Lec 5

Information Theory and Source Coding
Part A: Communication Theory
Dr. Ir. Muhammad Nasir
Department of Electrical Engineering

The University of Lahore
November 6, 2021
1
What is diversity
Multi-path fading and shadow fading caused a high random variation of the
received signal power at different locations.
These variations result in a power penalty for acceptable system

performance: low outage probability.
Aim of Diversity
Create multiple independent fading replicas of the signal at the receiver which
can be exploited
Dr. Ir. Muhammad Nasir (UOL) Part A: Communication Theory November 6, 2021 2 / 27
How can we exploit diversity
One of the best way to mitigate the effects of fading is by combining
independent fading signal replicas. This is called diversity combining.
Diversity combining exploits the fact that independent fading signals have a
low probability to be all in a deep fade at the same time.
Diversity Combining
Diversity combining of independent fading signals results in:
reduced fading of the resulting signal.
increase of the average SNR.
M-branch diversity uses M independent signals for combining.
A pre-requisite for diversity is the availability of a number of independent

fading replicas of the desired signals.
3
Different types of diversity
Micro-diversity exploit independent fading replicas of the signal caused by
multi-path fading. It is implemented at the receiver to mitigate the effect of
multi-path fading.
Macro-diversity exploit large scale signal fading due to path-loss and shadow-
ing. Diversity to mitigate the effect of shadowing from buildings and objects is
called macrodiversity. Macrodiversity is generally implemented by combining
signals received by several base stations or access points. This requires coor-
dination among the different base stations or access points. Such coordination
is implemented as part of the networking protocols.
Micro- and macro-diversity are both receiver diversity scheme.
Transmitter diversity creates independent fading signal replicas at the receiver

by transmitting the same signal via different antennas (in combination with
coding, time shifting etc).
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Diversity: Spatial Diversity
There are different ways to obtain independent fading signal replicas.
Spatial diversity: Use multiple transmit or receive antennas, also called an an-
tenna array, where the elements of the array are separated in distance.
Moreover, coherent combining of the diversity signals leads to an increase in

SNR at the receiver over the SNR that would be obtained with just asingle
receive antenna.
Note that with receiver space diversity, independent fading paths are realized
without an increase in transmit signal power or bandwidth. Space diversity
also requires that the separation between antennas be such that the fading
amplitudes corresponding to each antenna are approximately independent.
No extra transmit power or bandwidth requirements.
Diversity: Polarization Diversity
Polarization diversity: uses two co-located antennas with different polarisation

(horizontal/vertical).
Because reflections cause cross-polarization (change from one polarisation

into the other),
First, you can have at most two diversity branches, corresponding to the
two types of polarization.
The second disadvantage is that polarization diversity loses effectively
half the power (3 dB) since the transmit or receive power is divided
between the two differently polarized antennas.
Diversity: Polarization Diversity
Polarization diversity: uses two co-located antennas with different polarisation

(horizontal/vertical).
Because reflections cause cross-polarization (change from one polarisation

into the other), a signal transmitted horizontally is also received with a verti-
cally polarised antenna. After multiple reflections independent fading signals
with different polarisation result.
First, you can have at most two diversity branches, corresponding to the
two types of polarization.
The second disadvantage is that polarization diversity loses effectively
half the power (3 dB) since the transmit or receive power is divided
between the two differently polarized antennas.
Diversity: Angle Diversity
Angle or directional diversity: by using high gain directional antennas different

clusters of path, which show independent fading can separately received.
With high gain (narrow beamwidth) antennas individual paths can be received
and multi path fading is eliminated.
Disadvantages
continuous scanning is needed to find/follow the dominant path/cluster.
many antennas are required to collect the signal energy arriving from
different directions.
An array of antennas with controllable phase per element can be used for elec-
tronic beam steering; with enough elements multiple beams can be formed.
Diversity Combining
System model of diversity combining.
Diversity: Combining
The main purpose of diversity is to coherently combine the independent fad-

ing paths so that the effects of fading are mitigated. The signal output from
the combiner equals the originalPtransmitted signal s(t) multiplied by a random
complex amplitude term αP = ai ri . This complex amplitude term results in
a random SNR γP at the combiner output.
Gains
There are two types of performance gain associated with receiver space
diversity: array gain and diversity gain
√
For example, suppose there is no fading so that ri = Es for Es the energy
per symbol of the transmitted signal. Assume identical noise PSD N0 on each
branch.
√ Then each branch has the same SNR γi = Es /N0 . Let us set ai =
ri / N0 .
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Diversity: Combining
Then the received SNR is

