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_ECE_K\ _KLIFAFGI
K\EAEM\KRIR
Lisusuj faed0
Xenoinoijg0
MEXKJI\E_KKJ
MEXKJI\E_KKJ MAIJIM _KLIFAFGI
CKMUA\KR MELFM\E_KJ
UJISE_RI\KR
UJISE_RI\KR YK_RI
?8?;/?8??
LKC\K_ IRI
Dkaknkj
Dkaknkj @ulua...........................
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Lkctkr
Lkctkr isi ...............................
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?.; Epile
Epilenifa
nifafgi
fgi ...............................
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?.? Kjktf
Kjktfni
ni ..................................
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?.2 Etifa
Etifafgi
fgi.................................
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?.< Xktf
Xktfcis
cisifafg
ifafgii .................................
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?.5 Likgj
Likgjfsis
fsis.................................
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?.3. Xenerimskk
Xenerimskkj
j _klifafgi .......................................
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?.4. \ktk
\ktkakms
akmskjk
kjk .................................
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?.9. Xrf
Xrfgjfs
gjfsis
is ..............
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OKO ;
XEJLKDUAUKJ
Kteaemtksis nerupkmkj gkoujgkj lkri Okdksk yujkji kteaes lkj emtksis, ykjg
krtijyk emspkjsi tilkm aejgmkp (Nklkppk, ?8;4). Kteaemtksis klkakd diakjgjyk
vfaune li seokgikj ktku seaurud pkru-pkru ykjg nejyeokomkj gkjggukj
pertumkrkj BF? lkj F?, oikskjyk nejgkrkd me pejijgmktkj lejsitks pkru-pkru
ykjg teraiokt (F’lfjjea, ?8;?).
?8;?).
Reokgki lkskr gknokrkj rklifafgis pklk kteaemtksis klkakd pejgurkjgkj
vfaune okgikj pkru okim afokris, segnejtka ktku seaurud pkru, lejgkj kmiokt
murkjgjyk ulkrk sedijggk nenoeri okykjgkj aeoid surkn (lejsitks tijggi)
t ijggi) lejgkj
pejkrimkj nelikstijun mekrkd kteaemtksis, selkj
selkjgmkj
gmkj likcrkgnk
likcrkgnk tertkrim me ktks lkj
lkj
seak igk nejyenpit. (Derrijg, ?8;3). Kteaemtksis lkpkt ter`kli pklk wkjitk ktku prik
lkj lkpkt ter`kli pklk senuk rks. Kteaemtksis aeoid serijg ter`kli pklk kjkm ykjg
aeoid nulk lkri pklk kjkm ykjg aeoid tuk lkj renk`k (Nklkppk, ?8;4).
;
OKO II
\IJ@KUKJ XUR\KMK
?.; Epilenifafgi
Kteaemtksis tilkm neniaimi preliaemsi pklk `ejis meaknij ktku etjis tertejtu.
?.? Kjktfni
Rkaurkj jkpks oerkwka lkri skaurkj jkska/ dilujg. Rkaurkj dilujg
nenoumk me lkakn ckrijg ykjg oercujgsi seokgki skaurkj oersknk ujtum sisten
perjkpkskj lkj pejberjkkj. Reteakd ckrijg, terlkpkt luk skaurkj ykitu trkmek ykjg
liakaui faed ulkrk neju`u pkru-pkru, lkj esfpdkgus ykjg liakaui nkmkjkj ujtum
sknpki me aknoujg. Menulikj lkri ckrijg oerakj`ut me akrijg. Akrijg ktku mftkm
sukrk teraetkm li pijtu nksum trkmek. \fj`fakj kjterifr akrijg nenoejtum `kmuj
(Klkn's Kppae). Aipktkj vfbka, luk pitk `krijgkj eakstim ykjg neaijtkjg lipijtu
nksum akrijg lkpkt lirejggkjgmkj lkj lipfsisimkj seokgki ftft akrijg. Ulkrk
neaewkti akrijg neakaui beakd aipktkj vfmka. Xenoumkkj akrijg iji liseout seokgki
gafttis. Rewkmtu ulkrk oergerkm neakaui gafttis, aipktkj terseout oergetkr ujtum
nejgdksiamkj sukrk. Kpkoiak tilkm ligujkmkj ujtum oerjkpks, ftft-ftft akrijg
nenokwk aipktkj vfbka neju`u pfsisi ykjg metkt ujtum nejutup sedijggk nkmkjkj
tilkm nksum me perjkpkskj. Reteakd akrijg, trkmek terokgi nej`kli luk bkokjg
utknk, orfjmus mkjkj lkj miri ykjg nksijg-nksijg nksum me pkru mkjkj lkj miri.
