90 Dynamics

The position of the center of mass of P1 and P2 is (Fig. 3.12)

m1 r P 1 ‡ m2 r P 2
rC ˆ ;
m1 ‡ m2
where rP 1 and rP 2 are the position vectors of P1 and P2 . Taking the time
derivative of this equation and using Eq. (3.47) one may obtain
…m1 ‡ m2 †v C ˆ m1 v P 1 ‡ m2 v P 2 ˆ constant; …3:48†
Dynamics

where v C ˆ d rC =dt is the velocity of the combined center of mass. The total
linear momentum of the particles is conserved and the velocity of the
combined center of mass of the particles P1 and P2 is constant.

3.13 Impact
Two particles A and B with the velocities v A and v B collide. The velocities of
A and B after the impact are v 0A and v 0B . The effects of external forces are
negligible and the total linear momentum of the particles is conserved (Fig.
3.13):
mA v A ‡ mB v B ˆ mA v 0A ‡ mB v 0B : …3:49†
Furthermore, the velocity v of the center of mass of the particles is the same
before and after the impact:
mA v A ‡ mB v B
vˆ : …3:50†
mA ‡ mB
If A and B remain together after the impact, they are said to undergo a
perfectly plastic impact. Equation (3.50) gives the velocity of the center of
mass of the object they form after the impact (Fig. 3.13b).
If A and B rebound, linear momentum conservation alone does not
provide enough equations to determine the velocities after the impact.

3.13.1 DIRECT CENTRAL IMPACTS

The particles A and B move along a straight line with velocities vA and vB
before their impact (Fig. 3.14a). The magnitude of the force the particles exert
on each other during the impact is R (Fig. 3.14b). The impact force is parallel
to the line along which the particles travel (direct central impact). The
particles continue to move along the same straight line after their impact
(Fig. 3.14c). The effects of external forces during the impact are negligible,
and the total linear momentum is conserved:
mA vA ‡ mB vB ˆ mA v0A ‡ mB v0B : …3:51†
Another equation is needed to determine the velocities v0A and v0B .
Let t1 be the time at which A and B ®rst come into contact (Fig. 3.14a).
As a result of the impact, the objects will deform. At the time tm the particles
will have reached the maximum compression (period of compression,
t1 < t < tm ; Fig. 3.14b). At this time the relative velocity of the particles is
zero, so they have the same velocity, vm . The particles then begin to move
apart and separate at a time t2 (Fig. 3.14c). The second period, from the
3. Dynamics of a Particle 91

Dynamics
Figure 3.13

Figure 3.14
 92 Dynamics

maximum compression to the instant at which the particles separate, is

termed the period of restitution, tm < t < t2 .
The principle of impulse and momentum is applied to A during the inter-
vals of time from t1 to the time of closest approach tm and also from tm to t2 ,
… tm
ÿFc dt ˆ mA vm ÿ mA vA …3:52†
t1
… t2
Dynamics

ÿFr dt ˆ mA v0A ÿ mA vm ; …3:53†

tm

where Fc is the magnitude of the contact force during the compression phase
and Fr is the magnitude of the contact force during the restitution phase.
Then the principle of impulse and momentum is applied to B for the
same intervals of time:
… tm
Fc ‡ dt ˆ mB vm ÿ mB vB …3:54†
t1
… t2
Fr dt ˆ mB v0B ÿ mB vm ; …3:55†
tm

As a result of the impact, part of the kinetic energy of the particles can be lost
(because of a permanent deformation, generation of heat and sound, etc.).
The impulse during the restitution phase of the impact from tm to t2 is in
general smaller than the impulse during the compression phase t1 to tm .
The ratio of these impulses is called the coef®cient of restitution (this
de®nition was introduced by Poisson):
„ t2
t Fr dt
e ˆ „ tmm : …3:56†
t Fc dt
1

The value of the coef®cient of restitution depends on the properties of the

objects as well as their velocities and orientations when they collide, and it
can be determined by experiment or by a detailed analysis of the deforma-
tions of the objects during the impact.
If Eq. (3.53) is divided by Eq. (3.52) and Eq. (3.55) is divided by
Eq. (3.54), the resulting equations are
…vm ÿ vA †e ˆ v0A ÿ vm
…vm ÿ vB †e ˆ v0B ÿ vm :
If the ®rst equation is subtracted from the second one, the coef®cient of
restitution is
v0B ÿ v0A
eˆ : …3:57†
v A ÿ vB
Thus, the coef®cient of restitution is related to the relative velocities of the
objects before and after the impact (this is the kinematic de®nition of e
introduced by Newton). If the coef®cient of restitution e is known, Eq. (3.57)
together with the equation of conservation of linear momentum, Eq. (3.51),
may be used to determine v0A and v0B .
3. Dynamics of a Particle 93

If e ˆ 0 in Eq. (3.57), then v0B ˆ v0A and the objects remain together after
the impact. The impact is perfectly plastic.
If e ˆ 1, the total kinetic energy is the same before and after the impact:
1 1 1 1
m v2 ‡ m v2 ˆ m …v0 †2 ‡ mB …v0B †2 :
2 A A 2 B B 2 A A 2
An impact in which kinetic energy is conserved is called perfectly elastic.

Dynamics
3.13.2 OBLIQUE CENTRAL IMPACTS
Two small spheres A and B with the masses mA and mB approach with
arbitrary velocities v A and v B (Fig. 3.15a). The initial velocities are not
parallel, but they are in the same plane.

Figure 3.15

The forces they exert on each other during their impact are parallel to the
n axis (center line axis) and point toward their centers of mass (Fig. 3.15b).
There are no forces in the t direction at the contact point (tangent direction at
the contact point). The velocities in the t direction are unchanged by the
impact:
…v 0A †t ˆ …v A †t and …v 0B †t ˆ …v B †t : …3:58†
In the n direction the linear momentum is conserved:
mA …v A †n ‡ mB …v B †n ˆ mA …v 0A †n ‡ mB …v 0B †n : …3:59†
 94 Dynamics

The coef®cient of restitution is de®ned as

…v 0B †n ÿ …v 0A †n
eˆ : …3:60†
…v A †n ÿ …v B †n
If B is a stationary object (®xed relative to the earth), then
…v 0A †n ˆ ÿe…v A †n :
Dynamics

3.14 Principle of Angular Impulse and Momentum

The position of a particle P of mass m relative to an inertial reference frame
with origin O is given by the position vector r ˆ OP (Fig. 3.16). The cross
product of Newton's second law with the position vector r is
dv
r  F ˆ r  ma ˆ r  m : …3:61†
dt

Figure 3.16

The time derivative of the quantity r  mv is

   
d dr dv dv
…r  mv† ˆ  mv ‡ r  m ˆrm ;
dt dt dt dt
because d r=dt ˆ v, and the cross product of parallel vectors is zero.
Equation (3.61) may be written as
d HO
rFˆ ; …3:62†
dt
where the vector
HO ˆ r  mv …3:63†
is called the angular momentum about O (Fig. 3.16). The angular momen-
tum may be interpreted as the moment of the linear momentum of the
particle about point O. The moment r  F equals the rate of change of the
moment of momentum about point O.