energies
Article
Influence of Fins Number and Frosting on Heat Transfer through
Longitudinal Finned Tubes of LNG Ambient Air Vaporizers
Filip Lisowski 1, * and Edward Lisowski 2






Citation: Lisowski, F.; Lisowski, E.
Influence of Fins Number and
Frosting on Heat Transfer through
Longitudinal Finned Tubes of LNG
Ambient Air Vaporizers. Energies
2022, 15, 280. https://doi.org/
10.3390/en15010280
Academic Editors: Paweł Ocłoń
and Francisco P. Brito
Received: 20 October 2021
Accepted: 8 December 2021
Published: 1 January 2022
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4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 280. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010280
1 Department of Machine Design and Composite Structures, Cracow University of Technology,
ul. Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
2 Department of Applied Informatics, Cracow University of Technology, ul. Warszawska 24,
31-155 Cracow, Poland; edward.lisowski@pk.edu.pl
* Correspondence: filip.lisowski@pk.edu.pl
Abstract: The use of cryogenic liquefied gasses in industry is constantly increasing both for process
purposes and for power supply needs. The liquefied natural gas (LNG) is stored at cryogenic
temperature and its immediate use in gaseous form requires its evaporation. The heat needed to
cause a phase change is usually delivered by means of vaporizers. This paper presents a numerical
analysis of the influence of the fins number and frost accumulated within the fins surface on the heat
transferred through the aluminum finned tubes of LNG ambient air vaporizers. The calculations
were carried out applying finite element thermal analysis within Ansys software as well as using
an analytical approach. As a result, the heat rate per unit length of the finned tube was obtained.
The results were compared for different numbers of longitudinal fins both without frost and for total
frosting of the tubes.
Keywords: ambient air vaporizers; longitudinal finned tubes; liquefied natural gas; frosting
1. Introduction
Natural gas in liquid form is commonly known as LNG. It has a number of advantages
and its use continues to increase both for stationary and mobile applications. Liquefied
natural gas is stored at a low temperature under pressure. Small and medium storage
tanks of double-wall construction are insulated by vacuum and highly efficient cryogenic
insulations [1]. A system of internal supports is also necessary to limit the heat leakage into
the tank [2]. For the direct use of natural gas there is usually a need to obtain a gaseous
phase. This is achieved by providing an appropriate amount of heat. The heat in LNG
regasification stations is delivered by means of vaporizers. The most popular are ambient
air vaporizers with longitudinal finned tubes. Such vaporizers have the form of a block, the
height of which depends on the length of finned tubes, while the transverse dimensions
are determined by the number of tubes in rows and the distance between them. Aluminum
alloys are the basic materials in the construction of finned tubes, due to their high thermal
conductivity and the possibility of extruding fins of relatively large dimensions. Vaporizers
are designed for a wide range of applications, both mobile and stationary. Finned tubes can
be arranged either vertically or horizontally. Therefore, in addition to offering sufficient
evaporation efficiency, the vaporizers must meet the appropriate strength requirements.
While designing their construction, an impact of climate including wind actions, seismic
forces and the accumulation of frost should be taken into account. Due to the frost formation,
the mechanical load on the finned tubes increases, the space between them decreases and
the vaporizer efficiency is significantly reduced. For ambient air vaporizers installed
outdoors, it is difficult to determine the exact theoretical relations describing the operating
parameters due to the variable working conditions depending on climate. Problems related
to the design and operation of longitudinal finned tube vaporizers have been of interest to
the authors of several publications and patents. The authors of publication [3] proposed
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2022, 15, 280 2 of 14

