Kluchhohn and Strodtbeck’s term

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Values Orientation Theory Abstract People's attitudes are based
on the relatively few, stable values they hold. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's (1961) Values
Orientation Theory proposes that all human societies must answer a limited number of
universal problems, that the value-based solutions are limited in number and universally
known, but that different cultures have different preferences among them. Suggested
questions include humans' relations with time, nature and each other, as well as basic human
motives and the nature of human nature. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck suggested alternate
answers to all five, developed culture-specific measures of each, and described the value
orientation profiles of five SW USA cultural groups. Their theory has since been tested in
many other cultures, and used to help negotiating ethnic groups understand one another, and
to examine the inter-generational value changes caused by migration. Other theories of
universal values (Rokeach, Hofstede, Schwartz) have produced value concepts sufficiently
similar to suggest that a truly universal set of human values does exist and that cross-cultural
psychologists are close to discovering what they are.
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INTRODUCTION Cross-cultural psychology has two broad aims: to understand the
differences between human beings who come from different cultural backgrounds, and to
understand the similarities between all human beings. The similarities may be sought at all
levels – from the physiological (our eyes are able to perceive colour) through the cognitive
(we are also able to perceive perspective, or relative distance), to the personal (we can be
both happy and sad, gentle or aggressive) to the social (we all relate to our parents and
siblings), to the cultural (we all share cultural norms with others of the same cultural
background).
These cultural norms can take a variety of forms. They may be quite concrete and specific,
like the type of clothing we find acceptable on a given occasion, or extremely complex and
abstract, as are our religious beliefs. An important type of norm is the concept we have of
ourselves in relation to other objects and people. These may range from our belief about the
nature of human nature (Wrightsman, 1992), to the opinions we hold (our political opinions,
for instance) to the attitudes we have toward a variety of concepts which we hold. Attitudes
have long been studied by psychologists – especially social psychologists. For the first half of
the twentieth century, it was believed that if we could measure them accurately, they would
enable us to predict human behaviour. And predicting behaviour is what all psychology is
about.
However, as we became more psychometrically sophisticated, and able to measure attitudes
accurately with instruments such as the Likert summated ratings scale, we learned that
attitudes are much more complex than we had realised, and that they have to be measured
very carefully, and a number of other factors such as context and strength taken into account
before any accuracy of prediction could be claimed. Moreover we all have so many attitudes,
they change so readily, and they vary so much over time and situation, that any one attitude
can predict only a relatively small amount of behaviour. Social psychologists therefore
started looking for more fundamental, slower changing concept which might give more
reliable behavioural prediction. One such concept is the values which a person holds. Values
are seen as being relatively few in number. Perhaps the best-known student of values is
Rokeach (1979), who suggests that there are at most 36 values held by human beings.
Moreover they are considered to be widely, and perhaps universally held. Concepts such as
honesty and courage, peace and wisdom, are recognised in all human cultures. On the other
hand, Hofstede (1980, 2001), in a huge world-wide study, has been able to find no more than
five which are universally held.
Nevertheless the idea that there are basic human values, and that they are measurable, has
been exciting psychologists to investigate them for many years, from Allport, Vernon and
Lindzey in 1931 to the present day. It has been widely accepted that uncovering those values,
and devising means of measuring them, would facilitate valuable insight into the similarities
and differences between human beings from differing cultural backgrounds.
One theory of basic human values which has been very influential is that of Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck (1961). Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck set out to operationalise a
theoretical approach to the values concept developed by Florence's 3 Hills: Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck's Values Orientation Theory Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2011
husband, Clyde Kluckhohn (1949, 1952). He argued that humans share biological traits and
characteristics which form the basis for the development of culture, and that people typically
feel their own cultural beliefs and practices are normal and natural, and those of others are
strange, or even inferior or abnormal. He defined a value as: "A conception, explicit or
implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the desirable which
influences the selection from available modes, means and ends of action." (Kluckhohn, 1951,
p 395).

Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck (1961) developed a theory which put these
principles into action. They started with three basic assumptions:

 "There is a limited number of common human problems for which all peoples must at
all times find some solution".
 "While there is variability in solutions of all the problems, it is neither limitless nor
random but is definitely variable within a range of possible solutions".
 "All alternatives of all solutions are present in all societies at all times but are
differentially preferred". They suggested that the solutions for these problems
preferred by a given society reflects that society's values. Consequently, measurement
of the preferred solutions would indicate the values espoused by that society. They
suggested five basic types of problem to be solved by every society:
 On what aspect of time should we primarily focus – past, present or future?
 What is the relationship between Humanity and its natural environment – mastery,
submission or harmony?
  How should individuals relate with others – hierarchically (which they called
"Lineal"), as equals ("Collateral"), or according to their individual merit?
 What is the prime motivation for behaviour – to express one's self ("Being"), to grow
("Being-in-becoming"), or to achieve?
 What is the nature of human nature – good, bad ("Evil") or a mixture?

