Trans-
formation of the Heat Capacity, J. Chem. Phys., 26:721 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
Teitler, S., and R. F. Wallis: Note on Semiconductor Statistics, J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
16:71 (1960).
- - - : See also E. D. Palik.
Tenerz, E.: Remarks on the Calculation of Characteristic Temperatures of Cubic
Crystals from the Elastic Constants, Arkiv Fysilc, 11:247 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
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(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also S. 0. Lundqvist.
Ter Haar, D.: Foundations of Statistical Mechanics, Rev. Mod. Phys., 27:289 (1955).
- - - : On the Transport Properties of Metals and Semiconductors, Physica, 22:61
(1956).
- - - and A. Neaves: On the Thermal Conductivity and Thermoelectric Power
of Semiconductors, Advan. Phys., 6:241 (1956).
- - - : Theories of Collective Behavior, Rept. Progr. Phys., 20:130 (1957). (Sec.
11-7.)
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1:112 (1959). (Sec. 11-7.)
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Tessman, J. R.: Lorentz Correction in Hexagonal Barium Titanate, Phys. Rev., 83:67i
(1951). (Sec. 4-4.)
---,A.H. Kahn, and W. Shockley: Electronic Polarizabilities of Ions in Crystals,
Phys. Rev., 92:890 (1953). (Sec. 4-4.)
Testardi, L. R., P. J. Stiles, and E. Burstein: De Haas-van Alphen and High Field
Galvanomagnetic Studies of the Bi 2Tea Valence Band Structure, Solid State
Commun., 1:28 (1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
Teutsch, W. B., and W. F. Love: Hall Effect and Resistance of Dilute Gold-Chromium
Alloys at Low Temperatures, Phys. Rev., 106:487 (1957). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
Thomas, D. G., M. Gershenzon, and F. A. Trumbore: Pair Spectra and "Edge"
Emission in Gallium Phosphate, Phys. Rev., 133:A269 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Thompson, J. H. C.: Instability and Melting of the Alkali Halides, Phil. Mag., 44:131
(1953).
Thorsen, A. C., and T. G. Berlincourt: De Haas-van Alphen Effect in Potassium,
- - - a n d - - - : De Haas-van Alphen Effect in Rhenium, Niobium, and Tantalum,
Phys. Rev. Letters, 7 :244 (1961). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - and - - - : De Haas-van Alphen Effect in InBi, Nature, 192:959 (1961).
(Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
- - - and A. S. Joseph: De Haas-van Alphen Effect in Zirconium, Phys. Rev.,
131:2078 (1963). (Secs. 3-9, 3-11.)
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Thorson, W. R.: Vibronically Induced Absorption of Forbidden Infrared Transitions,
J. Chem. Phys., 29:938 (1958). (Sec. 5-5.)
Thuillier, J. M.: Conductivite thermique des semi-conducteurs, Compt. Rend., 241:
1121 (1955); 242:2633 (1956).
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hurston, R. N., and K. Brugger: Third-order Elastic Constants and the Velocity
of Small Amplitude Elastic Waves in Homogeneously Stressed Media, Phy 8 •
Rev., 133:Al604 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
idman, D. A.: A Quantum Theory of Refractive Index, Cerenkov Radiation and
Ionization Loss, Nuovo Cimento, 3:503 (1956). (Sec. 5-5.)
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Loss of a Fast Charged Particle, Nucl. Phys., 2:289 (1956). (Sec. 5-5.)
iersten, M.: Acoustic-mode Scattering Mobility of Holes in Diamond Type Semi-
inkham, M.: Cyclotron Resonance in Bismuth, Phys. Rev., 101:902 (1956). (Secs.
3-8, 3-11.)
ippins, H. H., and F. C. Brown: Magnetoresistance of AgBr, Phys. Rev., 129:2554
(1963). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
obin, M. C.: Selection Rules for Normal Modes of Chain Molecules, J. Chem. Phys.,
23:891 (1955).
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tion for Line Groups, J. Mol. Spectry., 4:349 (1960).
- - : Symmetry-adapted LCAO MO's for Long-chain Polyenes, J. Chem. Phys.,
36:1905 (1961).
obocman, W.: Many-body Perturbation Theory, Phys. Rev., 107:203 (1957).
(Secs. 11-6, 11-7.)
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Soc. Japan, 8:339 (1953).
olpygo, K. B., and A. M. Fedorchenko: Interaction between an Electron Hole
and Lattice Oscillations in a Homopolar Crystal, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz.,
31 :845 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and I. H. Zaslavska: The Spectrum of Natural Osc1llations of NaCl Taking
Account of Ionic Deformation, Ukr. Fiz. Zh., 1:226 (1956). (Sec. 8-6.)
---: The Microscopic Theory of Electronic States in Polar Crystals, Ukr. Fiz.
Zh., 2:242 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - : Optical, Elastic, and Piezoelectric Properties of Ionic and Valence Crystals
with the ZnS Type Lattice, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:2655 (1960). (Secs. 3-11,
8-6.)
- - : Long-range Forces and the Dynamical Equations for Homopolar Crystals
of the Diamond Type, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:943 (1961). (Secs. 3-11, 8-6.)
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Range Forces, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:1765 (1962). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - and D. I. Sheka: Spin-Orbit Splitting of Hole Bands in Alkali-halide Crystals,
- - : Wave Functions, Normalization Integrals and Ionic Mean Charges for Not
Quite Polar Crystals of NaCl Type, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:741 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - : See also M. F. Deigen, Z. A. Demidenko, I. M. Dykman, Yu. I. Gorkun,
E. I. Kaplunova, E. N. Korol, T. I. Kucher, V. S. Mashkevich.
~olstoi, N. A., and A. V. Shatilov: Formal Analysis of the Theory of Two-stage
Excitation of Phosphorescence and Photoconductivity. I. Steady-state Rela-
tionships, Opt. i Spektroskopiya, 1 :216 (1956).
rolub, A. V.: The Influence of the Electron-Phonon Interaction on the Cyclotron
Resonance Frequency, Zh. Eksperim. i Tcor. Fiz., 36:565 (1959). (Sec. 3-8.)
romonaga, S.: Remarks on Bloch's Method of Sound Waves Applied to Many-
fermion Problems, Prog. Theoret. Phys. (Kyoto), 6:544 (1950). (Sec. 11-7.)
roombs, G. A.: On the Theory of Electronic Conductivity, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
84:451 (1964).
Tosi, M. P., and F. G. Fumi: The Interaction between Equilibrium Defects in the
Alkali Halides: The "Ground State" Binding Energy of the Vacancy Pair, Nuovo
Cimento, 7:95 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and G. Airoldi: The Interaction between Equilibrium Defects in the Alkali
Halides: The "First Excited State" Binding Energies of the Impurity Complex
and of the Vacancy Pair, Nuovo Cimento, 8:584 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : Cohesive Energy of the Alkali Halide Crystals, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:965
(1963). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - and F. G. Fumi: Ionic Sizes and Born Repulsive Parameters in the NaCl-type
Alkali Halides. II. The Generalized Huggins-Mayer Form, J. Phys. Chem.
Solids, 26:45 (1964). (Sec. 10-4.)
- - - : Cohesion of Ionic Solids in the Born Model, Solid State Phys., 16:1 (1964).
(Sec. 10-4.)
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Tosima, S., J. J. Quinn, and M. A. Lampert: Effect of Collisions on the Magneto-
conductivity Tensor of a Quantum Plasma, Phys. Rev., 137:A883 (1965). (Sec.
3-10.)
- - - : See also T. Hattori.
Tovstyuk, K. D., and D. M. Berche: Band Symmetry in Crystals Belonging to
Dih · · · D;t D~ · · · Di, C;. · · · C~~' Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:662 (1964).
Toxen, A. M., and S. Tausal: Giant Oscillations in the Magnetoacoustic Attenuation
of Bi, Phys. Rev., 137:A211 (1965). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
- - - : See also S. S. Liu.
Toya, T.: Lattice Vibration and Thermal Expansion of Monovalent Metals, J. Res.
Inst. Catalysis Hokkaido Univ., 9:178 (1961). (Sec. 8-6.)
Tredgold, R. H.: On the Exchange Interaction in the Collective Electron Approxima-
tion, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), A67:217 (1954). (Sec. 11-7.)
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(Sec. 11-7.)
Trubitsyn, V. P.: The Equation of State of Metals by a Statistical Method, Fiz.
