CLASS X - SCIENCE 2 BE CURIOUS a Scannet d with CamScannerCHEMICAL REACTIONS & EQUATIONS THE ONE WHERE YOU LEARN. EVEN| CHEMICALS HAVE BREAKUPS Dl} ae Chemical Reaction: A process in which one or more quaitien AWD Substances react to form new substance(s) with z New chemical identity and property. Chemical Equation: Symbolic representation of a 2 eb ioc - chemical reaction, eg. CONDITION REACTANTS REA ION PRobuUcTS COw + 2How CH;OHn PHYSICAL STATE s- solid | SL -Squtd 5 OF THE COMPOUND ( - SS J a9. - “qvenus BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATION Balancing of chemical equation is done to follow the How I recheck my equations law of conservation of mass. In a balanced chemical equation, there are same number of atoms of each element on both side of the reaction (reactant and product side). Geese Dera Goce’ Gace MOTIVATION f F If your studies demand you to walk : | - through hell, walk as if you own the place. " 0 Ee Sono eae DB) cs, De we JV LIKE A Boss. — le Scanned with CamScannerNo. of atoms at No. of atoms at HOW TO. BALANCE THE EQUATION: reactant side product side Al(OH), ————* 0 + 1.0 a i z canih ° 3 4 tence, this equation is Unbalanced. H 3 2 Balancing is done by hit and trail method. No. of atoms at No. of atoms ot 2A\(0H),, ——— Al,O, + 3H,O reactant side product side Al 2 2 You write full this eq’ is balanced. pag it bo seve o 6 é 7 wytime. bl H 6 é similarly, acl, + Al(SO.),_ §=———* AlCl, + BaSO, (UNBALANCED) STUDY TIP. Eating chocolate while studying will help the brain retain new information 3BaCl, + Al,(SOJ)s easily. CHARACTERISTICS OF A CHEMICAL REATION * Change in state. ~ Eg. Hayy + Ox 4.00 (GAS te Liquid) E.g. Fe + CuSO, FeSO, + Cu blue blue green 1g. CaO + H,0-> Ca(OH), + HEAT » Change in colour. — 1. ZNgt HrS0si0q) ZNSO gq + Haig) P(NO}) ag + Klag > PBlag + KNO sn ‘Scanned with CamScanner ——. Exothermic Reaction: Reac! is released along with the formation Eg. CaO +H,0 > Ca(OH), (ance) (SEND) LIME COMMON NAME Endothermic Reaction : Reaction in which energy is absorbed. Eg. Cac, et» Cad + CO, tion in which heat of products. + HEAT TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS Combination reaction Decomposition reaction Displacement reaction Double displacement reaction Nobody: Displacement reaction: Feature General form Coed Form single product from axeone two or more reactants, Hr Ori Single reactant breaks down to APB+C 3 two or more products CaCO,» cad +0 More reactive metal displaces less reactive metal from A+BCPAB+C |Fe+ CuSO>FeS0, its compound. Two ionic compounds react by PD(NO,),+ KI->? exchanging theirionslie| etce PAD FCB KNO, during exam. Fri How to tell the answer is double displacement dusre ka answer kya h? Scanned with CamScannerDECOMPOSITION REACTION — | Thermal Decomposition Electrolytic Decomposition (on heating) (on passing electricity) heat clectroysis Eg. Caco ca0 + €O, a HO hy +0, sunnah, OXIDATION: A substance (in reactant side) is said to be oxidised if Oxygen isadded OR Hydrogen is removed to it after the reaction and process is called oxidation. Eg. Cu+ 0, CuO (Here Cu is oxidised due to addition of oxygen) DUCTION: A substance (in reactant side) is said to be reduced if Oxygenis removed OR Hydrogen is added to it after the reaction and process is called reduction. E.g.H.+F, > HF (Here F, is reduced due to addition of hydrogen) EDOX REACTION: Reaction in which oxidation nd reduction both takes place simultaneously. Oxidation’ Iso, In a redox reaction substance getting oxidised is ‘alled reducing agent. In @ redox reaction substance getting reduced is alled oxidising agent. Photo Decomposition (when exposed to sunlight) Eg. Agcl —“® Ag+ ci, | fom -osjou ouy oye juyBioquue ANOK 721 PUE AOUAES M pueu Unread Ferb! This one’s looking at both of us at the same time. Scanned with CamScanner NOTWALLOWREDUCTioy Mn0,+HCl —, £8 REDUCTION wv 210+C —* Zn+CO oxiD OXIDATION ). MnO, is reduced one . P 2n0 is reduced to Zn (removal of oxygen HClis oxidised to Cl (pgm \ddition of oxygen). is oxidising 92 e™Ovay oly Cis oxidised to CO (a Mn0, is oxidising agent, hye 4 te teat " HClis reducing agent, is reducing agent. EFFECTS OF OXIDATION CORROSION: When a metal is attacked by substances around it such as moisture, acid, air, Water etc. It is said to be corrode & this process is called corrosion, E.g. Rusting of ‘metal, blackening of silver, green Coating on copper, RANCIDITY: Oxia, food items result in change in the tasteay: smell. We say that food items are rancid 2 the process is called rancidity, Eg. Nitrogen gas is flushed in packet ofis to avoid contact from oxygen and prevent: Fancidity, lation of fat and oils inthe Scanned with CamScanner~— — AAN...TUMHE SB AATA H LKIN FIR BHI THOD! PRACTICE KR LO. XD d chemical eq’ Balance it. Identify the type. Magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid to give magnesium chloride and hydrogen as. perric chloride is formed by the reaction of iron and chlorine gas. Aluminium sulphate reacts with sodium hydroxide to give aluminium hydroxide as precipitate in the sodium sulphate solution. rod nitrate is heated to give lead oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas. ing and reducing agent in the given reaction:- ame the substance oxidised, reduced, ox 0,¢ 3CO —* 2Fe + 3CO; viously fill the blanks h yerr:- substance which loses hydrogen is called agent. tioxidants are often added to fat containing foods to prevent due to oxidation. BAAP question — Balance it, if you can...(itna hard exam m nhi aega) Cu+HNO, —> Cu(NO,), + NO + H,0 don't be surprised even if your teacher couldn't do it. LOL. Scanned with CamScannercators: Tells us wht ‘nai basic by change I" colou wi N dicators = Litmus papel Tul jatural In ice sail jpnthale!™ sc indicators ~ Phen? ‘synthetic Indica Dat brange ose od our olfactory Indicators! substance i ie (emel) change in acidic oF basic Vanilla, onion, clove RED LITMUS PAPER ACID No Change | BASE ACIDS + Sour in taste | © Change the colour of + In aqueous solution, positive ion and negative ion. The positive ion | ofall acids is same which is H’ ion (hydrogen ion). This H’ ion is re: properties. | ust oF acios:- | Name | Hydrochloric acid Sulphuric acid Nitric acid | Carbonic acid | Acetic acid Then you will dle braver th, ie PHENOLPHTHALEIN METHy, IRMERIC BLUE LITMUS Tul SOLUTION soung __ f Colourless JRE Re [oe } Pink Yelloy No Change A MOTIVATION Study while others are sleepin Practice while others are plajtt You will enjoy while othersat regretting. f blue litmus to red acids break into two Ions, sponsible for acidic Th ag. sol” Chemical Formula. J ber ve pet Hcl at a HSO, . 