PM 2
( i=1 ai ri )
αP = N0 M
P 2
i=1 ai
PM 2
( i=1 Es ) MEs
αP = N0
P M = N0
i=1 Es
Thus, in the absence of fading, with appropriate weighting there is an M-fold

increase in SNR due to the coherent combining of the M signals received from
the different antennas.
Array gain occurs for all diversity combining techniques, but is most pronounced
in MRC. Both diversity and array gain occur in transmit diversity as well. The
array gain allows a system with multiple transmit or receive antennas in a fad-
ing channel to achieve better performance than a system without diversity in
an AWGN channel with the same average SNR.
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Selection Diversity
General block diagram of selection combining.
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Selection Diversity
In Selection Diversity (SD) the signal of branch k with the highest SNR is
selected. This means that all weights αi are set to zero except αk = 1.
For equal noise powers n2 in all branches, the branch with maximum SNR is
easily detected, since the branch with maximum power rk2 + n2 has the
maximum SNR.
Even if we need to process only a single branch signal, extra complexity is

added because we need to monitor all branch powers in order to always
select the maximum.
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Selection Diversity (Cont’d)
Assume the Rayleigh fading channel with M-branches and equal branch
noise powers, the distribution of the received signal to noise ratio is given by:
1 γi

p(γi ) = Γ exp Γ .
P
where Γ = is the expected branch SNR
n2
Outage occurs when the signal power or SNR drops below a threshold value
γth . The probability of outage of branch i is then given by:
p [γi < γth ] = 1 − exp − γΓth

14
The probability that the system is in outage, e.g.,all M independent fading

branches have simultaneously an SNR below the threshold γth is given by:
M
p [γ1 , γ2 , · · · , γM ≤ γth ] = 1 − exp − γΓth = poutage (γth , M)
Now we find for the probability that at least one branch is above the threshold
level and thus the system is not in outage:

p γP > γth = 1 − poutage (γth , M)
M
= 1 − 1 − exp − γΓth
The average SNR after selection diversity is given by:

M
1
P
γP = Γ i
i=1
Thus, the average SNR gain increases with M, but not linearly.
15
16
17
Example: Find the outage probability of BPSK modulation at Pb = 10−3 and

γ0 = 100.7 for a Rayleigh fading channel with SC diversity for M = 1(no diver-
sity), M = 2, and M = 3. Assume equal branch SNRs γ = 101.5 .
Solution:
For M = 1: Pout = 1 − exp(−10( 0.7)/(10( 1.5))) = 0.1466

2
For M = 2: Pout = 1 − exp(−10( 0.7)/(10( 1.5))) = 0.0215
2
For M = 3: Pout = 1 − exp(−10( 0.7)/(10( 1.5))) = 0.031
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Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC)
In MRC all branch signals are co-phased weighted (to maximze SNR) and
summed.
Unlike in selection diversity, all weights αi = ae−jθi are non-zero and the
signal envelope of the combiner output is:
M M
ai e−jθi ri ejθi =
P P
r= ai ri
i=1 i=1
For equal noise powers n2i = n2 in all branches, the noise power n2c after
combining is given by:
M 2 M
a2i
P P
n2c = ai ni = n2
i=1 i=1
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Maximal Ratio Combining (Cont’d)
For the SNR after combining we find:

M
2
P
ai r i
2
r i=1
γP = = M
n2c
a2i
P
n2
i=1
The aim of the maximal ratio combining is to maximize the SNR of the
combined output signal.
Intuitively, it is clear that branches with a high SNR should be weighted more
than branches with a low SNR. It can be shown that the optimal weights are
given by:
ri2 ri2 −jθi
a2i = = ⇒ αi = ri√
e
n2i n2 n2
The weights are proportional to the SNR in each branch.