Tverd. Tela, 2:898 (1960). (Sec. 10-1.)
Tsertsvadze, A. A., Yu. V. Chkhartishvili, and Z. S. Kachlishvili: Calculation of
the Ionic and Atomic Components of the Bonds in SiC Crystals, Fiz. Tverd.
Tela, 4:1743 (1962). (Sec. 3-11.)
Tsidilkovskii, I. M.: Adiabatic Galvano- and Thermomagnetic Phenomena in Semi-
conductors. I. Impurity Semiconductors, Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 28:1371 (1958).
(Sec. 2-4.)
- - - : See also F. G. Bass.
Tsuchida, A., and K. Ohno: "Bond-Orbital" and "Modified Electron-pair" Calcula-
tions on the Ammonia Molecule, J. Chem. Phys., 39:600 (1963).
Tsuji, M.: Electron Transport in Metals, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 12:828 (1957).
- - - : Transport Phenomena in Monovalent Metals, Mem. Fae. Sci. Kyushu Univ.,
B2:119 (1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : The Thermoelectric, Galvanomagnetic and Thermomagnetic Effects of Mono-
valent Metals. II. The Thermoelectric Power for Anisotropic Media. III.
The Galvanomagnetic and Thermomagnet.ic Effects for Anisotropic Media,
J. Phys. Soc. Jap<in, 13:13:1, 818,979 (1958). (Secs. 2-4, 3-11.)
- - - : Transport Phenomena in Monovalent Metals, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 13:426
(1958). (Sec. 3-11.)
Tsutsumi, 0.: Galvanomagnetic Effects of Warm Electrons in Many-valley Semi-
conductors, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 19:1290 (1964).
Tsvirko, Yu. A., and M. A. Tolmazina: On the Boundary Conditions for Electro-
magnetic Waves at the Surface of an Optically Active Crystal, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
3:1393 (1961). (Sec. 5-5.)
Tucker, C. W., Jr., and P. Senio: X-ray Scattering Effects Due to Localized Static
Lattice Defects, Phys. Rev., 99:1777 (1955).
Tulub, A. V.: The Phonon Interaction of Electrons in Polar Crystals, Zh. Eksperim.
i Teor. Fiz., 34:1641 (1958).
Turchin, V. F.: Multiphonon Processes in Crystals, Zh. Eksperim. Teor. Fiz., 33:124
(1957).
Turik, A. V.: Theory of Polarization and Hysteresis of Ferroelectrics, Fiz. Tverd. Tela,
6:1213 (1963). (Sec. 8-5.)
Tyablikov, S. V.: An Adiabatic Form of Excitation Theory in the Problem of Exchange
Effects of a Particle with the Quantum Field, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 21:377
(1951). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and V. V. Tolmachev: On the Interaction between Electrons and Lattice
Vibrations, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 34:1254 (1958).
- - - : The Method of Green's Functions in the Theory of the Adiabatic Approxi-
mation, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 3:3445 (1961).
- - - : See also N. N. Bogolyubov.
Uchiyama, Y.: The Influence of Interelectronic Collision on Conduction in Non-polar
Crystals, Progr. Theoret. Phys. (Kyoto), 21:938 (1959).
Ueda, S.: The Pair Correlation Function of an Imperfect Electron Gas in High Densi-
ties, Progr. Theoret. Phys. (Kyoto), 26:45 (1961). (Sec. 11-7.)
Uemura, Y., and M. Inoue: The Change of Carrier Concentration in the Simple Semi-
conductors with Static Magnetic Field, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 13:377 (1958).
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Ukhanov, Yu. I.: Faraday Effect in Silicon in the Infrared Region of Wavelengths,
Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:2741 (1962). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
Umarov, S. U., and L. G. Gurvich: Theory of the Metal-Semiconductor Contact,
Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 26:2179 (1956).
Umeda, J.: Galvanomagnetic Effects in Mg 2Sn, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 19:2052 (1964).
(Sec. 3-11.)
Umeda, K., and S. Kobayashi: Thomas-Fermi Function for Impurity Atom Dissolved
in a Matrix Metal, J. Phy. Soc. Japan, 13:148 (1958). (Sec. 10-1.)
Una!, B. C., A. Chevalier and T. Kahan: Theorie quantique de la rotation de Faraday
dans l'atome de chrome aux longeurs d'onde centimetriques et sa confrontation
avec !'experience, Compt. Rend., 246:901 (1958). (See. 3-11.)
Uno, R.: Structure Factors and Temperature Factors of NiO, J. Phys. Soc. Japan,
18:739 (1963).
Usui, T.': Excitations in a High Density Electron Gas, I, Progr. Theoret. Phys.
(Kyoto), 23:787 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : See alim E. Fujita.
Valatin, J. G.: On a Parallel Treatment of the Collective Behavior of Fermion and
Boson Systems, Physica, 24:Sl36 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
Van Bueren, H. G.: Influence of Lattice Defects on the El~ctrical Properties of Cold-
worked Metals, Philips Res. Rept., 12:1, 190 (1957).
Van Daal, H.J., W. F. Knippenberg, and J. D. Wasscher: On the Electronic Conduc-
tion of a-SiC Crystals between 300 aud 1500°K, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:109
(1963). (Sec. 3-11.)
Van den Beukel, A.: On the Theory of the Acousto-electric Effect, Appl. Sci. Res.,
B6:459 (1956).
Van der Leeden, P.: On Critical Points, Physica, 21:743 (1955). (Sec. 8-6.)
Van der Pauw, L. J., and D. Polder: The Photo-thermoelectric Phenomenon in Semi-
conductors, J. Electron., 2:239 (1956).
Van Hove, L.: Occurrence of Singularities in the Elastic Frequency Distribution of a
Crystal, Phys. Rev., 89:1189 (1953). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : Correlations in Space and Time and Born Approximation Scattering in Sys-
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Spectra, Physica, 21:901 (1955). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : The Approach to Equilibrium in Quantum Statistics, Physica, 23:441
(1957).
- - - : A Remark on the Time-dependent Pair Distribution, Physica, 24:404 (1958).
(Sec. 11-7.)
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11-7.)
- - - : See also G. Placzek.
Van Kampen, N. G.: The Dispersion Equation for Plasma Waves, Physica, 23:641
(1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
Van Kranendonk, J.: Theory of Induced Infrared Absorption, Physica, 23:825 (1957).
(Sec. 5-5.)
- - - : Induced Infrared Absorption in Gases. Calculation of the Binary Absorption
Coefficients of Symmetrical Diatomic Molecules, Physica, 24:347 (1958). (Sec.
5-5.)
Van Roosbroeck, W.: Theory of the Photomagnetoelectric Effect in Semiconductors,
Phys. Rev., 101:1714 (1956).
Van Vliet, K. M.: On the Equivalence of the Fokker-Planck Method and the Free-
energy Method for the Calculation of Carrier Density Fluctuations in Semicon-
ductors, Physica, 23:248 (1957).
Varley, J. H. 0.: The Thermal Expansion of Pure Metals and the Possibility of Nega-
tive Coefficients of Volume Expansion, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A237:413 (1956).
(Sec. 8-6.)
Vasileff, H. D.: Electron Self-energy and Temperature-dependent Effective Masses in
Vavilov, V. S.: On Photo-ionization and Ionization by Fast Electrons in Germanium
and Silicon, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:223 (1959). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - and K. I. Britsyn: The Effect of a Strong Electric Field on the Absorption of
Light by Silicon, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:1937 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also L. S. Smirnov.
Veelken, R.: On the Theory of the Electrical Transitions in Alkali Halides. I. The
Exchange Interaction Potential between Fast Electrons and Lattice Vibrations
in Polar Crystals. II. Calculation of the Electron Damping, Numerical Results,
Z. Physik, 142:476, 544 (1955). (Sec. 3-11.)
Velasco, M., M. L. Canut, and J. L. Amoros: Estudios acerca de la dinamica reticular
en cristales moleculares. I. Difraccion difusa de! acide oxalico dehidratado.
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Verkin, B. I., I. M. Dmitrenko, and B. G. Lazarev: Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure
on Magnetic Properties of Monocrystalline Bismuth at Low Temperatures,
Zh. Eksperim. i Twr. Fiz., 31:53 (1956). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : The Temperature Dependence of the Magnetic Susceptibility of the Elements,
Verwey, E. J. W.: Oxi_dic Semi-conductors, from "Semi-conducting Materials,''
Butterworth Scientific Publications, London, 1951, p. 151. (Sec. 3-11.)
Vieland, L. J., and I. Kudman: Behavior of Selenium in Gallium Arsenide, J. Phys.

