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MPHIL CP
Paper-II: Behavioral Foundation of Behavior

MODULE II
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF
CELLS
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CONTENT
 Cells of the nervous system (neurons, supporting cells, blood-brain barrier);
 Communication within a neuron (membrane potential, action potential);
communication between neurons (neurotransmitters, neuromodulators and
hormones).

1. CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (NEURONS,

SUPPORTING CELLS, BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER)

NEURONS
Neurons are highly specialized cells that have accentuated the basic characteristics
of other cells, which include transmembrane potential, the ability to form
extensions of its cytoplasm, and so on. The extensions of neurons have also
become specialized, so that the ion channels and receptors in dendrite membranes
are different from those in axon membranes.

In addition, every neuron has its own unique shape, its own unique position in the
nervous system, and its own unique connections to other neurons or to receptor
(sensory) cells or effector (muscle or gland) cells.

This great variability (there are over 200 different kinds of neurons) means that
some neurons deviate from the standard basic morphology.

For example, some axons may form synapses directly with another neuron’s cell
body, or even with its axon.
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Neuronal cell bodies also vary widely both in size (small, medium, large, and
giant) and in shape (star-shaped, fusiform, conical, polyhedral, spherical,
pyramidal).

The geometry of a neuron’s dendrites and axon also vary tremdously with its role
in the neural circuit.

Neurons can also be classified into various categories, depending on what criteria
are used. For example:

Functional classification: Morphological classification based

on the number of extensions from
the cell body:

 sensory neurons that receive    pseudo-unipolar neurons

sensory signals from sensory
organs and send them via short
axons to the central nervous
system
with a short extension that
quickly divides into two
branches, one of which
functions as a dendrite, the
other as an axon
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 motor neurons that conduct    multipolar neurons that have

motor commands from the short dendrites emanating
cortex to the spinal cord or from the cell body and one
from the spinal cord to the long axon
muscles

 interneurons that    bipolar neurons that have

interconnect various neurons two main extensions of similar
within the brain or the spinal lengths
cord

GLIAL CELLS

Astrocytes, like most glial cells, were long considered essential for their role in
supporting and maintaining nerve tissue. But more and more evidence indicates
that astrocytes may actually play a far more important role in neural
communication.
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For instance, it has long been known that

astrocytes supply glucose needed for
nerve activity. Through the astrocytes’
end feet, which are apposed to the walls
of the capillaries in the brain, glucose
can enter the astrocytes, which partially
metabolize it, then send it on to the
neurons. More intense synaptic activity,
it even seems, promotes a better supply
of glucose by activating this astrocytic
metabolisis.

It is also known that astrocytes are

connected with each other via “gap
junctions” through which they can pass
various metabolites. It is through these
junctions that astrocytes evacuate to the
capillaries the excess extracellular
potassium generated by intense neuronal
activity.

But what is being discovered more and

more is that this network of
intercommunicating astrocytes forms a
veritable syncytium–in other words, it
behaves like a single, unitary entity. For
example, through this network, the
regulatory effects of waves of calcium
ions might be propagated to large
numbers of synapses simultaneously.
The astrocytic extensions surrounding
the synapses might thus exert a broader
control over the concentration of ions
and the volume of water in the synaptic
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gaps.

The network of astrocytes would thus

constitute a non-synaptic transmission
system superimposed on the neuronal
system to play a major role in
modulating neuronal activities.

2. COMMUNICATION WITHIN A NEURON (MEMBRANE

POTENTIAL, ACTION POTENTIAL); COMMUNICATION
BETWEEN NEURONS (NEUROTRANSMITTERS,
NEUROMODULATORS AND HORMONES).

STRUCTURE OF NEURON
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EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF NEURON

 Cell body – Main center of neurons

 Dendrites- From pre synaptic cell signals comes through dendrites from cell
body – Axon
 Axon terminals – Synapse

Space between 2 neurons is synapse or synaptic cleft from there it passes to

post synaptic neurons

Axon is covered by fatty sheath for protection – Myelin Sheath

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF NEURON

 Endoplasmic Reticulum – A system is folded membrane in the cell body,
play a role in the synthesis of protein.
 Cytoplasm – clear internal fluid of the cells
 Ribosome – Internal cellular structure on which proteins are synthesized,
they are located on endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi bodies- A system of membrane that packages molecule in the vessels.
 Nucleus – Spherical D.N. A containing structure of cell body.
 Mitochondria- Sites of o2 energy
 Microtubules – Responsible for the rapid transport of material.

COMMUNICATION WITHIN NEURON

1. action potential (msg) sent from soma to terminal button to release NT
2. initial state called resting potential-inside of axon is negatively charged while
outside of axon positively charged (fluid which surrounds axon)
3. membrane potential-amount of neg charge w/in axon-represents "stored up"
energy w/in axon that can be released when stimulated
4. depolarization-diff in charges between inside and outside is reduced (inside
becomes more positive); depolarization occur when another cell fires it
Communication w/in a Neuron Continued 5. eventually positive charge crosses a
threshold of excitation and axon fires its potential (axon will always fire w/same
intensity each time threshold is reached)
6. threshold is broken and positive enters axon-action potential peaks when it
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reaches certain positive charge and then begins to hyperpolarize (return to resting
state)
7. however cells overshoot resting potential and becomes too hyperpolarized (too
neg)
8. entire process takes 2 milliseconds (time it takes for msg to be carried from cell
body to terminal buttons
9. conduction of action potential:
a. all or none law-once action potential is triggered (breaks threshold) it goes to
end of axon w/out stopping or changing size
b. rate law-intensity of stimulus determines rate of firing or number of action
potentials that'll occur down an axon in a given time 
10. Saltatory Conduction-action potential starts at soma and travels down first node
of Ranvier-as it travels the signal weakens over time/space; at node of R, action
potential is regenerated due to contact w/extracellular fluid and reinitiated-leads to
speedier process
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EXPLANATION OF COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NEURON

BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER

Paul Ehlrich (1885) found that tyrpan blue injection effects all areas except brain &
spinal cord.
Brain is privileged site, sheltered from the systematic circulations by blood brain
barrier.
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ROLE
It separates components of the circulating blood from neurons and so maintain the
chemical composition of the neuronal microenvironment.
Protects brain from pathogens
BARRIER
 Paracellular barrier
 Restricts the movement of H20
 Transcellular barrier, Inhibits transport of substance to the cytoplasm

CARRIER
 Responsible for the transport of nutrients like glucose & amino acids.

ENZYMATIC BARRIER
 Enzymes capable of degrading different compounds.

COMPONENT OF BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER

A. Endothelial cells – Bell like shape. Express large no. of efflux
transporters.
B. Astrocytes- Covers part of endothelial cells.
C. Pericytes – Sites on Basal Membrane.

In the absence of permeability increases.

Other things present are – Neurons, Microglia

Diffusion which takes place inside are

I. Paracellular –Between the cells
II. Transcellular – Across the cells
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If pathology is there & some kind of problem is there in Blood brain Barrier
following things can happen: Trauma, stroke, Pain, HIV, Alzheimer’s, Epilepsy,
sclerosis.