20
Now we find the SNR after combining:
M
2
P
ai r i
i=1
γP = M
a2i
P
n2
i=1
M M r2
ri2 . i
P P
2 M
i=1 n
i=1
P
= M = γi
ri2
P
i=1
i=1
Thus the SNR after MRC is equal to the sum of the branch SNR’s.
21
Now we find the SNR after combining:
M
2
P
ai r i
i=1
γP = M
a2i
P
n2
i=1
M M r2
ri2 . i
P P
2 M
i=1 n
i=1
P
= M = γi
ri2
P
i=1
i=1
Thus the SNR after MRC is equal to the sum of the branch SNR’s.
This is a much better result than obtained with Selection Diversity.
22
Maximal Rati Combining (Cont’d)
23
Maximal Rati Combining (Cont’d)
24
The performance of MRC is much better than achieved with Selection

Diversity. However, its complexity is also larger:
signal amplitude, signal phase and noise level need to estimated for
each branch.
amplitude and phase estimation (for co-phasing) requires spacial
training signals to be transmitted regularly.
weighting and combining has to be performed for each branch.
If the noise level is equal per branch, noise power estimation is not required.
A simplified scheme uses constant amplitude weights: equal gain combining

(EGC), however, co-phasing is still required.
Performance of EGC is slightly less than for MRC.
25
Comparison: MRC Vs SD
26
Comparison: MRC Vs EGC
27
Comparison: MRC, EGC, SD
28
Conclusion
IF DIVERSITY exits:
You are able to choose the best.
You are able to combine to each a better result.
29
Conclusion
IF DIVERSITY exits:
You are able to choose the best.
You are able to combine to each a better result.
If DIVERSITY does not exist:
Try to create it!.
30

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Information Theory and Source Coding

Part A: Communication Theory

Dr. Ir. Muhammad Nasir

Department of Electrical Engineering

These variations result in a power penalty for acceptable system

M-branch diversity uses M independent signals for combining.

A pre-requisite for diversity is the availability of a number of independent

Micro- and macro-diversity are both receiver diversity scheme.

Transmitter diversity creates independent fading signal replicas at the receiver

There are different ways to obtain independent fading signal replicas.

Moreover, coherent combining of the diversity signals leads to an increase in

No extra transmit power or bandwidth requirements.

Polarization diversity: uses two co-located antennas with different polarisation

Because reflections cause cross-polarization (change from one polarisation

Polarization diversity: uses two co-located antennas with different polarisation

Because reflections cause cross-polarization (change from one polarisation

Angle or directional diversity: by using high gain directional antennas different

The main purpose of diversity is to coherently combine the independent fad-

Then the received SNR is

Thus, in the absence of fading, with appropriate weighting there is an M-fold

Even if we need to process only a single branch signal, extra complexity is

p [γi < γth ] = 1 − exp − γΓth

The probability that the system is in outage, e.g.,all M independent fading

The average SNR after selection diversity is given by:

Example: Find the outage probability of BPSK modulation at Pb = 10−3 and

For M = 1: Pout = 1 − exp(−10( 0.7)/(10( 1.5))) = 0.1466

For the SNR after combining we find:

The weights are proportional to the SNR in each branch.

Now we find the SNR after combining:

Now we find the SNR after combining:

This is a much better result than obtained with Selection Diversity.

The performance of MRC is much better than achieved with Selection

A simplified scheme uses constant amplitude weights: equal gain combining

Performance of EGC is slightly less than for MRC.

You are able to choose the best.

You are able to combine to each a better result.

You are able to choose the best.

You are able to combine to each a better result.

If DIVERSITY does not exist:

Try to create it!.

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