Chem. Solids, 24:437 (1963).
Viervoll, H., and 0. Ogrim: An Extended Table of Atomic Scattering Factors, Acta
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Vinetskii, V. L., and M. Sh. Giterman: On the Theory of Interaction between "Super-
fluous" Charges in Ionic Crystals, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 33:730 (1957).
- - - : Optical Properties of F~-centers, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 33:780 (1957).
(Sec. 5-5.)
- - - and M. F. Deigen: Influence of Acoustic Vibrations on the Parameters of the
Impurity-absorption Bands in Crystals, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 36:287
(1958).
- - - : On the Lower Quantum State in Current Carriers of Coloration Centers in
Ionic and Atomic Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:2544 (1960).
- - - : See also M. F. Deigen.
Vineyard, G. H.: Scattering of Slow Neutrons by a Liquid, Phys. Rev., 110:999 (1958).
(Sec. 8-1.)
Vinogradov, V. S.: The Effect of Departures from Periodicity of the Charge Distribu-
tion in a Crystal Lattice on Dielectric Losses in the Ultrahigh-frequency Region,
Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:2622 (1960).
- - - : Application of Green's Functions to the Calculation of Infrared Absorption
in Ionic Crystals, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 4:712 (1962).
Violina, G. N., Leh Liang-hsiu, and G. F. Khobeyanov: Optical Absorption and
Electrical Properties of n-type a-SiC, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:3406 (1963). (Sec.
3-11.)
Visscher, W. M.: Resonance Absorption of Gammas by Impurity Nuclei in Crystals,
Phys. Rev., 129:28 (1963).
- - - : Localized Mode in an Anharmonic Crystal, Phys. Rev., 134:A965 (1964).
(Sec. 8-6.)
- - - : See also R. Brout.
Voloshinskii, A., and L. Kobelev: Dispersion Relations for Electronic Plasma, Fiz.
Metal. i Meta/loved., 6:356 (1958). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - : The Application of Green Functions to the Quantum Theory of the Electrical
Conductivity of Metals, Fiz. Metal. i Metalloved., 7:655 (1959).
Volskii, E. P.: Quantum Oscillations of the Quasistatic Conductivity of Bismuth in a
Magnetic Field, Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 43:1120 (1962). (Secs. 3-10, 3-11.)
Volz, H., and H. Haken: Zur Quantentheorie des Mehrelektronen-problems im
Festkorper, Z. Physik. Chem. (Leipzig), 198:61 (1951). (Sec. 11-7.)
Von Batchelder, F. W., and R. F. Raeuchlc: Lattice Constants and Brillouin Zone
Overlap in Dilute Magnesium Alloys, Phys. Rev., 106:59 (19,57). (Sec. 3-11.)
Von Laue, M.: Rontgenwellenfelder in Kristallen, Monatsber. Deut. Akad. Wiss.
Berlin, 1 :159 (1959).
Von Roos, 0.: Plasma Theory of Electron-Phonon Interaction in Metals, Phys. Rev.,
120:1641 (1960).
Vonsovskii, S. V.: Some Problems of the Multi-electron Theory of Semiconductors,
Zh. Tekhn. Fiz., 26:2022 (1955). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and A. N. Kushnirenko: Excited States of an Atomic Semiconductor on the
Many-electron Model, Fiz. Metal. i Meta/loved., 6:395 (1957). (Sec. 11-7.)
- - - and M. Sh. Giterman: Tlw Many-elei,tron Theory of Jonie Cry~tals, Fiz.
Tverd. Tela, 2:1793 (1960). (Sec. 11-7.)
---and G. C. Taluc: Collective Excitations of Electron Systems in Semiconductors
in the Presence of External Fields, Semicond. Phys. Conj., Prague, 1960. Academic
Press Inc., New York, 1961, p. 30. (Sec. 11-7.)
Vorobev, A. A.: The Refraction of Light in Crystals and the Energy of the Bonds
between Ions, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 112:53 (1957). (Sec. 5-5.)
Vul, B. M., and B. I. Segal: Theory of the p-n Junctions in Semiconductors, Zh.
Tekhn. Fiz., 28:681 (1958).
Vyatskin, A. Y.: On the Theory of Inelastic Scattering of Electrons in a Solid Body,
Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 2:122 (1960).
- - - and A. F. Makhov: The Absorption and Range of Electrons in a Solid, Fiz.
Tverd. Tela, 2:887 (1960).
Wagner, E. H.: Zur Beugung paralleler Lichtbundel an laufenden Ultraschallwellen.
I. II. III. Strenge Liisung des Beugungsproblems fur divergente Lichtbundel
(Zylinderwellen). IV. Das Beugungsfeld in grossem Abstand von der Kuvette
bei divergentem Primiirbundel, Z. Physik, 141 :604, 622 (1955); 143 :249, 412
(1955). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : Zur Braggschen Reflexion von Licht an Ultraschallwellen, Acustica, 6 :17
(1956). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : -Ober Gruppengeschwindigkeit, Energiestromdichte und Energiedichte in
der Rontgen bzw. Lichtoptik der Kristalle, Z. Physik, 154:352 (1959). (Sec.
8-1.)
Wagner, H.: Rontgenstrahlung anomaler Schwiichung im Falle Braggscher Reflexion,
Z. Physik, 146:127 (1956).
Wakoh, S., and J. Yamashita: Fermi Surface of Ni, J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 19:1342
(1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : See also J. Yamashita.
Walker, C. B.: X-ray Study of Lattice Vibrations in Aluminum, Phys. Rev., 103:547
(1956). (Sec. 8-1.)
- - - : X-ray Compton Scattering for Aluminum, Phys. Rev., 103:558 (1956).
(Sec. 8-1.)
Walker, W. C., 0. P. Rusgi, and G. L. Weissler: Optical Transmission of Evaporated
In, Sn, and Bi Films in the Vacuum Ultraviolet, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 48:1017 (1958).
(Sec. 3-11.)
- - - : d-Band Transitions in Solids, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 24:1667 (1963).
- - - and J. Osantowski: Ultraviolet Optical Properties of Diamond, Phys. Rev.,
134:A153 (1964). (Sec. 3-11.)
Wallace, D. C.: Anharmonic Free Energy of Crystals at Low Temperatures and at
Absolute Zero, Phys. Rev., 133:A153 (1964). (Sec. 8-6.)
- - - and J. L. Patrick: Stability of Crystal Lattices, Phys. Rev., 137:Al52 (1965).
(Sec. 10-4.)
Waller, I., and S. 0. Lundqvist: Some Remarks on the Role of Overlapping in the
X-ray Scattering by Crystals, Arkiv Fysik, 7:121 (1953).
Walling, J.C., and P. B. Bunn: The Electronic Specific Heats of Some Nickel Cobalt
Alloys, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), 74:417 (1959).
Wallis, R. F.: Effect of Free Ends on the Vibration Frequencies of One-dimensional
Lattices, Phys. Rev., 105:540 (1957). (Sec. 8-6.)
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Indium Antimonide, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 4:101 (1958). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
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Walsh, W. M., Jr., and E. Fawcett: Cyclotron Resonance in Tungsten, Ampere Colloq.,
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Walton, A. K., T. S. Moss, and B. Ellis: Determination of the Electron Effective Mass
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Wang, C. C., and L. H. Spinar: Electron Transfer in Zinc-blende III-V Compounds,
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Vatabe, M.: The Influence of Coulomb Correlation on Various Metallic Properties,
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Weiss, G.: Remarks on the Vibrational Properties of One-dimensional Ionic Lattices,