the analytical model of the frost formation for a one-dimensional problem. A relation
between air humidity and temperature of a cold flat surface as well as a relation between
air velocity and thickness of a frost layer were determined. In the paper [4], the results
of numerical and experimental analyses, including the correlation between the thickness
of the frost layer, temperature inside the tube, an angle between fins and their thickness,
were presented. The selected relations of the above parameters were proposed for optimal
design of vaporizers. The coupled dynamic model of frost formation and flow boiling heat
transfer of LNG was presented in paper [5]. One of the main conclusions of the above
study was that the thermal resistance of the frost layer increased with the operation time
and is the major factor affecting the temperature of finned tube walls. In the paper [6], the
results of an experimental study on frost formation within the finned tubes array were
reported. Based on visual observations during the frost formation, it was found that if the
part of the fin surface had temperature above the freezing point but still below the dew
point, the moist air condensed on the upper part of the fin while frost was formed nearby
the fin base. As a result, the thickness of the frost at the base of the fins was greater than
at the tip. Another approach to determine the operating parameters of vaporizers was
to use finite element analysis and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software. In the
paper [7], the numerical modeling of the laminar free convection of air around a horizontal
cylinder with external longitudinal fins was presented. It was concluded that using a
greater number of fins with shorter lengths resulted in better heat transfer. The authors of
paper [8] presented simulation results of convective heat transfer related to a horizontal
finned tube. A new treatment of the boundary conditions on the outer side of the finned
tube was proposed. The obtained relative errors of the average Nusselt number of the
laminar natural convection were less than 0.5% in comparison to the reference solutions. It
was also shown that for a specific number of fins, there was an optimum fin height which
provided maximum heat transfer. CFD analysis results of the ambient air vaporizer finned
tube of the one meter length were presented by the authors of paper [9]. The ambient
air was considered to be dry and the nitrogen was accepted as a cryogenic liquid. As a
result, the relationship of the Rayleigh number and the Nusselt number was obtained,
which was proportional within a certain range. In the paper [10], the CFD analysis was
involved in order to verify the experimental results concerning heat transfer through the
outer surface of longitudinal finned tube made of aluminum. The analysis referred to the
distribution of heat transfer coefficients on the pipe perimeter and along the pipe. In the
study [11], the methodology of determining optimal geometric parameters of longitudinal
finned tubes with wavy fins was presented. The tubes belonged to the outdoor heat pump
evaporator operating under wind induced air flow. Thermal calculations were performed
by modeling a mixed convection process applying finite volume method within Ansys
Fluent CFD software. The authors of paper [12] analyzed the heat transfer between ambient
air and LNG under supercritical pressure conditions. Heat transfer performance of AVV
and optimal fin configurations were investigated applying CFD modeling. The author of
paper [13] presented the application of CFD analysis to predict the condition of fog cloud
formation, and dispersion around the array consisted of six ambient air vaporizers.
Taking into account the modern construction of ambient air vaporizers and current
technological capabilities, various types of tube profiles are used in their construction.
Typical solutions are based on the use of longitudinal finned tubes. In general, theoretical
analyses show that the greater the fin radius and the higher the number of fins, the higher
the efficiency of the vaporizer. However, the number of fins is limited due to the small
amount of space around the central pipe perimeter. Excessive increases in the fin radius
also result in a loss of stability due to external influences such as wind loads. There were
several patented solutions for stiffening the fins and improving the efficiency of cryogenic
vaporizers. Due to the vaporizer efficiency improvement, the configurations of arrays
including the tubes with various number of fins were presented in the patent [14]. The
author of patent [15] described the structure of the ambient air vaporizer with longitudinally
finned tubes, which had rails on their fins designed for assembling them with the use of
 of the vaporizer. However, the number of fins is limited due to the small amount of space
around the central pipe perimeter. Excessive increases in the fin radius also result in a loss of
stability due to external influences such as wind loads. There were several patented solutions
for stiffening the fins and improving the efficiency of cryogenic vaporizers. Due to the
Energies 2022, 15, 280 vaporizer efficiency improvement, the configurations of arrays including the tubes 3with of 14
various number of fins were presented in the patent [14]. The author of patent [15] described
the structure of the ambient air vaporizer with longitudinally finned tubes, which had rails
on their fins
channel designed
brackets, whichforsignificantly
assemblingprevented
them with thethe use ofof channel
rotation tubes. Thebrackets, which
inner surface
significantly prevented the rotation of tubes. The inner surface of
of the tube was additionally notched to increase the heat transfer area. The author of the tube was additionally
notched to increase
patent [16] proposed the toheat transfer
place area.
a solid rodThewithauthor of patent [16]length
a predetermined proposed to place
within a solid
the central
rod with aofpredetermined
opening the tube in order length within the rate
to increase central opening
of heat of the
transfer tube inthe
between order to increase
cryogenic fluid
the
in rate of heat
its vapor transfer
phase andbetween
the ambientthe cryogenic
air. fluid in its vapor phase and the ambient air.
The
Thepurpose
purpose ofof
this paper
this paperwaswasthethe
useuseof finite element
of finite element thermal
thermalanalysis to determine
analysis to determinethe
heat rate per unit length of the longitudinal finned tubes and compare
the heat rate per unit length of the longitudinal finned tubes and compare how it decreased how it decreased due
todue
frosttoformation. An impact
frost formation. Anofimpact
the finsofnumber
the finsand frosting
number was
and considered
frosting was in the analysis.
considered in
For the case of frosting, the most unfavorable conditions of operation
the analysis. For the case of frosting, the most unfavorable conditions of operation were were accepted for
calculations.
accepted for It calculations.
was assumed It that
was heat is transferred
assumed that heatto the finned tubestobythe
is transferred natural
finned convection
tubes by
and the tubes were entirely covered by frost. Numerical solution
natural convection and the tubes were entirely covered by frost. Numerical solution was verified by means wasof
convergence tests. Inofturn,
verified by means for the case
convergence of noInfrosting,
tests. turn, forthe thenumerical
case of no analysis was
frosting, theadditionally
numerical
verified
analysis with
wasan analytical approach.
additionally verified with an analytical approach.