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) also suggested a sixth value dimension of Space (Here,
There, or Far Away) but did not explore it further. They then speled out the possible answers
to each of the questions, arguing that the preferred answer in any society reflects the basic
orientation of the society to that aspect of its environment. The orientations to each question
are shown in Table 1. In proposing orientations to the Nature of Human nature question,
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck suggested that there are two dimensions involved – good, bad or
mixed, and that of mutability, or whether we are born the way we are and cannot change, or
can learn to change (in either direction).

A)Highlight definition of culture and is it possible for a culture to disappear?

Why or Why not? Give an example for your respective allocated country as
part of the project.
Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a
population that are passed down from generation to generation. Culture has been
called "the way of life for an entire society." As such, it includes codes of manners, dress,
language, religion, rituals, art

Yes, It is possible that the translocal community will soon disappear as a cultural form. If
the migrants settle permanently abroad, the structure might have a generational half-life, the
attachments to the homeland dissolving with each city-born or foreign-born generation.

During visits to remote fishermen islands located on the coast of the state of Maranhão in the
North-East of Brazil, we realized that a significant proportion of the traditional community
left the islands. In this article we investigate the reason why those people left the islands
where they lived for generations, to find out about their whereabouts and to answer the
question why their culture, cultural identities and traditions are disappearing. And at last to
answer the main question what is killing our natives. A special approach for the communities
was taken through our ongoing artistic project SUI GENERIS that started in 2012 to produce
portrait photography of the people living on the islands, with the aim to enhance the self-
esteem of the local population through artwork[1]. For the consecution of the aims of the
research, we used series of interviews with the fishermen, which were realized in different
periods during our frequent visits of the islands, in compilation with the data obtained from
the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) and from the administrative organ
of the reserve, the Institute Chico Mendes for the Conservation of the Biodiversity
(ICMBIO), in completion or comparison with in loco observations undertaken by us while
living with the traditional communities during periods of ten to fifteen days three or four
times a year from 2012 to 2016. We concluded that the traditional communities had left the
islands to move to the two main cities Cururupu and Apicum-Açu three and a half boat hours
away for multiple reasons, varying from retirement of the elder, buying with the retirement
money land and building houses, calling their daughters and sons to live with them, to the
search for better educational opportunities for the children as on the islands teaching is only
for elementary education and further attending of schools is only possible in the city. Non-
reversible social and cultural modifications in the community are taking place, as children of
fishermen do not anymore necessarily like to become fishermen themselves by persueing
other professions. Traditional community knowledge about their former habitat, diversity of
flora and fauna, areas of fish capturing and artisanal techniques are lost with their absence
from the reserve area. By living in the city, former supportive and warm-hearted individuals
helping each other out and gifted with their distinct hospitality and openness towards
strangers become increasingly afraid of other individuals due to urban violence they are not
used to and the fact that, on one hand, they are living in the urban environment, while, on the
other hand, being mostly excluded from social live due to their low incomes and precarious
living conditions. The former, economically stable low-income lives on the islands, based on
sharing habitat and fishery and being supportive towards each other when necessary, changed
by living in the city; consequently, their human characteristics and social behaviours with the
involvement of money necessary for everything what is needed to buy in the city are
ultimately and definitely changing, too. One scenario for the future is that the whole
fishermen community will leave their islands and live in the city, coming back to the islands
only periodically for the purpose of fishing, while they stay in their fishermen cottages (in
Portuguese ranchos), this will result in the loss of cultural identities, ways of life, social
organization and traditions which are not anymore continued in the urban environment, as
well as change in behaviour to loose their singular solidarity, hospitality and openness
towards strangers which were related to their former simplicity of life on the islands.         
B)Discuss the case of multi-language/multi-religion countries (A specified
list of countries of your group); how can people in these countries share a
common culture? On which segments of culture?
The culture of Brazil is primarily Western and is derived from European Portuguese culture,
 but presents a very diverse nature showing that an ethnic and cultural mixing occurred in
[1]

the colonial period involving mostly Indigenous people of the coastal and most accessible
riverine areas, Portuguese people and African people. In the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, together with further waves of Portuguese
colonization, Italians, Spaniards, Germans, Austrians, Arab
Brazilian, Armenians, Japanese, Chinese, Koreans, Greeks, Poles, Helvetians, Ukrainians and 
Russians settled in Brazil, playing an important role in its culture as it started to shape
a multicultural and multiethnic society.[2]