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Yamaguchi, S.: Optical Properties of Silver Films-Direct Observation of the Im 1/,-
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manium, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 8:397 (1959). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- · - - , B. Lax, K. J. Button, and L. 2\,f. Ruth: Oscillatory Magneto-ahsorption in
Gallium Antimonide, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 9:320 (1959). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , L. M. Roth, and K. J. Button: Exciton and Magneto-absorption of
the Direct and Indirect Transitions in Germanium, Phys. Rev., 114:80 (1959).
(Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , K. J. Button, and B. Lax: Zeeman Effect of Impurity Levels in Si, Phys.

Rev., 118:975 (1960). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , ---,---;and L. M. Roth: Internal Impurity Levels in Semiconductors:
Experiments in p-type Silicon, Phys. Rev. Letters, 4:173 (1960). (Sec. 3-11.)
- - - , W. H. Kleiner, and J. P. Theriault: Oscillatory Magneto-absorption in InSb
under High Resolution, J. Appl. Phys., 32 (suppl.) :2118 (1961). (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - , - - - , a n d - - - : Magneto-absorption in InSb: Valence Band Anisotropy.
Measurements Far above Absorption Edge, Semicond. Conf., Exeter, 1962, Insti-
tute of Physics and the Physical Society, London, 1962, p. 455. (Secs. 3-8, 3-11.)
- - - : See also R. J. Keyes, B. Lax, L. M. Roth.
Zylberstejn, A., and E. Conwell: Disturbance of Phonon Distribution in High Electric
Fields, Phys. Rev. Letters, 11:417 (1963).
Zyryanov, P. S.: On a Theory of the Electrical Conductivity of Metals, Zh. Eksperim.
i Teor. Fiz., 29:193 (1955).
- - - : Quantum Theory of Slightly Unbalanced Electron-Phonon Systems in a
Magnetic Field, Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 6:3011 (1963).
Index
Index*
Abbe's theory of microscope, 135 Born-Oppenheimer approximation, 256,