5 HNO, 2H S04 ‘ 7 H,CO, oan NOs. CH,COOH C03 | —— (Hy Scanned with CamScannerBASES gitterintaste Acid or Base: *exists* * Change the colour of red litmusto blue / + The aqueous solution, bases break into two ions, positive ion and negative ion. Dola re dola re dola, man dola dil dola hae re dola. The negative ion of all the bases is same, which is OH™ ion (hydroxide Litmus paper: ion). In og, Sol” UIST OF BASES:- OD, So’ Name Chemical Formula. 4 ye part —ve part Sodium Hydroxide NaOH No” OH Potassium Hydroxide KOH Vaal ow | Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH), a 204" | Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(Oh), uu - ; i ; Mg + 20H Aluminium Hydroxide Al(OH), Keo 30x EACTIONS OF ACIDS —Ne part of ach Formed by +Ve part (Ction) becomes the -ve part of selt E a ~vebart (orien) PTE becomes Test - Ho burns the +Ve part of down the salt 2 POP. FeCl, + Hy Sound. ae” do not keep curd or sour eatables (acidic they react and produce poisonous salt. Scanned with CamScannerCONCLUSION Metal im this compound becomes No NEW yj Fo. the 4ve part of the salt ¢ ae R METAL CARBONATE /] Geo? > + CARBON Dioxipg * Wa 2 HYDROGEN hh, TARBONATE cE A i value (Or pllogeehes Oy fame... ~ ire. ath t rill", iA becomes -ve b* ? “ft salt CalOH),* CO. Ceo, Clive water) vr Nese hy rattle eng ui 4s Eg. Na;CO; + HCL >,Nedl + CO, + H,0 tern frag Tv Colo, 3 ACID + BASE > SALT + WATER (also known as neutralisation res, How this reaction takes place :- € ay tve part —> Hf ACID =ve part =~ . > -ve par oe SALT H,0 pase —? tye bt > -ve part ow Eg. NaOH + HCl > NaCl + H,0 ACID + BASE—> SALT + WATER Similarly, ACID + METALLIC OXIDE —> SALT + WATER NON METALLIC OXIDE + BASE —» SALT + WATER Metallic oxides are basic in nature e Non metallic oxides are acidic in natu Scanned with CamScanner-_— ~~ 1 SCALE Girls in chemistry lab P = scale to measure the strength of an acid or a base. The scale varies from Oto 14. ased on the pH value of the solution, one can the acidic\basic strength of the solution. tell ee tion of H’ ions, more is More is the concentral the solution acidic. _ / More is the concentration of OH ions, more is the solution basic. 1 | Gorm! & Neutral Acidic nature increasing Tnerease in lon concentration = ¢_——— ———»_—_Decrease in H! ton concentration Variation of pH with the change in concentration of H*{aq) and OH‘(aq) fons pH <7 (acidic) pH =7 (neutral) pH >7 (basic) xing an acid or base with water results in decrease in Lab teacher when you do anything without e concentration of ions (H,0'/OH) per unit volume. Wearing the lab coat. cha process is called dilution and the acid or the om s¢ is said to be diluted. The process of dissolving an ‘id or a base in water is highly exothermic. The acid just always be added slowly to water with constant irring. If water is added to a concentrated acid, the jeat generated may cause the mixture to splash out ind cause burns. The glass container may also break Jue to excessive local heating. me naturally occurring acids:- Source Acid Source Acid Vinegar Acetic Acid Curd Lactic Acid SIUey Tae Se Aci 7 : dis it Orange Citric Acid. += Lemon Citric Acid eens tonya ee jomato —Oxalic Acid Ant Sting Methanoic Acid Scanned with CamScannerBUS PADH LO ] N NHI PTA..- HEADING TITLE JO BHI H MUJHE NaCl) a, common salt ( on ricity Is passed through hloride (called brine). SODIUM CHLORID! , Chlor-Alkali process: When elec an aqueous solution of sodium ct NaOH + Cl, +H, CHEMICAL EQUATION: NaCl +H.0 . NaCl x n ok anode. eat csthole Cathy, H ch Naoy * Use: Fuels, margarine, Use: Water treatment, Use: Soa) Ps, deter, ammonia forfertilsers swimming pool, PVC, Paper making ani disinfectants, pesticides fibers, de-greangn’ Ce G v Hydrochloric Acid Bleach Use: cleaning steel, ammonium Use: household bleaches, chloride, medicines, cosmetics bleaching fabric + CALCIUM OXYCHLORIDE a.k.a. Bleaching Powder (CaOCI,) Preparation: Ca(OH), + Cl, > CaOCl, + H,0 Uses: 1) For bleaching: a) cotton and linen in the textile industry. b) wood pulp in paper factory. c) washed clothes in laundry. 2) As an oxidising agent in chemical industry. 3) For disinfecting drinking water. Scanned with CamScannercopiUNt HYOROGENCARBONATE a.k.a, Baking Soda (NaHCO,) ; i cl ct -> NH,CI+ NaHCO, separation: NaCl H,0 + CO, NH, > NHC bo it ") For making baking powder, which is a mixture of baking soda and a mild acid, When baking powder Is heated or mixed in water, the Use! edible acid such as tartaric following reaction takes plac ee) NaHCO; + HY >(COz)+ 1:0 + sodium salt of acid e a \ couse bread or cake to vise rc J making them soft & sboyy- (acid + metal hydrogencarbonate wali reaction yaad ai? vohi hua h yha dhyan s dekho) 2) Ingredient in antacids. 3) Used in soda-acid fire extinguisher. SODIUM CARBONATE a.k.a. Washing Soda (Na,CO,.10H,0) Preparation: NaHCO, "+ Na,co, + H,0 + CO, STUDY TIP. NaCO, +10H,O > Na,CO,.10H,0 1 you study with music, Uses: 1) glass, soap and paper industry. make sure it's instrumental. 2) manufacturing of sodium compounds such as borax. 3) cleaning agent for domestic purposes. 4) removing permanent hardness of water. Let's talk about what's that 10H, in washing soda. The crystals of salts appear to be dry but actually they are not. They contain water of crystallisation, | | The fixed no. of water molecules | present in one formula unit of salt. 3.Na,CO,.10H,0 CuSO,.SH,O €2S0,.2H,0 (calcium sulphate dihydrate a.k.a. gypsum) see. Scanned with CamScannert PLASTER OF PARIS | Chemical name = calcium sulphate hemihydrate 2 writs of CSO. Chemical formula = CaS0..4H,0 ake water molecules and becom Preparation: Heating gypsum at 373 k, Gypsum loses Paris. Mee, mg ville uater pop et Gypsum white ) (herd sit) OF COPPER © peader most ¢ TeELLUeIUy CaSO,.%H,0 + 1%H,O > CaSO,.2H,O 222 1 Po? gypsum CAUSE You'er Uses: 1) Doctor uses as plaster for supporting fractured bones. 2) Making toys. 3) Material of decoration. 4) Making smooth surfaces. ida. Y) @RFatima_ Oxygen and potassium went for a date and it is totally OK. Saad ’ @Overlord_Xd Don't tell me. Yesterday | saw Oxygen with Magnesium and | was like OMg he is cheating on Potassium. Jees...chapter Kham but wanna hear my childhood story? used to eat mitti yum yum n ek baar mumma n pkad liga aur bhut emjhaya (pee kya tha mitt khant band aur POP khani shuru kr di Burp. Scanned with CamScannerPecific ratio, to neutralise this so! Pquired. Find the ratio of A,:A. AO DEKHE BUDDHI MEIN KITNA GHUSA DF. lad ) Just complete the reaction. Bhaad may gyi balancing. Saad fF a) Al + SO, > 4 b) > Ko, + HO 4 a > Me(NO,), + H, d) Crushed egg shells are reacted with an acid used for cleaning steel. Write down the chemical equation for the reaction. Kya hua pages piche palatne ka man kr rha h. xD. ) Five solution A, B, C, D and E when tested with universal indicators showed pH as 4, 1, 11, 7 and 9 respectively. Which solution is a) Neutral b) Strongly alkaline c) Strongly acidic d) Weakly acidic e) Weakly alkaline Also arrange the solutions in increasing order of hydrogen ion concentration. 