2.2.Object
ObjectofofStudy
Study
Six
Sixcross-sections ofof
cross-sections longitudinal
longitudinalfinned tubes
finned differing
tubes in the
differing number
in the of fins
number around
of fins the
around
perimeter were were
the perimeter accepted for analysis
accepted as shown
for analysis in Figure
as shown 1.
in Figure 1.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure
Figure1. 1.
Cross-sections
Cross-sectionsof tubes (t = 2.5
of tubes (t =mm,
2.5 Rmm,
= 100
R mm)
= 100with:
mm)(a)with:
4 fins;(a)
(b)46fins;
fins; (b)
(c) 86 fins;
fins;(d)
(c)12
8 fins;
fins;
(e) 16 fins; (f) 20 fins.
(d) 12 fins; (e) 16 fins; (f) 20 fins.

The number of fins n, outer radius R and fin thickness t were taken as n = {4, 6, 8, 12, 16,
20}, R = {50, 75, 100, 125, 150} mm and t = {1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5} mm resulting in 150 different
geometry variations. Because of the relatively large height of the fins with respect to their
thickness, all fins had cylindrical stiffening rails at the tips of the fins with radius r = t.
Longitudinal finned tubes of ambient air vaporizers are placed at specific distances
from each other. This distance provides a space for the airflow, but also is a space where
the frost is accumulated. Figure 2 shows the finned tubes during vaporizer operation. The
tubes in the first row are entirely covered by frost. The layer of frost which covers the
tube can have an irregular outline of the outer surface. For the purpose of the analysis in
this study, it was assumed that the sections of tubes under consideration were completely
covered by frost with the cylindrical outer surfaces as shown in Figure 3.
 20}, Reach
= {50,other.
75, 100,This
125, distance
150} mm and provides
t = {1.5, a space
2.0, for3.5}
2.5, 3.0, themm airflow, but
resulting in also is a space wher
150 different
geometry variations. Because of the relatively large height of the fins
is accumulated. Figure 2 shows the finned tubes during vaporizer operation. with respect to their The tu
thickness, all fins had cylindrical stiffening rails at the tips of the fins with radius
first row are entirely covered by frost. The layer of frost which covers the tube ca r = t.
Longitudinal finned tubes of ambient air vaporizers are placed at specific distances from
irregular outline of the outer surface. For the purpose of the analysis in this stud
each other. This distance provides a space for the airflow, but also is a space where the frost
Energies 2022, 15, 280 assumed that the sections of tubes under consideration were The
completely 4covered
of 14 by
is accumulated. Figure 2 shows the finned tubes during vaporizer operation. tubes in the
the cylindrical
first row outer surfaces
are entirely covered by frost. Theas shown
layer of in Figure
frost which3. covers the tube can have an
irregular outline of the outer surface. For the purpose of the analysis in this study, it was
assumed that the sections of tubes under consideration were completely covered by frost with
the cylindrical outer surfaces as shown in Figure 3.

Figure
Figure
Figure 2. 2.
2. Finned Finned
Finned tubes
tubestubes
of LNG of LNG
of LNG airambient
ambient
ambient air vaporizer
air vaporizer
vaporizer totallytotally
covered totally
covered
by bycovered
frost. frost. by frost.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 3. Cross-sections
Figure of theof
3. Cross-sections tubes (t = 2.5(tmm,
the tubes = 2.5R mm,
= 100Rmm) with:
= 100 mm) (a)with:
4 fins;(a)
(b)4 6fins;
fins;(b)
(c)68fins;
fins; (c)
(d)812fins;
fins; (d)
(e) 12
16 fins;
fins; (e)
(f) 20 fins entirely covered by frost.
16 fins; (f) 20 fins entirely covered by frost.

(d) Finned Tubes

3. Heat Transfer through (e) (f)
The3.heat
Figure transferred through
Cross-sections the finned
of the tubes tube
(t = 2.5 without
mm, frosting
R = 100 can be(a)
mm) with: estimated using
4 fins; (b) 6 fins; (c) 8
an analytical approach [17]. Heat transferred through
fins; (e) 16 fins; (f) 20 fins entirely covered by frost. the outer surface of the finned tube
from the ambient air at temperature To to the liquid at temperature Ti can be calculated
using Equation (1), where To > Ti . Both the heat transferred by the fins surfaces and the
heat transferred by the surfaces between the fins are taken into account.

Q = ho Ao ( To − Ti ) (1)

where: Q—heat [W], ho —heat transfer coefficient related to the outer surface of the tube
[W/(m2 K)], Ao —outer surface area of the tube without fins [m2 ].
Figure 4 presents an auxiliary diagram for determining the heat transfer coefficient
related to the outer surface of the tube.
 Equation (1), where To > Ti. Both the heat transferred by the fins surfaces and the heat
transferred by the surfaces between the fins are taken into account.
𝑄 =ℎ 𝐴 𝑇 −𝑇 (1)
where: Q—heat [W], ho—heat transfer coefficient related to the outer surface of the tube
[W/(m2K)], Ao—outer surface area of the tube without fins [m2].
Energies 2022, 15, 280 5 of 14
Figure 4 presents an auxiliary diagram for determining the heat transfer coefficient
related to the outer surface of the tube.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Diagram
Diagram for
for determining
determiningthe
theheat
heattransfer
transfercoefficient.
coefficient.