Acoustical branch, 164-165, 184-187 258
Alder, B. J., 251 Bosanquet, C. H., 151-156
Alkali halides, 185, 189, 193-194, Bose-Einstein condensation, 338
206-232, 243, 319 Bound electrons, 125-129
Alkali metals, 39, 90-91, 248-255 Bragg, W. H. and W. L., 14-15, 25-27,
Alloys, 93-94 111, 131-135, 151-156, 167,
Alternant molecular orbitals, 248-255 174-180, 206
Anom~lous dispersion, 3, 95-130, 157 Bragg law, 14, 15, 131-135, 167, 174-180
Anomalous skin effect, 118 Bragg reflection, 14, 25-27, 131-135,
Antiferromagnetism, 252-255 145-150, 174-180
Antimony, 39, 43 Brillouin, L., 12, 15, 21-26, 30-35, 162,
Aragonite, 111 172-179
Arsenic, 39, 43 Brillouin scattering, 15, 35, 162, 172-179
Atomic scattering factor, 135-138 Brillouin zone, 21-22, 25-26, 30-33,
Augmented-plane-wave (APW) method, 184-187
35-36, 243 Brockhouse, B. N., 183-185, 221
Brueckner, K. A., 277
Burdick, G. A., 83-84
Bardeen, J., 35
Barium titanate, 199-200
Barnett and Coulson method, 228 Calais, J. L., 250-251
Beach, J. Y., 331-338 Calcite, 111
Benzene molecule, 250-251 Cellular method, 237
Berglund, C. N., 83-84 Cesium chloride structure, 229
Binding energy, 206-255 Christian, R. H., 251
Bismuth, 39, 92 Chromium, antiferromagnetism, 254
Bloch, F., 12, 238, 283 Cochran, W., 185, 192-193, 221-226
Bloch waves, 21-23 Cohesive energy, 206-255
Bohm, D., and D. Pines, 123, 275-278 Compressibility, 209-210
Bohr, N., 122, 133 Compton effect, 15-17, 157
Boltzmann equation, 35-36 Conduction band, 42-48
Born, M., 7, 159-166, 171, 187-190, Conductivity, electrical, 1-'94
207-211, 220-232, 256 Conservaiion of energy, 24
* Since the bibliography immediately preceding this index contains references to
sections in which each paper is mentioned, some names referred to in the text are
omitted here.
545
546 QUANTUM THEORY OF MOLECULES AND SOLIDS
Copper, Fermi surface for, 78-85 Electron scattering, 13-16, 34-35,