10 mlof solution of NaOH is found to be completely neutral HCI. What is the amount of HCI solution (same solution es before) re: of same solution of NaOH. How is the concentration of hydronium ion Isitincreased or decreased? P QUESTION. (Only legends can do it...outof syllabus h) neutralise the 7 ml of acid A,, 4 ml of base neutralise the 4 ml of base B, 3 ml of aci solution of 22 ml is made by adding acid jon 16 ml Scanned with CamScannerit als: Physical properties of met . Metalilstre: Shining sue ' Solid, hard, high melting poi ‘hi + Malleability: can be beaten into the most malleable metal. » Ductility: can be drawn into metal. * Good conductors of heat, of heat. / * Goodconductorsofelectricity. * Sonorous: produceasound on striking. thin wires. Gold i Physical properties of non-metal: sheets. Gold and silver are s the most ductile silver and copper are best conductors Moni; IK in stom, : crying becays." late. Don't ty ay you're doing me = Non-metals do not possess any of the properties which metal possess. Mtlb Ur ae points ka opposite kr do: bad conductor, soft, not malleable etc. Exceptions: Mercury, ametalisliquid atroom temperature. Gallium and caesium (metals) melting points. lodineis a non-metal butlustrous Lead and mercury (metals) of heat. ) have very low ) are poor conductors Diamond, an allotrope of carbon i natural substance known, ani melting and boiling point. Graphite, an allotrope of carb ofelectricity, Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, have low densities and low mel s the hardest d has a very high }n is a conductor Non-metalsare either solid or gas except bromine which isa liquid. Some of the examples: carbon, sulphur, iodine, oxygen, hydrogen etc. 7 EST et Potassium) are so s ing points, oft that they can be cut with a knife The Scanned with CamScannereMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS Metal + oxygen > metal oxide cu + 0,9 Cu0 A + 0,9AL0, des which show acidic aswellas ic oxides: Metal oxi 5 well as bases to jour, they react with both acids a and water. E.g.Al,0,,Zn0. Metal,dxide: photerl sic behav oduce salts different reactivity towards oxygen. tassium and sodium react sO vigorous! f kept in the ptimmersedin kerosene oil to avoid accl ly that they catch fire i ferent metals show: idental fires. Metals such as PO ce, theyare ke| oxide, to prevent open. Hen surfaces of metals such as Mg, Al, Zn, Pb etc. are covered with a thin layer of further oxidation. oxygenevenat high temperatures. siiver and gold donot react with Juce a metal oxide and hydrogen gas. Metal oxides that Metal react with water and prod are soluble in water dissolve in it to further form metal hydroxide. (reaction is violent even with cold water and so + H,0 > NaOH + H, + heat ic that hydrogen immediately catches fire) + HO > KOH + H, + heat exothermi + HO Ca(OH), + H, (less violent for hydrogen to catch fire) lz + HO ->Mg(OH), + H, (reacts with hot water) HO, > ALO, + 4, vt HO, > FeO, + H, r f Water, u |, Fe do not form hydroxide as their oxides are not luble, They do not react with hot water but steam.) \ letals like Pb, Cu, Ag, Au do not react with water. Scanned with CamScannertoh deka dekha sy a cao ’ — hy reacts with nitric acid (HNO,) as itis i ved when a metal , isa But i e I est patie toH,Oanditself get reduced to any of the Mage agent. Ito A af Fan and manganese (Mn) react with very diluted HNO, toevolve Hay | . jut mi ' x’ Metal + Acid) Salt + H, ( Displacement Reaction: Only more reactive metal can displace a less rea a is) : tive Me compound. tay Fe + CuSO, > FeSO, + Cu Cu + FeSO, > no reaction as copper is not More reactive than iron. The reactivity series: K potassium Na sodium Ca. calcium Mg magnesium Al aluminium 2n zine Fe iron sl Pb lead activity decrease UH] [hydrogen] ‘U copper He mercury Ag. silver Au gold most reactive least reactive — Scanned with CamScannerjlonic COMPOUNDS tormed when a metal and a non-metal react. Metal loses electron(s) which is gained by non-metal such manner that octet of both is completely filled, ‘ormation of lonic Compounds: NaCl ® cl + No —>Wa +6 é (23, (259) Q + e ~» (ot?) (258,38) i oe Ne + Lk — (Ne')),@5] *R () No,O - O*= Wea e QO +2é@€7 Jey (2,2) (2,6) (2,8) wot WEE -roperties of lonic Compounds: |. Physical nature: solids and somewhat hard due to strong force of attraction between the Positive and negative ion. 1. High melting and boiling point: large amount of energy is required to break the strong inter ionic attraction. 5. Solubility: generally soluble in water and insoluble in petrol, kerosene etc. |. Conduction of electricity: solid state NO but in molten state YES as movement of ions is not Possible in solid state while in molten state electrostatic force of attraction is overcome due to heat and ions can move freely. Scanned with CamScannerOCCURRENCE OF METALS Jements oF compounds, which occur TeacherAm | clear? inerals: The el — , The class:Crystal cloor, naturally in the earth’s crust. Tho crystal: minerals contair r metal and can Ores: At some places, na very high percentage of a particula be profitably extracted, These minerals are called ores. Gangue: ores mined from earth are contaminated with large amount of impurities such as soil, sand etc. These impurities are called gangue. EXTRACTION OF METAL Extraction of metal depends on the reactivity of the metal. Ore 1° Least reactive metals: For e.g. gold, silver, platinum, are found in free state. — 2* Low reactive metals: beak sulphide ores beak, oxide ores Weak, metal Extraction of meta from ore Eg.HeS + o, Feats go + SO, Hgo Sat, Hg + 0, E.g.CuS + O, Mel. CuO + SO, cu0 cus Wa, cu + 50, Refining of Metal 3” Moderately reactive metals: Corboroke alcination ore oxide reduction Sulphide roagtin: ore ‘ \ ore tis easier to obtain a metal from its oxides as ompi 'S sulphides and carbona' tal from its oxidk compared to its sul bonates: Scanned with CamScannerCALCINATION ROASTING conversion of carbonate — conversion of sulphide ore to oride ore. ore to oxide ore, by heating strongly in by heating in the jimited air. presence of excess air. £¢.2nCO, + Heat > E.g. ZnS +0, + Heat> 2n0 + CO, ZnO + SO, eduction of metal oxide to metal: By carbon eg 2n0 + C > 2n + CO By more reactive metal (Displacement Reaction) eg. Fe,0,+Al > AlO,+ Fe +Heat This particular reaction is also called thermit reaction. Used to join railway tracks or cracked machine parts. ° , TAY CALS Highly reactive metal: Metals are obtained