The heat
The heat transfer
transfer coefficient
coefficient hhoo related
related to
to the
theouter
outersurface
surfaceofofthe
thetube
tubewithout
withoutfins
finsisis
calculated considering
calculated that the temperature drop (Too −−TTi)i )include
considering that includefour
fourtemperature
temperaturedrops:
drops:
•● Temperature
Temperaturedropdroprelated
relatedtotothe
thetemperature
temperatureofofthethemedium
mediumT Tand
i
i and the temperature of
the temperature of
the inner surface of the sediment
the inner surface of the sediment Ts : T s:

𝑞
𝑇 − 𝑇| = .
qs (2)
𝛼
Ti − T |r=rs = (2)
● Because for a circular tube there are relations asαi given by Equations (3) and (4), the
temperature drop from Equation (2) takes the form indicated in Equation (5).
• Because for a circular 𝑄= tube there
𝑞 2𝜋𝑟 𝐻 =are relations
𝑞 2𝜋𝑟 𝐻 = 𝑞as2𝜋𝑟 given
𝐻 by Equations (3) and (4), the
temperature drop from Equation (2) takes the form indicated in Equation (5). (3)
𝑞. 𝑟 = 𝑞 𝑟 = .𝑞 𝑟 .
Q = qs 2πrs H = qi 2πri H = qo 2πro H (4)(3)
. .𝑞 𝑟 .
𝑇 − 𝑇q|s rs ==qi ri = qo ro (5)(4)
𝑟𝛼
.
where: 𝑞 —heat flux density at the sediment layer [W/m q ro2], 𝑞 —heat flux density at the inner
Ti − Ts |r=rs = o (5)
surface of the tube [W/m ], 𝑞 —heat flux density at the
2
ri αouter
i surface of the tube [W/m2], H—
tube length [m],
. rs—inner radius of the sediment layer [m], ri—inner . radius of the tube [m],
where: qs —heat flux density at the sediment layer [W/m2 ], qi —heat flux density at the
ro—outer radius of the tube [m], αi—heat
. transfer coefficient at the inner surface of the tube
inner surface of the tube [W/m2 ], qo —heat flux density at the outer surface of the tube
[W/(m2K)]. 2
[W/m ], H—tube length [m], rs —inner radius of the sediment layer [m], ri —inner
● Temperature drop in the sediment layer:
radius of the tube [m], ro —outer radius𝑞of𝑡 the 𝑞tube 𝑟 𝑡[m], αi —heat transfer coefficient at
the inner surface of the𝑇|tube −𝑇|
[W/(m2≈ K)].𝛼 ≈ 𝑟 𝜆 (6)
• Temperature drop in the sediment layer: 𝑡
𝑅 = (7)
𝜆 . .
q
2 s s
t q r t
o o s
where: Rs—thermal resistance of T |rsediment
=rs − T |r =[(m
ri ≈ K)/W], ≈ ts—thickness of the sediment layer
(6)
[mm], λs—thermal conductivity of the sediment [W/(mK)].ri λs
α i

ts
Rs = (7)
λs
where: Rs —thermal resistance of sediment [(m2 K)/W], ts —thickness of the sediment
layer [mm], λs —thermal conductivity of the sediment [W/(mK)].
Considering Equation (7) in Equation (6), the temperature drop in the sediment layer is:
.
q ro
T |r =r s − T |r =ri = o Rs (8)
ri

• Temperature drop across the wall thickness of the tube:

.
q ro ro
T |r =ri − T |r =r o = o ln (9)
λ ri

where: λ—thermal conductivity [W/(mK)].

Energies 2022, 15, 280 6 of 14

• Temperature drop between the outer surface of the tube and the ambient air is:
.
qo
T |r=ri − To = (10)
αr

where: αr —reduced heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2 K)].

After adding the temperature drops, given by Equations (5) and (8)–(10) the tempera-
ture drop (Ti − To ) is obtained as follows:
. . . .
q ro q ro q ro ro q
Ti − To = o + o Rs + o ln + o (11)
ri αi ri λ ri αr

From the definition of the heat transfer coefficient it follows that:

.
qo
Ti − To = (12)
ho

From Equations (11) and (12) results that:

. . . . .
qo q ro q ro q ro ro q
= o + o Rs + o ln + o (13)
ho ri αi ri λ ri αr

Hence, the heat transfer coefficient ho related to the outer surface of the tube is obtained
from Equation (14) as follows:

1 ro 1 ro ro ro 1
= + Rs + ln + (14)
ho ri αi ri λ ri αr

The reduced heat transfer coefficient αr and the efficiency of the fin η f can be calculated
using Equations (15) and (16).