As consequence of three centuries of colonization by the Portuguese empire, the core of

Brazilian culture is derived from the culture of Portugal. The numerous Portuguese
inheritances include the language, cuisine items such as rice and beans and feijoada, the
predominant religion and the colonial architectural styles.[3] These aspects, however, were
influenced by African and Indigenous American traditions, as well as those from other
Western European countries.[4] Some aspects of Brazilian culture are contributions
of Italian, Spaniard, German, Japanese and other European immigrants.[5] Amerindian people
and Africans played a large role in the formation of Brazilian language, cuisine, music, dance
and religion.[5][6]

This diverse cultural background has helped show off many celebrations and festivals that
have become known around the world, such as the Brazilian Carnival and the Bumba Meu
Boi. The colourful culture creates an environment that makes Brazil a popular destination for
many tourists each year, around over 1 million
The cultures of the indigenous Indians, Africans, and Portuguese have together formed the
modern Brazilian way of life. The Portuguese culture is by far the dominant of these
influences; from it Brazilians acquired their language, their main religion, and most of their
customs. The Indian population is now statistically small, but Tupí-Guaraní, the language of
many Brazilian Indians, continues to strongly influence the Brazilian Portuguese language;
other Indian contributions to Brazilian culture are most apparent in the Amazon basin.
African influences on the Brazilian way of life are strongest along the coast between the
Northeast and Rio de Janeiro; they include traditional foods, religions, and popular music and
dance, especially the samba. Commercial and cultural imports from Europe and North
America have often competed with—and influenced—Brazilians’ own cultural output, and
critics have argued that the nation’s cultural identity is suffering as a result. Despite
numerous social and economic challenges, Brazilians continue to be exuberant and creative
in their celebrations and art forms.

C) What is National Character – how would you elaborate on your given

countries; any one will do.
Brazilian National Character in the Twentieth Century

National character appears differently to out siders and to insiders of the given nation being
characterized. The present characterization of Brazilian character, because of frequent
absences from Brazil and immersion in a variety of other cultures, adds the perspectives of
the outsider to those of an insider long concerned with Brazilian identity. Other scholars have
analyzed Brazilian character. Depending on which component of Brazil's complex nature
they emphasized, whether, for example, they took the interior or the coast as pri mary, they
have conceived of Brazil as essentially Dionysian or Apollonian. James Bryce, perhaps the
most sensitive of all foreign students, placed emphasis on the coastal culture and saw Brazil
as basically Apollonian. According to this latter approach, which is akin to the author's own,
the core of Bra zilians' character comprises spiritual volition, adventurousness, and poetical
vision, shared with an important segment of their Portuguese ancestors. However, this Old
World heritage has undergone expansion, differentiation, and creative transmuta tion in the
course of creative synthesis with New World ele ments. Since early days Brazilians have
tended to harmonize idealism with response to reality, political independence with traditional
political forms. In all areas of life in Brazil, the same polarity appears: in music, in
architecture, even in its cuisine and its football. There is every reason to believe that this
process of creative synthesis of old and new will continue as Brazil meets the future.

Q2) Discuss the marketing implications of differing cultural solutions in

terms of the existence of certain products or services, provided by the
market, the state or mutual bodies, organized within the family group or by
a traditional community.

Culture has a great impact on international marketing. A marketer must have to study
about the local culture in-depth before offering a product to them. Because of every
marketing promotion has done to promote the product i.e. communicating product feature to
the customers and influence customers to buy it.

services marketing “is a concept based on a recognition of the uniqueness of all services; it

is a branch of marketing that specifically applies to the service industries”(p. 767).

Marketing in the tourism and hospitality industry requires an understanding of the differences

between marketing goods and marketing services. To be successful in tourism marketing,
organizations need to understand the unique characteristics of their tourism experiences, the
motivations and behaviours of travelling consumers, and the fundamental differences
between marketing goods and services.

The converging needs and wants of customers around the world have created the opportunity
for globalization of markets and have stimulated global competition for global resources and
customers. Firms round the world are expanding their production and marketing activities
beyond national and continental boundaries. Firms require global marketing strategies to
expand to other geographical boundaries but their strategies meet cultural barriers. This
research therefore reviewed various research works on google and google scholar using key
words: culture and international marketing strategies, culture and global marketing strategies
and culture and marketing strategies from 2001 - 2017. Literature reviewed affirmed that
culture has great influence on global marketing strategies such as promotional strategies,
product design, branding, pricing and distribution processes as well as organizational
performance. It is therefore prudent for international marketing managers to take keen
interest in the local cultural characteristics of consumers in their marketing strategies.