Hall constant for, 39 179-180
Plasma frequency of, 114-116, 128- Emersleben, 0., 213-214
129 Energy, conservation of, 24
Cornish, A. J., 255 Energy surfaces, ellipsoidal, 26-28, 65-68
Correlation energy, 244-255, 268 Evjen, H. M., 212-214
Correspondence principle, 69-70 Ewald, P. P., 101-109, 112, 131-132,
Coulomb's law, 44 139-140, 214-220, 310-317
Cowley, R. A., 202 Exchange energy, 238-248
Cromer, D. T., 264 Excited states, 257-262, 272-274, 296
Crystal momentum, 22-23 Exciton, 272-273, 296
Cyclotron resonance, 49-78
Fan, H. Y., 298

Dalgarno, A., 339-342 Feinberg, E. L., 237
Darwin, C. G., 113, 121, 138, 149, 151 Fermi-Dirac statistics, 8-12, 18-20,
de Broglie, L., 22, 62, 292 30-34, 36, 41-48, 75-85, 233-245,
Debye, P., 7, 12, 14-16, 159-172 259-265, 296-300
Debye-Sears effect, 14-16 Fermi energy, 8-11, 18-20, 30-34, 42-48,
Deb ye-Waller factor, 162, 166-172 75-85, 236, 239, 245
De Cicco, P., 231-232, 243, 310-315 Fermi hole, 262
Deformation potential, 35 Fermi level, 8-11, 18-20, 30--34, 42-48,
de Haas-van Alphen effect, 49, 64, 73-78 75-85, 236,239,245,263
de Heer, J., 249-251 Fermi statistics (see Fermi-Dirac
Density of states, 10 statistics)
Diamond, 86-88 Fermi surface, 20, 30-34, 72-73, 75-85
Dick, B. G., Jr., 222-223 Ferroelectricity, 111-112, 198-203,
Dielectric constant, 96, 102-118, 297 220-226
Difference equations, 300-307 Fock, V., 56
Diffraction, x-ray, 131-158, 166-178 Forsterling, K., 112, 126
Dingle, R. B., 56 Fraunhofer diffraction, 133
Dirac, P. A. M., 8, 238-244 Frazer, B. C., 199
Dispersion, 3, 95-130, 157 Free electrons, 4-20, 113-125, 233-243
Dispersion forces, 347 Frenkel, J., 12, 295
Doppler effect, 14-16 Fresnel zones, 152-154
Double refraction, 101-102, 111 Friedel, J., 292, 294
Douglas, A. S., 266 Frohlich, H., 34, 123, 192
Drude, P., 1-7, 12-13, 18, 95-102, 113,
117, 119, 125, 193
Dulong and Petit's law, 165 Galvanomagnetic effects, 40-41
Dynamical theory, x-ray diffraction, Gas, free-electron, 9-12
138-150 Gas discharges, 124
Gaussian function, 217-219
Germanium, 43, 52-54, 86-88, 186
Effective mass, 27-30, 65-68 Gold, 39
Ehrenreieh, H., 83-84, 127 Graphite, 92
EinstPin, A., 7, 159 Green's function, 306
Eisenhauer, C. M., 183 Gross, E. P., 123
Eisenschitz, R., 325, 331, 335, 343 Group velocity, 23, 116, 281-286
Elastic vibrations, 159-205, Gruneisen, E., 162
Electric field, 23 Gurney, R. W., 298
,,
"t
l
le
i
I
H 6 molecule, 260-262, 271
Hagen, E., 117
Hall, E. H., 36
INDEX
Kellermann, E. W., 220-221

Kelly, H. P., 277-278
Kirkwood, J. G., 330-346
547
Hall constant, 37-40 Kohn, W., 277