Ab f Af
 
αr = α o + η (15)
Ao Ao f

tanh(mLc )
ηf = (16)
mLc
where: Ao —outer surface area of the tube [m2 ], Af —surface area of fins [m2 ], Abf —surface
area of tube between fins [m2 ], Lc —fin height [m], t—fin thickness [m], η f —fin efficiency.
For a constant value of thermal conductivity λ and a constant cross-sectional area of
the fin A, the differential equation describing the heat transfer in the fin is of the form:

d2 T
− m( T − To ) = 0 (17)
dx2
The fin parameter m is given as follows:

αo P
m2 = (18)
λA

where: P—fin circumference [m], A—cross sectional area of the fin [m2 ].
For a straight fin, the circuit over which the heat exchange takes place is:

P = 2( w + t ) (19)

where: w—fin length [m], t—fin thickness [m].

 Energies 2022, 15, 280 7 of 14

Because for the cases under consideration t << w, the fin parameter is in the form:

2αo (w + t) 2αo
m2 = ≈ (20)
λwt λt
Energies 2022, 15, x 7 of 14
Finally, the fin parameter m and the fin height Lc , which includes the heat transfer at
the tip of the fin, are given as follows:
r
2αo t
𝑚 = m =, 𝐿, L
=c 𝐿=+L + (21) (21)
λt 2
where:
where: L—actual
L—actual length of the
length fin fin
of the [m].[m].
AnAn influence of a sediment
influence of a sediment layerlayer collected
collectedononthe inner
the inner surface
surfaceofofthe
thetube
tubecan
canbebetaken
taken
into account by accepting a resistance R s in the calculations. In contrast, due to the complex
into account by accepting a resistance Rs in the calculations. In contrast, due to the complex
geometry,
geometry, thethe
effect
effectof of
deposits
deposits onon the
theouter
outersurfaces
surfacesofofthe
thefinned
finnedtube
tubeononthetheheat
heattransfer
transfer
cannot
cannot be estimated using the quoted analytical solution. In such a case, the useofoffinite
be estimated using the quoted analytical solution. In such a case, the use finite
element
element method
method cancanbe abe
more practical
a more approach,
practical which
approach, allows
which the complex
allows geometry
the complex to be
geometry
taken
to beinto account
taken into in the thermal
account in theanalysis.
thermal Ifanalysis.
the finned tubes
If the are covered
finned tubes areby covered
a frost layer
by awith
frost
anlayer
irregular outer surface, this can be also easily taken into account.
with an irregular outer surface, this can be also easily taken into account.

4. Finite Element
4. Finite Analysis
Element Analysis
The analysis
The analysisconcerned
concernedthe the
sections of longitudinal
sections of longitudinalfinned tubes
finned withwith
tubes a length of 1 m.
a length of All
1 m.
theAll
tubes’ profiles
the tubes’ were analyzed,
profiles both without
were analyzed, frostingfrosting
both without as wellasaswell
entirely coveredcovered
as entirely by frost.by
A transient thermal analysis
frost. A transient thermal was carried
analysis wasout usingout
carried ANSYS
usingsoftware. An alternative
ANSYS software. could be
An alternative
a steady-state thermal analysis.
could be a steady-state However,
thermal in this
analysis. case, it would
However, in thisbe necessary
case, to experimentally
it would be necessary to
determine
experimentally determine the temperature at the outer surface of the tubesanalyzed,
the temperature at the outer surface of the tubes for each of the cases for each ofandthe
then it would be necessary to define the temperature as a boundary
cases analyzed, and then it would be necessary to define the temperature as a boundary condition in the FEA
thermal analysis.
condition in theShell
FEAelements of 8-nodesShell
thermal analysis. wereelements
used. The of mesh
8-nodesaccepted for analysis
were used. The meshis
shown in Figure 5 for the example of the tube with 8 fins. The mesh with
accepted for analysis is shown in Figure 5 for the example of the tube with 8 fins. The mesh the same size of
elements
with the was accepted
same size offor all calculation
elements cases. for all calculation cases.
was accepted

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Mesh
Figure of the
5. Mesh tubetube
of the withwith
8 fins: (a) without
8 fins: frost,frost,
(a) without (b) entirely covered
(b) entirely by frost.
covered by frost.

4.1.4.1. Assumptions
Assumptions for for Thermal
Thermal Analysis
Analysis
The
The following
following assumptions
assumptions were
were made
made for finite
for finite element
element thermal
thermal analysis:
analysis:
● • The
The tubes
tubes were
were made
made of aluminum
of aluminum alloy
alloy of thermal
of thermal conductivity
conductivity shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 6; 6;
• The internal surface of the central pipe had a constant temperature of − 160 ◦ C;
● The internal surface of the central pipe had a constant temperature of −160 °C;
● • The
The ambient
ambient temperature
temperature waswas equal
equal 20 ◦ C;
to°C;
to 20
● The external surface of finned tube or frost layer exchanged heat with the environment
by the convection with convection coefficient of 7 W/(m2 °C);
Energies 2022, 15, 280 8 of 14

Energies 2022, 15, x 8 of 14

Energies 2022, 15, x • The external surface of finned tube or frost layer exchanged heat with the environment
8 of 14
by the convection with convection coefficient of 7 W/(m2 ◦ C);
• The thermal conductivity coefficient of the frost was assumed to be constant with an
● The thermal conductivity coefficient of the frost was assumed to be constant with an
● average
The thermal W/(m ◦ C) of
value equal to 0.2 coefficient [18].
average valueconductivity
equal to 0.2 W/(m °C) [18]. the frost was assumed to be constant with an
average value equal to 0.2 W/(m °C) [18].