by electrolytic reduction. For metals like Na, Mg, Ca. Done by electrolysis of their molten chlorides where the metal gets deposited at cathode and CI, liberated at anode. t up: Impure metal is at anode; Thin strip of pure metal is at cathode and a solution of metal alt is used as electrolyte. In passing current: Pure metal from anode dissolve into electrolyte. Equivalent amount of pure ‘etal frorn electrolyte is deposited on the cathode. luble impurities > into the solution MOTIVATION Insoluble impurities -> settle down at bottom of anode you can't handle stress, (anode mud) you can't handle success. Scanned with CamScanner——_—lt—w NN OF CORROSION PREVENTIO! prevented by: The rusting of iron canbe 1) Painting 2) Galvanising 3) Making alloys 4) oiling Do wot 5) Chrome plating 6) Greasing gust - 7) Anodising thod of protecting steel and iron from Galvanising: Me! 1g them with a thin layer of zinc. rusting by coatin roving the properties of a metal. Alloying: Method of imp is mixture of two or more metals, Analloy is a homogeneous ora metal and a non-metal. pureiron > very soft and stretched easily when hot hard and strong Eg. stainless steel (hard and does not rust) But, iron + carbon > iron + nickel + chromium > If one of the metal is mercury then the alloy is called amalgam. Other important alloys: Brass is made of copper and zinc. Bronze is made of copper and tin. Solder is made of lead and tin. (used for welding electrical wires together) Benefits of alloys: © Prevent corrosion Increases strength yh ° © Lower melting point © Lower electrical conductivity Ddeerturettb conga prrics. Scanned with CamScannerKRIPYA PRSHNO KA UTTAR DE show the formation of the following by the transfer of electrons (a) MeCl, (b) AlLOs 2. All minerals are ores but all ores are not minerals. (true/false) 3, Name two metals which will displace hydrogen from diluted acids and two metals which will not. MATA JI PRSHAN (BIG BRAIN TIME) gr.) there are four metals A, B, C and D. It is known that only one of these statement is true and the remaining two are false. i. Bis more reactive than A ji, Ais more reactive than C iii, D is more reactive than B Then, a) Ais the most reactive b) Bis the most reactive c) Cis the most reactive d) Dis the most reactive Scanned with CamScanneraes COMPOUNDS i0-0-0+C+C=0=0~C~C CARBON AN er ton ch esuskanones E COVALENT BOND or losing electrons from the outermost shell, BONDING IN CARBON - TH! Carbon cannot form ionic bonds bygainin + {fitweretogainorlose electrons: oat ec NS forming C’ anion. ut it would be difficult for the nucleus ys, six protonstohold on totenclectrons- 2. It could lose four electrons forming c" catio energy toremove four electrons. Carbon forms bond by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with ator, cofother elements. n, But it would require a large arnoury 4 manyotherelements form molecules by sharing electrons in this manne © Notjustcerbon, but shells of both the atoms and lead to both ator, © The shared electrons belong to the outer s! attaining the noble gas configuration. 1 a of H, by single bond between two hydrogen atoms. Hyd. Pied YOragen _ GD) ) ston [pp tL shared electrons OO fre H—}j 2 n 2. Formation of O, by y double bi atoms. ond between two oxygen MOTIVATION Decide what you want. | Make a fckin plan, Work on 0 . | that shit every single day. (:0)) mse Scanned with CamScanner MoleculeElectron dot structure for methane (CH,). cS CED 4 Electron dot structure for carbon dioxide (CO,). @) 1 (SN 1 S ich bonds which are formed by the sharing of an ectron pair between two atoms are known as © Low melting and boiling points (weak inter _ molecular forces). * Poor conductors of electricity (electrons are COVALENT ND shared, no charged particles are formed). Carbon Compounds Saturated Compounds: Compounds of carbon which are linked only by single bonds between the carbon atoms. cc equ c-.. , Ca Cerca, / C Unsaturated Compounds: Compounds of carbon having d i their eaated Compa pi 6 double or triple bonds between eG Cae ,CEC-C, C-C=c-« Scanned with CamScannerHYDROCARBONS Carbon compounds which contain j TYPES OF HYDROCARBONS: Alkane: Saturated hydrocarbons. ust carbon and hydrogen. X te see, tain one or more Alkene: Unsaturated hydrocarbons which con! Joubl fe double bond. me =C : e or more triple bond. Alkyne: Unsaturated hydrocarbon which contain on -C=C- NOMENCLATURE OF HYDROCARBONS Name of a hydrocarbon consists of two parts: Prefix + Suffix Prefix is based on number of carbon atoms in the chain. Chain length Pent Hex Suffix is based on if hydrocarbon is alkane, alkene, poonns alkyne. Hydrocarbon Suffix kane ‘ape alkene ene Alkyne i EXAMPLE 4 He eee way H Uf =Cuy -C=c-c-# Magee GW ul Ww KHH HK Ethene Con Pro Pyne Pentone on C3Ky Ce A Scanned with CamScanner{qnueTURAL IFOMERS yond vat identical molecular formula but different structures are called structural Mio aructures vat chemical formula Gy, " \ Wow w \ aH 4 Pain : 1 Ze mH wel ¢ CHCOW Y yee’ \ to i; 1 oN wo How pod Ue. } W M sy pONO.K STRUCTURE YAAD KR LO: Renzene:- i + Cyeloleyane Wf nl (aM) wo rN Ly Ceo LO AN, c . yt c Loh ba WS “Mo ( *e7 “ne 5 n \ Hw 4 FUNCTIONAL GROUP in» hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogens can be replaced by other elements such that the valeney of carbon remains satisfied. In such compounds, the element replacing hydrogen is referred to as a heteroatom. These heteroatoms are also present in some groups. These heteroatoms and the group containing these confer specific properties to the compound. Regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain and are called functional groups. rT ey ee: ay Halos (Choro frome) papel Reetie - Coro Bromo de. hydrogen atom) Oxygen 1. New on SulGe - ol 5 em << sult - al 8. Keune a Salts - One 4. Carty wed Son Sale = Ge ot Scanned with CamScannerNOMENCLATURE OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS ! «Prefix + Hydrocarbon ' co | Gepamrtopesuttx Tn the case, delde ‘te Hat © wd > adh the akproatriate, TK" «) Is replaced. Hydrocarbon: The alkane of which hydrogen atom(s) 15 reP! HOMOLOGOUS SERIES al group substitutes for h unds in which the same functional group drogen in ogous series. « Aseries of compo! i ‘alled a homo! a akan MOTIVATION Cno# Gi oom ep ny CH.OH Gt * The ditertate befwoan the formula of any two successive members is CH,. 3 «The difference between the molecules mass |S A cal oropertos 2 They belong to same functional group i.e. same Cl VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON There are huge number of carbon compounds. These compounds have long chains, branched chain and even rings. © Whyisit seen in the carbon and are: 1. Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of carbon, giving riset lerge molecules. This property is called catenation. / i 2. Since carbon has a valency of four, it is capable of bonding with four other atoms of | carbon or atoms of some other monovalent element. ! CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS no other elements? Two factors noticed in carbon fort Combustion: Carbon in all its allotropic form, burns i ioxit , burns in oxyge new the release of heat and light. gent give orton a i. C+0,> CO, +heat and light ji, CH, +0, CO, +H,0 + heat and light | iil. BieHoN +0, > CO, +H,0 + heat and light = Saturated hydrocarbons will generall it Salute hdtpeartons rere 'y give a clean flame but limiting the supply of aif’ The gas/kero: 5 for ai gas/kerosene stove has inlets for air so that sufficiently oxygen rich mixture is burnt © a clean blue flame. If you observe e: 1 lackened, it me . e the bottoms of ing bi ae of cooking vessels getti ites hat the air holes are blocked and fuel is getting wasted. ‘ne n ” = Unsaturated carbon compounds give a yellow ‘ame with lots of black smoke. Unsaturated carbon Bive a yell ith lot: lack smokt Scanned with CamScannerdavon: Retin? which alcohols are converted to carboxylic acids, i " on 4 CH,OK Mvaline KMnOn +heck chs) oR Radial x60; ehedk nisin agents ares sualie potassium permanganate + fiaied potassium dichromate asi CH, COOK jrion reaction: unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the jkel to give saturated hydrocarbons, catalysts are substances that causes a reaction to occur or proceed at different rate without the reaction itself being affected. This reaction is commonly used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils. Presence of catalysts such as palladium or & * ickeh Cetalyst ; \ Sct Nick Gtelyst @—C-C—R / Xe He yo\ & e @ stitution Reaction: Chlorine is added to saturated hydrocarbon in the presence of sunlight. hen chlorine replace the hydrogen atoms one by one. Ay + Qe _sunlight C3 - AL OME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS Liquid, soluble in water. Commonly called alcohol and is the active ingredient ofall alcoholic drinks. Being good solvent it is used in medicine such as tincture iodine, cough syrups and many tonics. actions: Danie! MM The cooler! | Reaction with sodium =e Na+ CH3CH,0X —> Hy GRO Ra My (Sodium ekhoride) Scanned with CamScannerrocarbon: 2. Reaction to give unsaturated hyd tiphuric acid Heating ethanol at 443K with excess S| Mok cone yr CH3CH20H 42 SOK Ceth ene) CEthonelS The concentrated sulph water from ethanol. Ethanoicacid (CH,COOH) Properties: © Commonly calledaceticacid e 5.8% solution of acetic acidit * Melting point 290K, so freezes during winter. © Carboxylicacids are weakacids. ric acid can be regarded as dehydration agent which remy uri ] in waters called vinegar which is used as a preservative in, Reactions: 1. Esterification reaction (formation of ester by reaction of an acid and an alcohol) cil g Cig COOH + Cy CH OH etalyst oy, — C- O-CHa- Os (Ebene acid) (Ethanol) (ester) 0 Esters are sweet smelling substances used in making perfumes and as flavouring agents © Ontreating with sodium hydroxide (alkali), the ester is converted back to alcohol and sodium salt of carboxylic acid. This reaction is known as saponification because itis use the preparation of soap. No OH CH, C000, 1, ————_> C24 g0H + Cz CooNa 2. Reaction with base...padh toh rkhih y reaction :/ CH,COOH = + NaOH — > CH; Coo + HO (Prc.d) (Case) (Salt) (uct Reaction with carbonate/h drogen carbonate...are are yrr acid " o.600H +Na,CO,-> CH,COONa +H,0 + CO, pe COOH + NaHCO,->CH,COONa + H,0 + co, 3, Scanned with CamScannerids, of soap dissolve in water while the issolve iy oll. The soap motecutos thus pd micelles, © t}is Helps iy dissolving the «lit in saway DETERGENTS © The chai 7y/o me mixing every shampoos and soaps in the shower to get the ultimate Washing mixture, SeMHHHN TO potassium salts Mos drops soap while taking a shower of soap with the calcium and magnesium salts cause the hardness of water. wercome this problem detergents are used as cleaning, agents. ents are ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids. rged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium, nd magnesium ions in hard water, Thus, they are effective in hard water, Detergents are used to make shampoos and Products for cleaning clothes, When you get soap in your eye but you tryna see the demon in the shower with you Scanned with CamScanner“SOLUTION” NIKALO HAHAHAHA...DID YOU & Jj IT??? SOOLUUTION NIKALO aH AAV NAL MIX KRNE PR BANTA H...NHI SMJ M AU ‘ 1. Draw the electron dot structure for oF \ * Propanone Sof 2 —g 2. How many structural isomers can you draw for pentane? [= 3. Draw the structure for: + Butanone * Propanoic acid * Pentanal 4. Name the following compounds S CW, —Ch.- 4 . \ S H-C=o0 i) ‘ u mn WeCme _ => ro &7CSc-y How : SH Ow will you convert Ethanol to Chloroethan le. BAAAAP SOLUTION NIKALO: Q. How many str ct mers can Ir m form 5 ‘Ural isoy 5 Can You draw having ‘olecul ar formula C, (hint: H,0. Scanned with CamScannerRIODIC CLAS LG CLASSLELCANVLON Cr Eee Dae Fao); 3 iN Lara PMU eZals LO NLC) Fer A ments were being discovered, scientists gathered more and more the properties of these elements. | attempts to classify elements according to their «diferent ele formation about in made several at orderly arrangement. - ar present 118 elements are known to us, out of these, 98 are naturally occurring. At properties and obtain ‘ pOBEREINER'S TRIADS h similar in 3817, Johann Wolfgang Débereiner tried to arrange the elements wit properties into groups. He identified some groups having three elements each, so he called th ese groups ‘triads’. a fal ; ‘i i When the three elements ina triad were written in the order of increasing atomic + exes, the atomic mass of the middle element was roughly the average of the atomic masses of the other two elements. scapes Example: Li 69 : MOTIVATION ' u couldn't do Na 23.0 peuuee vou didn't had time. . K 39.0 The ones who made it had 24 Limitation hours just like you. + He could identify only three triads from the elements known at thattime. + Thissystem of classification into triads was not found to be useful. NEWLANDS LAW OF OCTAVES «© In1866, John Newlands arranged then known elementsintheorder jai ofincreasing atomic masses. «Started from hydrogen and ended at thorium (56th element). © He found out that every eighth element had properties similar to that of the first. Limitation * The Law of Octaves was applicable only upto calcium, after calcium every eighth element did not possess properties similar to that of the first. jens assumed no more element would be discovered in the \ ure, But