Brazil’s culture is a celebration of the country’s rich history, infused with the influence of
diverse ethnic groups over many centuries. In addition to the indigenous Indians and
Portuguese colonists, various immigrants have helped to weave the colourful fabric that is
Brazil’s modern culture today.

For more than 300 years, Brazil was part of the Portuguese Empire, and this foundation
continues to set the country apart from its South American neighbours. The country is the
largest in the world to have Portuguese as its official language, and the only one in South
America.

Brazil is known for its open hospitality and flamboyant events involving music and dance.
Many of these events are rooted in Catholic tradition – not surprising as Brazil boasts the
largest Catholic population in the world.

Family and personal relationships have central importance in Brazilian society and these
values also permeate the way of business. Building strong personal connections with your
business partners, especially before negotiations take place, is often a vital element of
success.

So if you’re impatient, pushy or in a hurry, you will need to rethink your approach. Simply
grab another cup of Brazilian coffee (the national drink of the world’s biggest coffee
producer) and get to know each other a little better first.

The personal touch

Brazilian business relationships are built on trust and it’s important to get to know your
Brazilian partners both professionally and personally. Face-to-face meetings or calls are
preferred over emails. Brazilians love to talk and conversations are often very animated.
Interrupting (on topic) is not necessarily considered rude – it’s often seen as a sign that you’re
interested and involved in the conversation. Overlapping speech, enthusiastic gestures, back
slapping between men and speaking at close quarters – which some could see as “invasion of
personal space” - are quite common.

Good conversation starters include family, football, food, music, Brazil’s natural beauty or its
growing economy - Brazil is regarded as one of the world’s emerging economic powers.
Avoid talking about religion, politics, corruption, poverty, crime and deforestation.

It certainly helps if you are mostly fluent in Portuguese (or hire a translator), because English
is not widely spoken.

Slow down

Brazilians have a more fluid notion of time, meaning they are often late to meetings (but
expect foreigners to be on time). Also, it’s best to plan more time into your schedule than
normal – both for meetings and the negotiation process overall, since activities in Brazil often
take longer than expected, partly due the country’s complex regulations. Meals are regarded
as a celebration and are usually enjoyed at a relaxed pace. Patience is the key at all times –
visible annoyance or pushiness is not appreciated.

Meet and greet in Brazil

It is recommended to make appointments well in advance (2-3 weeks) and confirm them in
writing, as it is common for Brazilians to cancel or reschedule meetings. Upon greeting, men
shake hands and women generally air kiss each other on each cheek. If a woman wishes to
shake hands with a man, she should extend her hand first.

The term ‘Senhor’ is used for men and ‘Senhora’ for women, while single and younger
women are greeted as ‘Senhorita’. Business cards are often exchanged during introductions
and it’s best to have the reverse side of your business card translated into Portuguese.

Start with small talk, showing genuine interest in all participants and maintaining eye contact.
If you are invited to someone’s home, it’s considered polite to bring flowers or a small gift –
but avoid giving handkerchiefs or anything coloured purple or black as these colours are
associated with funerals and mourning.

It’s important to note that businesses in Brazil are typically hierarchical in nature and the
authority to make decisions usually lies with the most senior member of staff, which is
another reason why progress can be slow.
Dress to impress

Brazilians take enormous pride in their appearance and believe that people who put effort into
their presentation also pay good attention to their work. Conservative companies prefer
formal business attire such as dark-coloured suits with a tie for men, and elegant attire for
women. Modern companies allow more casual clothing (but not jeans and t-shirts).
Overdressing is acceptable but underdressing is seen as disrespectful. Make sure your
clothing is smart, your shoes are shiny and your hair and nails are tidy.

It’s also important to show that you are empowered to make decisions for your company. The
Brazilian emphasis on appearance also extends to your hotel of choice. It will not impress
your potential business partners if you choose to stay at a budget hotel.

Brazil's current labour landscape 

Brazilian employees are allowed to work up to 44 hours per week and receive a 13th salary
for Christmas (paid in two parts in November and December).

Maternity leave is four months’ paid leave, with registered companies offering an additional
60 days paid leave which can be deducted from corporate income tax. New fathers can take
up to five days of leave.

Traditionally, men occupied higher professional roles while women were responsible for
domestic affairs, but there are ongoing attempts to change this attitude (such as the Afro-
Brazilian feminist movement). Meanwhile, Egon Zehnder’s ‘Leaders and Daughters Global
Survey, 2017’ ranked Brazilian women as number one globally in ambition and career
development.