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Thermal
Thermalconductivity
conductivityofofaluminum
aluminumalloy
alloy[19].
[19].
Figure 6. Thermal conductivity of aluminum alloy [19].
4.2. Mesh
4.2. Mesh Validation
Validation
4.2. Mesh
The Validation ofofnumerical
The convergence
convergence numericalsolution
solution waswas tested
tested in in order
order to verify
to verify results
results obtained
obtained only
only by
The means of
convergence finite element
of numerical analysis.
solution The convergence
was tested in of
order
by means of finite element analysis. The convergence of all obtained results arose from all obtained
to verify results
results arose
obtained from
only
the
the
by mesh
means refinement.
of finite The
element convergence
analysis. The of the numerical
convergence of solution
all obtained
mesh refinement. The convergence of the numerical solution was tested concerning total heat was tested
results concerning
arose from the
total
mesh
on heat on
therefinement.the
outer surface outer
The surface
ofconvergence of finned
finned tubesoforthe tubes or
onnumerical on the
the outer solutionouter
surface of surface
was of
tested
frost frost in
concerning
in the the function
functiontotal heat
of mesh
of
onmesh
refinement refinement
the outer surface
steps. steps.
Stepofzero Step
finned zero
tubesreferred
referred toorrough
on thetomesh.
rough mesh.
outerInsurface In
ofeach
each subsequentfrostsubsequent
in the refinement
function
refinement of mesh
step, the
step,
size ofthe
refinement size
finite of finite
steps. Step was
elements elements
zero referred
twice was
as to twice
rough
small as as
forsmall
mesh. as forsubsequent
theInpreceding
each thestep.
preceding
Due tostep.
refinement Due
step,to
the geometric the
the
sizegeometric
of finite
similarity of the similarity
elements
models,was of twice
the models,
convergence as small
of theconvergence
as for thewas
solution oftested
the solution
preceding onstep. wastotested
Due
the example the on the
geometric
of three tube
example
similarity
sections ofofthree
with the tube sections
models,
number of fins n with
= {4, number
convergence 8, of
16}the of
and fins
solution n= {4, tested
was
parameters 8,t 16}
= 2.5and
onmm parameters
the example
and R = 100 t =three
of 2.5 mm
mm. tube
The
and R
sections= 100
with mm.numberThe results
of fins n of
= mesh
{4, 8, validation
16} and are
parameters shown t = in
2.5
results of mesh validation are shown in Figure 7. For all of the considered cases, the mesh Figure
mm and 7.R For
= 100all
mm.of the
The
considered
results of cases,
mesh the mesh
validation after
are 6 steps
shown inof refinement
Figure 7. For was
all
after 6 steps of refinement was accepted as the mesh providing converged solution. accepted
of the as the
considered mesh
cases,providing
the mesh
converged
after 6 stepssolution.
of refinement was accepted as the mesh providing converged solution.