Menulikj orfjmus terus oerbkokjg nej`kli skaurkj jkpks ykjg senkmij senpit,
pejlem lkj okjykm
okjykm ykitu orfjmifaus . Liu`ujg orfjmifaus ternijka terlkpkt
?
meafnpfmkj kavefaus, ykitu mkjtujg ulkrk tenpkt pertumkrkj ulkrk lkj lkrkd.
(Rderwffl, ?8;2)
Kgkr kairkj ulkrk lkpkt nksum lkj meaukr lkri pkru, skaurkj jkpks ykjg terus
oersknoujgkj lkri pijtu
pijtu nksum m
mee orfjmi
orfjmifaus
faus ternijka dijggk kavefaus dkrus tetkp
teroumk. \rkmek lkj orfjmus oeskr klkakd tkoujg mkmu tkm oerftft ykjg limeaiaijgi
faed serkjgmkikj bijbij tuakjg rkwkj ykjg nejbegkd skaurkj iji nejyenpit.
Orfjmifaus aeoid mebia sedijggk tilkm neniaimi tuakjg rkwkj, jknuj lijlijg
skaurkj iji nejgkjlujg ftft pfafs ykjg liperskrkci faed sisten skrkc ftfjfn
sedijggk pemk terdklkp dfrnfj lkj okdkj minik afmka tertejtu.
tert ejtu. (Rderwffl, ?8;2)
2
Rtrumtur
Xkru-pkru oeroejtum merubut, lejgkj okgikj pujbkm (kpex), lkskr, tigk pernumkkj
lkj tigk oktks. Xkru-pkru miri selimit aeoid mebia liokjlijgmkj lejgkj pkru mkjkj,
dka iji liseokomkj klkjyk `kjtujg. Retikp pkru terliri lkri0
Kpex0 U`ujg superifr tunpua lkri pkru-pkru.
Lkskr/ Okse0 Xernumkkj ijcerifr pkru, teraetkm
t eraetkm li ktks likcrkgnk.
<
Afous0 Afous kjtkrk pkru mkjkj lkj miri tilkm sknk. Xkru mkjkj
nenpujyki tigk afous= superifr, nelika, ijcerifr. Relkjgmkj pkru
miri dkjyk
dkjyk nenpujyki luk= superifr lkj ijcerifr. Afous lipiskdmkj
faed ? `ejis cisurk ykitu cisurk foaique lkj cisurk dfrizfjtka.
5
?.2 Etifafgi
Xejyeoko ter`klijyk kteaemtksis liokgi nej`kli luk ykitu ijtrijsim lkj emstrijsim.
Xejyeoko ijstrijsim klkakd klkjyk sunoktkj lkakn aunej orfjmus selkjgmkj
3
?.< Xktfcisifafgi
Kteaemtksis Fostrumtic
Kteaemtksis Jfj-Fostrumtic
Xejyeoko utknk ykitu faedf aed mkrejk tilkm klkjyk duoujgkj kjtkrk paeurk viserkais
lkj paeurk pkrietkais. Ecusi paeurk nkupuj pjeunftdfrkx nejyeokomkj
kteaemtksis pksic. Ecusi paeurk ykjg nejgejki afous okwkd aeoid serijg
ser ijg liokjlijg
lejgkj pjeunftdfrkx ykjg serijg nejyeokomkj mfakps pklk afous ktks.
Kteaemtksis kldesive aeoid serijg liduoujgmkj lejgkj murkjgjyk surckmtkj.