later on, several new elements were discovered who wl ‘tfitinto the Law of Octaves. | nee adjusted two elements in the same slot but also put some ‘elements under the same group. Scanned with CamScannerMENDELEEV'S PERIODIC TABLE ments were sinvents period table so ondeléev: 9 the 7 s When he started his work 63 ele! Mend io memorise the elements pr. je examine oa masses of the pala a physical and chemical propertie i e Among chemical propertie®, concentrated on the compoun - slements with oxygen and hyar08 Ee ; «It was also observed that aan at periodic recurrence of elements W! physical and chemical properté> sjarertotie . Onthat basis Mendeleev formulate Pot Law, which states that ‘the properties OF asses! | cee econ vertical columns called ‘groups’ and horizontal r, Mendeleev's Perio . eon "have Me, dthe relationship betw won't i “makes students memorise theta nd their Teacher Mendeléey formed bY alata boldly predicted the existence of sor i Table. He boldly ome gaps in his Periodic ea . Ment chad not been discovered at that time. Mendeleev name’ the ues ‘ea to name of preceding element in the same group Scandium, al im ra discovered |ater have properties similar to Eka-boron, Eka-aluminium, Eka-silicon respectie © Wheninert gases were discovered they could be placed ina new group without disturbing! existing order. Limitation ‘© Nofixed position can be given to hydrogen in the periodic table. * Isotopes ofall elements posed a challenge to Mendeléev’s Periodic Law. * Atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in going from one element to next. 50! not possible to predict how many elements could be discovered between two elements. MODERN PERIODIC TABLE * In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that t properly than its atomic mass, he atomic number of an element is a more fundame* * The Modern Periodic Law stated: Properties of elements.a ¢ Elements when arran; rea periodic func tion i ed in order of increcen et atomic number’ Icreasi i if known as the Modern Periodic Table ve Borns number lead to the cass] [thas 18 vertcalcolumns known a‘ lementsin same group ha a ve same number . Fesne numberof shellsincreasesas we odo tions, Elements in same column have same n imber a ne rou. Increases as we move from leftto ral ea : of sh htina period, ells. The number of valence elect” 1 Scanned with CamScanner2% jgeNDS IN MODERN PERIODIC TABLE rs to the size of an atom. ad atomic size: Refe! ‘Treveoses Decreases Down ‘he nevoss the Grow| eviod Vv p ° Metallic character: Metals are electropositive and tends to lose electrons. ——_—_—_> Tneveases Decreases Doon the ociross t vod 1 Growl, per Non-Metallic character: Non-metals are electronegative and tends to gain electrons. ——_—_ 7 Decreases Tneveases Down the otros dy Gi eulp pew od Scanned with CamScannerBOMPOC (vorros) 1 : illed with electrons a snl b shot which are completely filled wit! lls, bot (a) two shells, ion 2, 8, 2? figuration 2, 8, ; ce she ie ofthese with four electrons in its tle much ae oa eae with three electrons in tts “2 cme oer ance many electrons in its second shell as in its (e) twice as ic Tabi Q2. The position of three elements A, Band Cin the eb ty le Grou 16 Groub Shown bly, - A (a) State Whether Ais a metal or non-metal (b) State Whether Cis more Feactive or less reactive than A, (C) Will Che larger or smaller in size than B? (¢) Which type OF ion, cation OF anion, will be formed by element A? Yu y ~~ @ G@ aN Y My cS M w ee “ & as A Scanned with CamScannerem living organisms are called life processe: Nutrition Respiration Transportation Excretion s, Jecular movements are criteria for beingalive, In single-celled organism, no specific organs for taking i food, exchange of gases or removal of wastes ray be needed because the entire surface of the taaiism in contact with the environment, . In multi-cellular organisms like humans, surrounding environment. Thus, cells, j all the cells may not be in direct contact with the simple diffusion will not meet the requirements of all the he organisms manufacture their own food using the inorganic sources. They manufacture their own food using raw materials like CO,, water and chemicals. Autotrophs can be of two types: * Phototroph e.g. Green plants. MOTIVATION Even if no one is watching, he organisms dependon others for the food. future yous stil watching. hey obtain the nutrition from plants, animals and dead decaying. Heterotroph can be classified as * Holozoice.g. Human being. * Parasite e.g. Worms. * Saprophyte e.g. Bacteria, certain fungi. Thomdes | 0, them! “0 iological catalysts called enzymes. 00 a= ze Internal Energy Reserve for Plants: Starch O OQa— & | “i Internal Energy Reserve for Animals: Glycogen 0 ee Scanned with CamScannerPhotosynthesis BCO, + 124,09 SS €.4,.0, + 60, + 6H,0 Process c el hyll. Absorption of light energy by chlorop! i and Conversion of light energy to chemical nena splitting of water molecules into hydrogen an oxygen. Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates. Stomata (tiny pores present on the surface of leaves) 1. Helps in gaseous exchange for photosynthesis. Helps in loss of water for transpiration. v ard cells. The guard cells swell when water nto them, causing stomatal pore to open. Similarly, the pore closes if the guard cells shrink, N utrition in Amoeba Nutrition in Amoeba Amoeba extends its fin, form food vacuole. The and undigested food moves Out via the cytoplasm, NUCLEUS if The opening and closing of the pore is a function of ger-like projections called Pseudo Process of digestion and absorpi Sunlight: *exists* Plant: —-> UAR' rae ore ) STehLoeor as WY] podia and engulfs the food particle t: tion takes place inside the food va cud Girls with makeup ate nothing when o Scanned with CamScanner| sition in Human Beings imentarY Canal: A long tube extending from the mouth to the anus, |. Ingestion or Intake of food (through mouth or buccal cavit ) i. Digestion i uth or buccal cavity ) " Teeth .\ I «crushing and grinding of food, Nh i h “4 Tongue + To taste the food. * Proper mixing of food with the saliva. Salivary gland Saliva secretion. 0 + Lubricates the food. » Starch —Slvarvamvlase sugar. 