Hall effect, 3, 5, 34, 36-41, 48-49 Koopmans' theorem, 256-259
Hamiltonian function, 54, 61, 286-291, Korringa, J., 122
308-309 Koster, G. F., 292-307
Hanlon, J. E., 222-223 Krarners, H. A., 110, 123, 193
Hartree, D. R., 121, 138 Krarners and Heisenberg dispersion
Hartree-Fock method, 238, 243, 246, formula, 110, 127, 193, 324
249-250, 256-278 Kronig, R. de L., 122
Hasse, H. R., 331 Krutter, H. M., 237-244
Heisenberg, W., principle of uncertainty, Kuhn-Thomas sum rule, 324-325
21-22 Kurosawa, T., 222-223
Reitler-London method, 227, 249, 318,
331
Helium, Van der Waals attraction, Landau levels, 53-60, 66, 71-72, 76-77,
338-343 308-309
Hellmann, H., 343 Lande, A., 206-211, 221, 233
Hellmann-Feynman theorem, 226 Landshoff, R., 227
Herman, F., 264 Lang, W., 122-123
Hertz vector, 102-108, 133 Langmuir, I., 119-121
Herzfeld, K. F., 220-221 Lattice energy, 206-232
Hirschfelder, J. 0., 336-342 Lattice vibrations, 159-205, 220-226
Hole in energy band, 28-29 Laue, M. von, 131, 133, 140-150, 206
Hon!, H., 157 Lawson, A. W., 222-223
Houston, W. V., 12 Lead telluride (PbTe), 35-36
Howland, L. P., 231 Lenz, W., 235-241
Huang, K., 189-190 Liberman, D., 264
Hughes, D. J., 183 Linnett, J. W., 336-342
Hydrogen, polarization of, 325-331 Lithium hydride, 211, 231
Van der Waals attraction in, 331-338 Lithium salts, 210
Hydrogen molecule, 257 London, F., 325, 331, 335, 343, 347
Longitudinal optical mode, 185-186,
192-198
Impurity atoms, 43-48, 292-307 Lorentz, H. A., 1-7, 12-13, 18, 95-102,
Index of refraction, 95-129, 188-198 111-113, 121, 125, 192-193, 221-226
Insulators, 95-112, 181-203, 206-232 Lorenz, L., 99
Ionic crystals, 206-232 Li:iwdin, P. 0., 227-232, 247-252,
269-271
Lundqvist, S. 0., 231
Luttinger, J.M., 277
James, I-I. M., 292, 338 Lyddane, R.H., 192-195, 220-225
James, R. W., 135, 138, 151-157 Lynn, N., 339-342
Jensen, H., 235-237, 240-241
Jones, II., 34, 281, 288
Joulean heat, 17 Madclung, E., 206-220, 226-228, 232,
247, 315-3Hi
Magnetic interband transitions, 71-72
Kahn, A. I-I., 111 Magnetic permeability, 96
Karman, T. von, 7, 159-166, 187 Magnetohydrodynamics, 124
QUANTUM THEORY OF MOLECULES AND SOLIDS
Magnetoresistance, 81-83 Permittivity, 297

Ma~y-body problem, 256-279 Philipp, H. R., 84, 127
M·argenau, H., 339, 343, 347 Phosphorus, 43
Mashkevich, V. S., 225 Photoemission, 83-84
Mass, effective, 27-30 Photons, 15-16
Mattheiss, L. F., 260 Pines, D., 123-275, 276
Matthiessen's rule, 18 Pippard, A. B., 77
Maxwell's equations, 95-98, 102, 107 Plasma oscillations, 114-129, 276
Mayer, J. E., 210, 226 Plasmons, 123, 276
Mean free path, 17 Poisson's equation, 297, 313
Metals, 30-36, 75-85, 90-94, 113-130, Polarization, 97-112, 132, 192-198,
184-185 318-348
Mirulobow, N., 12 Polaron, 273
Mobility, 5, 17, 41 Positive-charge carrier, 27
Momentum, crystal, 22-23 Positron, 29-30
Momentum space, 19, 21 Potassium chloride, 228-230, 243
Montroll, E. W., 307 Potassium dihydrogen phosphate, 199
Moore, N., 342 Potential, vector, 23
Mosaic structure, 149 Potts, R. B., 307
Mott, N. F., 34, 192, 298 Pratt, G. W., Jr., 277
Multiplets, 271-275 Primary extinction, 149, 155
Prokofjew, W., 265
n-type inpurity, 34, 45-48, 294-307

Natural spin-orbital, 269 Quantum condition for magnetic field,
Neutron scattering, 179-187 60-64, 69-70
Newton, second law of motion, 24, 27
Nitrogen, 43
Noble metals, 90-91 Rayleigh, Lord, 132
Norton, K. A., 121 Relativity, principle of, 115
Residual rays, 186-193
Residual resistance, 18
Ohm's law, 5-6 Resistance, electrical, 4-20
One-electron energies, 259-271 Resonance, cyclotron, 49-78
Onsager's theorem, 6o-64 Reststrahlen, 186-193
Optical modes, 165 Roth, L. M., 277
Optical properties, 95-130 Rubens, H., 117
Oscillator strength, 110-111, 127, Rudberg, E., 122-123
325-326 Ruthemann, G., 122-123
Ott, H., 171 Rutherford, E., 133
Overhauser, A. W., 222-223
Sachs, R. G., 192-195, 225

p-type impurity, 34, 47-48, 294-307 Sakamoto, Y., 213-214
Palevsky, H., 183 Sarginson, K., 171
Pauling, L., 331-:-!38 Scattering, of electron waves, 13-16,
Pauncz, R., 249-251 34-35, 179-180
Peierls, R., 166 oflight, 13-16, 35, 172-179
Pepinsky, R., 199 of neutrons, 179-180, 183-187
Periodic potential, 21-48, 62-70, 281-291 of x-rays, 131-158
INDEX 549
Scattering factor, atomic, 135-138 Tonks, L., 119-121
Schottky, W., 298 Transverse optical mode, 185-198
Schrodinger's equation, 35-36, 44, 56, 62,
144, 234, 264, 283, 321
Schulz, L. G., 125 Umklapp process, 178, 181
Seitz, F., 34 Uncertainty principle, 21-22
Sellmeier formula for anomalous Unsold, A., 343
dispersion, 3, 98, 126
Semiconductors, 41-48, 86-90, 284-307
Semi-metals, 30-33, 39, 92-93 Valence band, 42-48
Shockley, W., 35, 66, 111, 296 Van der Waals attraction, 318-348
Silicon, 43, 86-88 Vector potential, 23
Silver, 39 Velocity, group, 23
Skillman, S., 264 of light, 99
Skin depth, 72-73, 118 Vibrations of crystals, 159-205, 220-226
Slater, J. C., 41-42, 112, 122-123, 200, Vinti, J. P., 343
210, 237-244, 249-250, 254, 268, Virial theorem, 236, 349-350
292-307, 330, 335-346 Voigt, W., 3, 101
Sodium cohesive energy in, 244-248 von Karman, T., 7, 159-166, 187
vibration spectrum of, 184 von Laue, M., 131, 133, 140-150, 206
Sodium chloride, 193, 206-232, 319
Sodium iodide, vibration spectrum of,
185, 189 Waber, J. T., 264
Sommerfeld, A., 12, 61-64 Waller, I., 138, 162, 166-172, 327
Sonnenschein, C. M., 231 Wannier function, 227, 272-275, 283-295,
Specific heat, electronic, 7, 10-11 300-307
lattice, 159-166 Wave packet, 21-30, 50-51, 59-60,
Spicer, W. E., 83-84 281-293
Statistics, Fermi-Dirac (see Fermi-Dirac Wiedemann-Franz ratio, 6
statistics) Wigner-Seitz method, 237, 244-250,
Sternheimer, R. M., 346 268, 277
Structure factor, 135-138 Wilson, A.H., 34
Sugiura, Y., 325 Wilson, C. B., 123, 129
Sum rule, 110, 324-325 Wood, R. W., 172
Szigeti, B., 221 Woods, A. D. B., 185, 221
Teller, E., 192-195, 221, 225 X-ray diffraction, 131-158, 166-178