Rurckmtkj nejgkjlujg pdispfaipil lipkanitfy pdfspdktilyibdfaije, ykjg
nejbegkd mfakps pkru lejgkj nejgurkjgi tegkjgkj pernumkkj kavefai.
Oermurkjg ktku tilkmjyk prflumsi surckmtkj oikskjyk ter`kli pklk K_LR,
pjeunfjitis rkliksi,
rkliksi, ktkupuj kmiokt trkunk pkru ssedijggk
edijggk kavefai tilkm stkoia lkj
mfakps. Meruskmkj pkrejmin pkru puj lkpkt nejyeokomkj kteaemtksis simktrim
ykjg nenoukt tkrimkj tkrimkj ykjg oiak terakau okjykm nenoukt pkru mfakps,
selkjgmkj repakbenejt kteaemtksis lkpkt liseokomkj faed tunfr seperti
orfjbdikavefakr bkrbijfnk.
Kteaemtksis lkpkt nejyeokomkj pejurujkj bfnpaikjbe pkru, tergkjggujyk fmsigejksi,
lkj pejijgmktkj resistejsi vksmuakr pkru
p kru (_ky et ka .,
., ?8;<).
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puanfjka. @imk cejfnejk terseout oerakjgsujg sebkrk auks,auks, lkpkt ter`kli liscujgsi
vejtrimea mkjkj lkj meofbfrkj
meofbf rkj bkirkj nimrfvksmuakr (_ky et ka ., ., ?8;<).
Xejurujkj bfnpaikjb
bfnpaikjbee pkru 0 Diakjgjyk vfaune
vf aune pkru kmiokt kteaemtksis
nejyeokomkj simaus ijspirksi-emspirksi linuaki lkri C_B ( Cujbtifjka _esiluka
Bkpkbity)) ykjg aeoid rejlkd, dka iji ter`kli pklk okgikj murvk temkjkj-vfaune ykjg
Bkpkbity
murkjg ecisiej. Kmioktjyk, ujtum nejbkpki vfaune
vf aune tilka tertejtu liperaumkj
pejijgmktkj
?.5 Likgjfsis
Reskm
Oktum
Denfptfsis
Ksinptfnktis
Ge`kak ykjg oerduoujgkj lejgkj pejykmit ykjg nejlkskri (pejurujkj oerkt
oklkj, mkdemsik, kjfremsik lkj merijgkt nkakn. (Rfetimjf, ?8;;)
B\ sbkj lklk nerupkmkj okmu enks ujtum nejiaki kteaemtksis perifperktic. B\ sbkj
lklk ununjyk nejuj`ummkj pejijgmktkj lejsitks lkj oermurkjgjyk vfaune pklk sisi
pkru ykjg termejk (Grftt & Lujakp, ?8?;= F’Lfjjeaa,
F’Lfjjeaa, ?8;?= Nfjkstesse et ka .,
., ?8;7).
2. Uatrksfjfgrkci
Nesmipuj okmu enks penerimskkj kteaemtksis perifperktic klkakd B\ sbkj,
uatrksfjfgrkci aeoid nulkd liakmumkj pklk pksiej perifperktic. URG nenujgmijmkj
ujtum nenerimsk mfjlisi pkru-pkru pksiej oeoerkpk mkai li lkakn rukjg fperksi,
4
Xklk penerimskkj rklifafgi terlkpkt tkjlk lkri mfakps pkru ykjg terokgi nej`kli
luk tipe, ykitu tkjlk akjgsujg lkj tilkm akjgsujg. \kjlk akjgsujg ykitu cissurk
ijterafous ykjg leviksi ktku oerpijlkd lkj bfrkmkj orfjmfvksmuakr nejijgmkt.