Figure 7. Total heat depending on the mesh refinement.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Total
Total heat
heat depending
depending on
on the
the mesh
meshrefinement.
refinement.
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4.3. Results
4.3. Resultsand
andDiscussion
Discussion
4.3. Results and Discussion
4.3. Results
The and
The results Discussion
resultsofof finite element
finite thermal
element analysis
thermal were presented
analysis as temperature
were presented distribu-
as temperature
The
tionsThe resultsin of
as shown finite8–13.
Figures element
The thermal
heat analysis
transferred were one
through presented
meter as temperature
distributionsresults of
as shown finite element
in Figures thermal
8–13. The analysis
heat were through
transferred presented onelength
as oflength
finnedof
temperature
meter
distributions
tube and as
theand shown
heat in Figures 8–13. The were
heat presented
transferredinthrough one meter length of
finned tube
distributions as thedecrease
shown heat due to8–13.
in decrease
Figures frosting
due toThe
frosting were presented
heat transferred theinform
through oneof
the graphs
form in Fig-
of graphs
meter length in
of
finned tube
ures 14–19. and
The the
graphs heat decrease due to frosting were presented in the form of graphs in
finned
Figures tube and
14–19. The heatinclude
thegraphs decrease
include analytical
due to and
analytical andFEA
frosting
FEA results
were for
forthe
presented
results thecase without
in the
case form frosting
without of graphs
frosting andin
and
Figures 14–19. The
FEA results
results graphs include analytical and FEA results for the case without frosting and
FEA
Figures 14–19.for thegraphs
The case
case ofof total
totalfrosting
include frostingofofand
analytical the
thelongitudinal
longitudinal
FEA finned
results for finned tubes.
the case tubes. Comparing
without frosting the
Comparing the
and
FEA results
analytical for
and the case of total frosting of the longitudinal finned tubes. Comparing the
FEA results
analytical andforFEA
the results
case offor the
total case
case without
thefrosting of thefrosting,
without aagood
longitudinal
frosting, good conformity
finned tubes. of
conformity ofthe
theobtained
Comparing the
obtained
analytical
values can and
canand FEA results for the case without frosting, a good conformity of the obtained
beobserved.
observed.
analytical
values be FEA results for the case without frosting, a good conformity of the obtained
values can be observed.
values can be observed.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 8.
8. Temperature
Temperaturedistribution:
distribution:(a)
(a)4 4fins—no
fins—nofrost,
frost,(b)
(b)4 4fins
finswith
withfrost.
frost.
Figure 8. Temperature distribution: (a) 4 fins—no frost, (b) 4 fins with frost.
Figure 8. Temperature distribution: (a) 4 fins—no frost, (b) 4 fins with frost.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure9. Temperature distribution: (a) 6 fins—no frost, (b) 6 fins with frost.
Figure9.
Figure 9.Temperature
Temperaturedistribution:
distribution:(a)(a)
6 fins—no frost,
6 fins—no (b)(b)
frost, 6 fins with
6 fins frost.
with frost.
Figure9. Temperature distribution: (a) 6 fins—no frost, (b) 6 fins with frost.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Temperature distribution: (a) 8 fins—no frost, (b) 8 fins with frost.
Figure 10. Temperature distribution: (a) 8 fins—no frost, (b) 8 fins with frost.
Figure
Figure10.
10.Temperature
Temperaturedistribution:
distribution:(a)(a)8 8fins—no frost,
fins—no (b)(b)
frost, 8 fins with
8 fins frost.
with frost.
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(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 11. Temperature distribution: (b)
(a) 12 fins—no frost, (b) 12 fins with frost.
Figure11.
Figure Temperaturedistribution:
11.Temperature distribution:(a)
(a)1212fins—no
fins—nofrost,
frost,(b)
(b)
1212 fins
fins with
with frost.
frost.
Figure 11. Temperature distribution: (a) 12 fins—no frost, (b) 12 fins with frost.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 12. Temperature distribution: (b)
(a) 16 fins—no frost, (b) 16 fins with frost.
Figure
Figure12.
12.Temperature
Temperaturedistribution:
distribution:(a)
(a)1616fins—no
fins—nofrost,
frost,(b) 1616
(b) fins with
fins frost.
with frost.
Figure 12. Temperature distribution: (a) 16 fins—no frost, (b) 16 fins with frost.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 13. Temperature distribution: (b)
(a) 20 fins—no frost, (b) 20 fins with frost.
Figure 13. Temperature distribution: (a) 20 fins—no frost, (b) 20 fins with frost.
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Temperature
Temperaturedistribution:
distribution:(a)
(a)2020fins—no
fins—nofrost,
frost,(b)
(b)2020fins
finswith
withfrost.
frost.
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(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 14.
14. (a)
(a) Heat
Heat transferred
(a)
transferred through
through the
the 11 m length of
m length of the
the finned
finned tube
tube with
with
(b)44 fins,
fins, (b)
(b) Heat
Heat decrease
decrease
Figure
due to 14. (a) Heat transferred through the 1 m length of the finned tube with 4 fins, (b) Heat decrease
due to frosting.
Figure frosting.
14. (a) Heat transferred through the 1 m length of the finned tube with 4 fins, (b) Heat decrease
due to frosting.
due to frosting.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 15. (a) Heat transferred
(a) through the 1 m length of the finned tube with
(b)6 fins, (b) Heat decrease
Figure
due 15. (a) Heat transferred through the 1 m length of the finned
to frosting. finned tube
tube with
with 66 fins,
fins, (b)
(b)Heat
Heatdecrease
decrease
Figure
due to 15. (a) Heat transferred through the 1 m length of the finned tube with 6 fins, (b) Heat decrease
frosting.
due to frosting.
due to frosting.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 16. (a) Heat transferred
(a) through the 1 m length of the finned tube with
(b)8 fins, (b) Heat decrease
Figure
due 16. (a) Heat transferred through the 1 m length of the finned tube with 8 fins, (b) Heat decrease
to frosting.
Figure 16. (a) Heat transferred through the 1 m length of the finned
due to frosting. finned tube
tube with
with 88 fins,
fins, (b)
(b)Heat
Heatdecrease
decrease
due to
due to frosting.
frosting.
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(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure17.
17.(a)(a)Heat
Heat (a)
transferred through
transferred the the
through 1 m 1length of theoffinned
m length (b)12with
tube with
the finned tube fins,12
(b)fins,
Heat(b) Heat
Figure 17.due
decrease (a) to
Heat transferred through the 1 m length of the finned tube with 12 fins, (b) Heat
decrease
Figure due
17.due tofrosting.
(a) to
Heatfrosting.
transferred through the 1 m length of the finned tube with 12 fins, (b) Heat
decrease frosting.
decrease due to frosting.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 18. (a) Heat transferred (b)16 fins, (b) Heat
through the 1 m length of the finned tube with
Figure
Figure18.
decrease18.(a)(a)
Heat transferred
Heat through
transferred the the
through 1 m 1length of theoffinned
m length tube with
the finned tube16with
fins,16
(b)fins,
Heat(b) Heat
Figure 18.due
decrease (a) to
due to
frosting.
Heat transferred through the 1 m length of the finned tube with 16 fins, (b) Heat
frosting.
decrease due to frosting.
decrease due to frosting.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 19. (a) Heat transferred (b)20 fins, (b) Heat
through the 1 m length of the finned tube with
Figure 19.due
decrease (a) to
Heat transferred through the 1 m length of the finned tube with 20 fins, (b) Heat
frosting.
Figure
Figure19.
decrease19.(a)(a)
due Heat
to Heattransferred through
transferred
frosting. the the
through 1 m 1length of theoffinned
m length tube with
the finned tube20with
fins,20
(b)fins,
Heat(b) Heat
decrease
decreasedue
dueto tofrosting.
frosting.
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For finned tubes without frosting, the temperature at the perimeter of the central
tube was about the same as the temperature of the medium, which was −160 ◦ C. For fins
distributed around the central pipe, the temperature increased radially. For example, for the
tube with 8 fins and dimensions R = 100 mm and t = 2.5 mm (Figure 10), the temperature
increased radially from −160 ◦ C at the central tube to −122 ◦ C at the tip of the fin sur-
rounded by ambient air with a temperature of 20 ◦ C. Analogous temperature distribution
patterns were obtained for all other analyzed cases. As shown in Figures 8–12 and 13a),
which refer to finned tube parameters R = 100 mm and t = 2.5 mm, the number of fins
had no significant impact on the radial temperature distribution. In the case of no frosting,
the amount of heat delivered to the center pipe was affected by the number of fins, fin
thickness and outer radius of the tube. It can be noticed that for a higher number of fins a
much higher heat transfer through the tube surfaces with no frost was achieved. This was
due to the increased heat transfer surface between the tube and environment.
For the tubes completely covered by frost, the temperatures on the outer surface of
the frosted tubes were much higher than for the tubes without frosting. The higher the
number of fins, the lower the temperature on the outer surface of the frosted tube. The
higher number of fins increased the number of heat transfer paths from ambient air to the
center pipe with the medium at low temperature.
For cases without frosting, the number and length of the fins had a crucial impact
on the amount of heat transferred through longitudinal finned tubes. For example, for a
finned tube with parameters: n = 4, R = 100 mm, t = 2.5 mm, the amount of heat transferred
through the finned tube without frosting was Q1 = 857 W (Figure 14a), while for a tube
with parameters: n = 20, R = 100 mm, t = 2.5 mm, the amount of heat was Q2 = 2165 W
(Figure 19a), which was a two and a half times increase. On the other hand, for the case
of total frosting, the values of heat supplied were Q1 = 309 W and Q2 = 531 W, which
indicated 64% and 74% decreases in heat transferred, respectively. The highest decreases
of the heat transferred through longitudinal finned tubes caused by total frosting were
obtained for the tubes with the highest number of fins.