6 ( oesophagus or Food Pipe (Transfer of food into stomach) stomach: Cshaped organ “> Gastric juice from gastric gland present in the wall of stomach HCI * Tomake the medium acidic. © Tokillthe bacteria. Pepsin * Protein digesting enzyme. Mucus . To protect the inner lining of stomach from HCl. le which releases it in > The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter muscl small amounts into the small intestine. ) Small intestine (site of complete digestion) 1. Liver > bile juice Tene * To make the medium alkaline. ouniees * Break down of fats via bile salt. 2. Pancreas > pancreatic juice * Trypsin: protein digesting enzymes Dlaphracy Seu (Dace ea) * Lipase: fat digesting enzyme. Gat blader 3. Intestinal glands > intestinal juice a ssumth To convert: an sot * Carbohydrates into glucose. Pancreas — Protein into amino acids. | argentine (Caos * Fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Scanned with CamScanneriI), Absorption - us finger-like projecti 7 Y The inner lining of the small intestine has numer 1B Jections alloy ' h ichly supplied wit ineeasesthe surface rea for 2050107 eT ody wera isungedvestt i take the absorbed food to each an sir of old tissues. for oni energy, building up new tissues and the rep d in large Oty, Y Water is absorbed from the undigested food In 11B® intestine. ns ane Sie ir eat (CUCL o Betas CIMER De epei ce th IV, Egestion ; The unabsorbed food is egested from the body via the anus. Exit is regulated by the anal sphincter. © Herbivores > longer intestine > to digest cellulose © Carnivores > shorter intestine -> to digest meat (easily digested) RESPIRATION Absence of Breakdown of glucose by various pathways Absence gen Ethanol + Carbon dioxtde + En (inyeast)(2-carbon molecule) a Lactic acid + Bneney (Couas Cros) mn outyg) (B-carbon molecule) Presence of ‘oxygen (in mitochondria) Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy The energy released during the process of respiration is used to make an ATP molecule. ATPist: energy currency for most cellular processes. Animals that live in water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water. Since the amount of diss oxygen is fairly low compared to the amount of oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing in organisms is much faster than that seen in terrestrial organisms. Common features of the respiratory organs in aquatic and terrestrial animals: 1. The organs have a structure that increases the surface area which is in contact with'® oxygen-rich atmosphere. 2. The organ having the surfaces lined with extensive network of blood capillaries. 3. Since the surface is very fine and delicate, itis usually placed within the body for protector MOTIVATION It always seems impossible until itis done. Scanned with CamScanneral , takeof ar through postr The passage lined with fine hairs and mucus to filter the air. iethrough throat into lungs. Rings of cartilage present in throat ensures that air passage does potcollapse- iedictdedy within the lungs, Passage ivided into smaller and smaller tubes, passage terminate in balloon lke structure called alveoli. Alveoli provides surface for the exchange of gases. Walls of alveolicontains an extensivenetworkof blood vessels. , The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the oxygeninthealveolarairistaken Up by blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be transported to glithecellsin the body. imum volume of air which is present inside the lungs is called the residual volumeof ; nich ensures that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and carbon dioxide to be nog bin vasal Respiratory pigment of human passar 2. presentinred blood corpuscles | 7 High affinity for oxygen mout ; cavity Larynx Pho.rynx sTUDY TIP stop after every paragraph/page try to explain what you just read. Rings ent Blend Si Lang ( sear “pig Nee” Dithnagy Ais gh) 6 oe Se ime fine becho J's bee be E] bum patho LS KG... IL apene ne INSPORTATION 04: A fluid connective tissue. ma: Transports food, CO,, and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form. + Carry oxygen, Heart: Has chambers to prevent mixing of oxygen rich and carbon dioxide rich blood. Alveali | Scanned with CamScannerQue vt blood vo © Ovgenated blood hpntmonaryvell s(t atrium throu Fentricle aieatriun tolel body through Aorta, 1 Hromlungs tole > Blood is transferred om le 3. Blood ispumped out to the © Doorygenated blood ert through vena Cave om the body to right atrium i elcle. a eater! tatriumtoright ventricle rods transterred front Blood is tansterred (onl fungs through pulmonary +. Blood is pumped out to the aiseriss hackwards when theatrla or ventricles contra chambered heart and tolerate some mixing ¥ Amphibians and many reptiles have three a les le GRRE ate aaa nbered heart, the blood Is pumped {0 tne Sere andy directly tothe rest of the body. Thus, blood goes only once throug! artin the fig cycle of passage through the body. . m | ithe bla gees twice through the heartduringeach cycle in other vertebrates, Ths isin, Valves ensure that blood does not flow Maing asdouble circulation, Veins é Arteries / Carry blood from heart to various Collect blood from various organs and bring it back to heart. organs of body. Carry de-oxygenated blood except Carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary vein. Walls are thin and not very elastic. Valves are absent. Valves are present. Blood flows with great pressure. Blood flows with low pressure. Narrow Lumen, Wide Lumen. pulmonary artery. Walls are thick and elastic. ¥ Onreaching an organ or tissue, the artery divides into smaller and smaller vessels to bringthe blood in contact with all the individual cells. The smallest vessels have walls which are one-él thick and are called capillaries, ¥ The blood has platelet cells which circ la ulate around the b net clot the blood at the points of injury, ere ale Lymph (tissue fluid) 1. Present nintercellularspaces in the tissues 2. Colourless , 3. Contain less protein ¢ Lymph drains into lyn i s phatic capillaries lymph vessels that finally open into ae a * Lymph carries digested and absorbed f; ton cellular space backinto the blood. Pt ro tercellular spaces, which join to form le and drains excess fluid from att Scanned with CamScannerMe getting At on blood test i didn't even study for, Phloem transport of water containing dissolved Transport of soluble product of mineralsis called ascent of sap. photosynthesis is called translocation. rransport of water always take place in Transport of food can take place in any upward direction. direction on requirement of plant. itis a physical process. Itis an active process. Transpiration pull and root pressure are Food always move from region of high the two forces which involved. pressure to region of low pressure. Tissues, vessels and tracheids of roots Sieve tubes and companion cells are are main cell which are involved in involved. transportation of water. Transpiration also helps in temperature regulation. RETION ie process of removal of harmful metabolic wastes from the body is called excretion. PS5:comesout 1, Filters out waste product from blood like urea or uric acid. 2. Produce urine. Ureter: Passes urine from kidney to urinary