Relkjgmkj tkjlk tilkm akjgsujg ykitu lejsitks nejijgmkt pklk pkru ykjg mfakps,
terlkpkt diperijcaksi mfnpejsksi lkri afous ykjg oerlemktkj, leviksi diaus me krkd
afous ykjg mfakps, eaevksi likcrkgnk, diperijcaksi mfjtrkakterka, pergeserkj
nelikstijun ktku trkmek, pergeserkj grkjuafnk li afous ykjg oerlemktkj, lkj
mklkjg tilkm klk orfjmfgrkn ulkrk li afous ykjg teraiokt. Xklk setikp pksiej, sktu
ktku senuk
senuk tkjlk-tkjlk iji oikskjyk klk. (Lkccjer,
( Lkccjer, et ka. ?8;<) (Nkjleaa, ?8;2)
Gknokr ?.3.; \kjlk rklifgrkcim pklk afous kteaemtksis (Gkrbik, et ka. ?8;;)
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Gknokr ?.3.? Rmenk pfak pergerkmmkj kteaemtksis pklk afous K.Krkd crfjtka, O.Krkd
akterka (Nkjleaa, ?8;2)
;8
Gknokr ?.3.2 Kteaemtksis Fostrumtic pklk Xkru miri. \erlkpkt mfakps pkru miri mfnpait ykjg
liseokomkj faed aesi fostrumsi sejtrka pklk bkokjg utknk
ut knk orfjmus miri. @kjtujg lkj nelikstijun
oergeser me miri (Lkccjer, et ka. ?8;<)
;;
;?
Oerimut iaustrksi gknokr lejgkj tipe fostrumtic bkusk mkrsijfnk sea smuknfsk
Gknokr ?.3.4 kteaemtksis pklk afous mkjkj ktks lejgkj fpksitks kpimka oeroejtum
;2
segitigk. Cissurk mkjkj okwkd retrkmsi mekrkd mrkjika lkj neniaimi mfjcigurksi duruc
R terokaim (Gflej R sigj) lkri kteaemtksis afous superifr-neaejgmujg meokwkd sknpki
sknpk i
diaus. B\0 terlkpkt nksk pklk diaus (N) nejgdiakjgmkj orfjmus superi
superifr
fr lextrk. Afous
ykjg kteaemtksis (K)
(K) lilecijisimkj sebkrk akterka faed cissurk nijfr lkj sebkrk pfsterifr
faed cissurk nk`fr lextrk. (Gkrbik, et ka. ?8;;)
;<
b. Rkkt afous mkjkj okwkd mfakps, kmkj teroejtum gknokrkj segitigk fpkm
ykjg nejgkourmkj krteri puanfjkris lkj likcrkgnk, sedijggk
nenoejtum nkssk pkrkspijka ykjg oerprfyemsi me oeakmkjg ktriun
mkjkj
l. Xklk tknpiakj akterka, sepertigk pfsterifr likcrkgnk tilkm teraidkt faed
afous mkjkj okwkd ykjg mfakps. Gknokrkj sknkr segitigk rkliffpkm
lejgkj pujbkm li diaus lkj likcrkgnk mkjkj `ugk sulut bfstfcrejimus
pfsterifr lkpkt teraidkt.
Gknokr ?.3.;8 XK0 gknokrkj segitigk fpkm pklk afous mkjkj okwkd regif
pkrknelikstijka, nejgkourmkj gkris oeskr likcrkgnk okgikj `kjtujg. Cisurk nkyfr
teraidkt (jfrnkajyk tilkm teraidkt), nerupkmkj tkjlk afous mkjkj okwkd mfakps.
Akterka0 gknokrkj sknkr segitigk fpkm lejgkj pujbkm li diaus lkj lkskr li ktks
likcrkgnk pfsterifr. B\0 kteaemtksis afous mkjkj okwkd lkpkt teraidkt pklk regif
pkrknelikstijka okwkd mkjkj seokgki gknokrkj segitigk fpkm lejgkj numus
orfjmfgrkn. (Gkrbik, et ka. ?8;;)
;5
Gknokr ?.3.;; XK0 afous miri ktks ciorfsis lejgkj pergeserkj ipsiakterka
nelikstijun, eaevksi diaun miri lkj likcrkgnk. Sfaune pkru miri oermurkjg
liokjlijgmkj ykjg mkjkj. @imk klk mfnpejsksi diperijcaksi pkru mkjkj, nkmk
dka itu nerupkmkj ijlimksi kteaemtksis mrfjim. Akterka0 pkru mkjkj
diperemspkjsi sedijggk neaewkti gkris nelika nelikstijun me akpkjgkj pkru
miri. Gkris mfjtur kjterifr nejkjlkmkj kfrtk ksebejle. (Gkrbik, et ka. ?8;;)
;3
seperti pitk ykjg oerlemktkj lejgkj cisurk nijfr lkj tegkm aurus terdklkp bfstke.