5. Conclusions
During the regasification of LNG by means of ambient air vaporizers, the first rows of
longitudinal finned tubes in the array containing natural gas in the liquid and gaseous phase
are subjected to frosting during the vaporizers operation. This is a result of desublimation
of humidity in the air at the outer surfaces of tubes which temperature is below zero. The
phenomenon cannot be prevented by simple measures. Therefore, vaporizers usually work
partially frosted and the frost melts during breaks in their operation. Part of the tubes in the
array can also become completely frosted, which can significantly reduce heat transfer and
therefore the efficiency of vaporizers. Therefore formation of frost has a disadvantageous
effect on the vaporizer operation.
The obtained results of thermal analysis showed that for the case when fins are not
covered by frost, the use of a higher number of fins within the tubes increases the heat
transfer and therefore increases the efficiency of the ambient air vaporizer. The finned tubes
in which the process of LNG evaporation takes place are totally or partially covered by
frost. Those tubes do not require the high number of fins as they have a minor impact on
the amount of delivered heat. The ambient air vaporizers with few tubes covered by frost
may continue to operate, under the condition that the amount of frost does not affect the
exceeding of the permissible mechanical loads acting on the vaporizer structure.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.L. and E.L.; methodology, F.L. and E.L.; software, F.L.
and E.L; validation, F.L., formal analysis, F.L. and E.L.; investigation, F.L. and E.L; writing—original
draft preparation, F.L.; writing—review and editing, F.L.; visualization, F.L.; supervision, E.L.; project
administration, F.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Energies 2022, 15, 280 14 of 14

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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