Temperature-diffuse scattering, 172-182
Tessman, J. R., 111
Thermal conductivity, 166 Yamashita, J., 222-223, 231
Thermal-diffuse scattering, 172-182
Thermal vibrations, 158-205
Thomas-Fermi method, 233-244, 297 Zeeman effect, 4, 71-72
Thomson, J. J., 3, 133 Zener, C., 122, 281, 288
Tolpygo, K. B., 225 Ziman, J. M., 34, 36, 38, 163, 166

Insulators, Semiconductors and Metals by John C. Slater

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lnsulators

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

As a result of two facts-the simple mathematics, which I have just

ics, electromagnetic theory, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics,

Chapter 1. The Free-electron Theory of Electrical

1-1. The Drude-Lorentz Theory of Metals 1

Chapter 2. Electrical Conductivity in Metals and

2-1. An Electron in a Periodic Potential and an External Field 21

Chapter 3. Cyclotron Resonance and Related Phenomena 49

3-1. The Qualitative Nature of Cyclotron Resonance 49

3-9. The de Haas-van Alphen Effect and Related Experiments 75

Chapter 4. The Drude-Lorentz and Ewald Theories of

Chapter 5. The Drude-Lorentz Theory of the Optical

5-1. Optical Properties of a Free-electron Metal 113

Chapter 6. The Theory of X-ray Diffraction 131

6-1. The Elementary Scattering Theory 131

Chapter 7. Effect of Thermal Vibrations of Crystals on X-ray

Chapter 8. Lattice Vibrations of Metals and Insulators 181

8-1. Experimental Determination of Vibration Spectra 181

Chapter 9. The Lattice Energy of Ionic Crystals 206

Chapter 10. The Thomas-Fermi and Wigner-Seitz Methods,

10-1. The Thomas-Fermi Method and Its Application to Solids 233

Chapter 11. The Crystal as a Many-body Problem 256

Appendix 1. The Motion of Wave Packets in a Periodic

Al-1. The Average Velocity of a Wave Packet 281

Appendix 2. Wave Functions of Impurity Atoms 292

A2-1. Introduction 292

Appendix 3. Free Electrons in a Magnetic Field in Cylindrical

Appendix 4. Ewald's Method for Crystalline Fields,

Appendix 5. Polarization and Van der Waals Attraction 318

AS-1. Introduction 318

Appendix 6. The Virial Theorem for Solids 349

Book List 351

Quantum Theory of Molecules and Solids

1-1. The Drude-Lorentz Theory of Metals. One of the themes of the

erties such as double refraction, thermal and electrical properties, piezo-

1 W. Voigt, "Lehrbuch der Kristallphysik," B. G. Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft

mbH, Stuttgart, Leipzig, and Berlin, 19JU.

theory of such phenomena. In his first papers he discussed electrical

This is an expression of Ohm's law, u being the electrical conductivity,

v = Vo exp (-t/to) (1-5)

Experimental values of the mobility, assuming N to be of the order of

Sec. 1-3) THE FREE-ELECTRON THEORY OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 7

satisfactory, but they had several rather serious shortcomings, which

1-4. Application of Fermi-Dirac Statistics to Metallic Electrons. The

At any temperature, EF is to be determined from the condition that

where ·n,,, ny, n. are integers. The energy of a plane wave is

where m is the mass of the electron. Surfaces giving constant energy

We see that it depends on N /V, the density of electrons, and is independ-

proportional to the square root of

the electrons at temperature T, minus the energy at the absolute zero, is

Constant X (kT) 2 : ; /E=EF (1-14)

In other words, so long as kT is small compared with the Fermi energy

electronic specific heats to the density of states, and in general the

forward momentum, on account of the scattering, and this is equivalent

We have emphasized the Debye-Sears effect on account of its close

included by the following authors: G. Beck (1926), F. Bloch (1934), G. Burkhardt

kinetic energy, so that if it were originally at rest, it must have gained

origin of the observed proportionality of resistance to the absolute tem-

somewhat randomly, we shall have irregularities for that reason, and

level, with a rapid decrease of density in the neighborhood of the Fermi

2-1. An Electron in a Periodic Potential and an External Field. We

to Heisenberg's principle of uncertainty, will be of the order of magnitude

where as before -e is the charge on the electron, E is the electric field