\erlkpkt diperijcaksi lismrit pklk afous mkjkj okwkd. B\0 nejgmfjcirnksi afmksi
kteaemtksis aknijkr lkakn afous mkjkj ktks. (Gkrbik,
(Gkrbik, et ka. ?8;;)
?8; ;)
k. Xjeunftfrkms
Xjeunftfrkms ter`kli skkt ulkrk nenksumi rukjg paeurk. Xaeurk viserka lkj
pkrietka oikskjyk tilkm teraidkt jknuj pklk pjeunftfrkms, paeurk viserka nejkrim
menokai me diaus oersknk lejgkj pkru-pkru ykjg mfakps
mf akps lkj nej`kli teraidkt seokgki
gkris putid ykjg skjgkt tipis. Xeroelkkj pjeunftfrkms lkj kteaemtksis klkakd pklk
pjeunftfrkms ulkrk li rukjg paeurk nenis neniskdmkj
kdmkj viserka lkri paeurk pkrietka
selkjgmkj pklk kteaemtksis
kte aemtksis paeurk visberka lkj pkrietka tilkm terpiskd sktu sknk akij.
Lejsitks pjeunftfrkms kmkj tkn pkm ‑ditkn„ denitfrkms nujgmij tknpkm aeoid
oermiaku selkjgmkj kteaemtksis
kteaemtksis d
denitfrkms
enitfrkms kmkj tknpkm aaeoid
eoid o
ourkn
urkn (a
(aeoid
eoid putid) lkri
oikskjyk. Rdict ktku pergeserkj, tilkm per
perjkd
jkd klk pergeserkj `kjtujg ktku ttrkmek
rkmek me
sisi pjeunftfrkms selkjgmkj kteaemtksis dknpir seakau klk pergeserkj `kjtujg lkj
trkmek me krkd sisi kteaemtksis.
Gknokr?.9.; Xjeunftfrkms
Runoer 0 Aekrjijg _klifafgy _ebfgjizijg \de Oksib 2 rl Elitifj. Wiaaikn
Derrijg URK, Easevier, ?8;3
;4
o. Ecusi Xaeurk
Ecusi paeurk nerupkmkj mfjlisi metimk bkirkj seperti lkrkd, emsulkt, ktku
trkjsulkt nenejudi rfjggk paeurk sedijggk nejgerudmkj dknpir seaurud
denitfrkms, nkmk bkirkj terseout lkpkt oertijlkm seperti nkssk ykjg nejemkj
`krijgkj pkru li okwk
okwkdjyk.
djyk. Rdict kt
ktku
ku pergeserkj pklk ecusi paeurk, kpkoiak ter`kli
ecusi paeurk mkjkj nkmk `kjtujg, trkmek kmkj oergeser mesisi seoea
seoeakdjyk
kdjyk ykitu me miri
b. Mkrsijfnk Xkru
Mkjmer pkru priner nejgkbu pklk megkjkskj ykjg oerkska lkri pkrejmin pkru ktku
skaurkj ulkrk. Jflua pkru lilecijisimkj seokgki aesi lejgkj likneter murkjg lkri 2
bn ykjg li lkakn lkj limeaiaijgi faed pkrejmin pkru. @imk aeoid lkri 2 bn, aesi
terseout liseout nkssk. Biri jflua ykjg skjgkt liburigki ujtum mkjmer pkru ykitu
umurkj: 4 nn, murkjgjyk mkasicimksi, pejknpiakj spimuaksi, lkj afmksi ykjg aeoid
sejtrka. Xklk gknokrkj rklifafgis mkrsijfnk pkru nejyeokomkj pejemkjkj lkj
sdictijg mekrkd penoeskrkj tunfr.
;9