bladder. Urinary bladder: Stores urine and is released through Urethra, Sicitration unit; Nephron Some substance in the initial filtrate, such as glucose, amino Acids, salts and a major amount of water, are selectively re- absorbed as the urine flows along the tube. Scanned with CamScanner. Amount of water reabsorbed depends on L Howmuch excess water there isin the body. A 2 How much of dissolved waste there sto be excreted. InPlants . Oxygen asa waste productisreleased during photosynthesis. * Theycangetrid of excess water by transportation. # Waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles andas resins, gums, espegi + Waste products may be stored in eavesthat all off eel * _ Plantsalso excrete some waste substances into the soil around them, ally in Old, My ‘y A EXCRE TOR SYSTEM ° NEPHRON SS i x —— ee Scanned with CamScannerTHE ONE WITH BLY MEMES specialised cells which are present J é in sense of ive ir i 0 ent further to central nervous system gan to receive information from indi i _epors Detects light = tor cept Detects heat MOTIVATION ‘re receptors: Detects smell ‘Six months from now you will 0 peceptors: Detects taste we you kal state tod stat" ys 0S ion? Dendritic tip (set off a chemical reaction Jectric impulse) > Cell body > Axon > at the electric impulse set off the release of capabilities of an hese chemicals cross the gap or synapse, average homosapien| lectrical impulse in a dendrite of the ate an el chemicals, t start a similar el ‘Mandbuddhi romuscular Junction: Itis the point of contact between lar fibre and motor neuron. is made up of an organised network of urons and is specialised for conducting Intelligence Deficiency yerous tissue i erve cells or nel formation via electrical impulse from one part of the NEURON toes tye LARGEST CELL) p a7 x STUDY TIP. F el pee Do aquick and quiet brain break if Ih you notice you are starting to lose your focus. Scanned with CamScanner —Se | ons) REFLEX ACTIONS (suodeN ACT inthe set gomething | e Some sudden action in" environment apexation® reflex « Reflexare: The path followed bY et Ref are formed In the epal O° reach . er <é nformation sn? also BO°S jeuron -m N “5 receptor Orga” > senso Ne Neuron system? Moto! organ > Response the brain. Stimulus Central Effector THE HUMAN BRAIN cerebrum Central Nervous Syste™ © Brain Spinal Cord Nervous System | Nervous System f the body ‘i orbs Peripheral e Central © Other parts of i from the brain Cranial nerves arising Ir the spinal Spinal nerves arising from Brain eee orebrain (is responsible fo.) ‘o Main thinking part of the brain. 0 Certain sensations other than seeing or hearing, sensation of feeling full. Mid brain 7 > Hind brain ions like Beating of n size of the pupil, v Controls Involuntary acti heart, Digestion, Change ii e © Pons e Medulla «Cerebellum Breathing, Blood Pressure, Salivation, Vomiting etc. All these actions are mainly Cerebellum is responsible for: controlled by Medulla inthe hind brain. 9 Precision of voluntary actions. ‘o Maintaining the posture. o Balance of the body. Protection wove Spinal cord: Vertebral Col 7 3B : ‘olumn or Backbone ee ‘ C Brain: Skull or Cranium and theif Muscle moveme! nts happen when muscle cells change both their shape nervous arrangement with help of speci: spe oetcalimpubes pecial proteins, These changes are in response tO Scanned with CamScannerONIN PLANTS “son NASTIC MOVEMENT oj MOVEMENT Independent of growth Fast movement inthe direction Non directional movement ay from stimulus Sensitive plants move very quickly the root goes response of touch. in the air. tes, omes UP imulus \-chemical means to convey amount of wate! the information from ¢ oll to cell vesponse to sti rin them, resulting in syelling 0° electrical ge shape by changing the 5 chang therefore in changing shapes. nici ovement ue 10 growth io the pea plant climb up other plants or fences by me Jans of tendrils. These sitive to touch. the part of the tendril in contact with the n contact with any support, xy come i cas not grow 2S rapidly as the part of the from the object. cguses the tendril to circle around the object and () G cling to it. K y— notatropism: Shoots respond by bending towards light rile roots respond by bending awey from it. tropism: The upward and downward growth of and roots respectively, in response to the pull of oats rth or gravity. motropism: The growth of pollen tubes towards, its are positively hydrotropic. itation of Electrical Impulses They will reach only those cells that are conn él in the animal body. nce an electrical impulse is generated in 2 cell and transmitte time to reset its mechanism. ee €) and every ected by nervous tissue, not each .d, the cell will take sorne Scanned with CamScannerPLANT HORMones aan Browing plants detect light, a hormone called Bro synthesised at the shoot tip helps the cell to Blane OnBEe When light is coming from one side of the GRRL auxin diffuses towards the shady side of the Shoot. This concentration of auxin stimulates the cell ‘© grow longer on the side of the shoot which is away ton light. Thus, the plant appears to bend towards * Gibberellins: Helpsin the growth of stem. * Cytokinins: Promotes cell division. Present in fruits and seeds. © Abscisic Acid: Inhibits growth like wilting of leaves. HORMONES IN ANIMALS The chemical coordination in animals is brought about by hormones. These are seq endocrine glands. These hormones are directly poured into blood via which they ne) target tissue or organ to act. ath te Adrenaline is secreted by adrenal gland directly into the blood in an emergency situa carried to target organs on the specifictissues on whichit acts includetheheart, Y Asaresult, the heart beats faster, resulting in supply of more oxygen to our Muscles. The by to the digestive system and skin is reduced due to contraption of muscles around ae arteries in these organs. This diverts the blood to our skeletal muscles. The breathing rate also increases because of the contraptions of the diaphragm and ther muscles. Allthese responses together enable the animal body to be ready to deal with the situation, lodine is necessary for the thyroid gland to make thyroxine hormones. Hormones should be secreted in precise quantities. The timing and amount of hormone released are regulated by feedback mechanism. For example, if the sugar level in blood rises, they are detected by the cells of the pancreas which respond by producing more insulin. As the blood sugar level falls, insulin secretion is reduced. Choose One. | Scanned with CamScanner—— eof land nen alas wee master ean) J yon parathyroid gland pancreas pineal gland ‘Thymus gland ‘Adrenal gland {emergency gland) Testes Ovary Location In brain Base of brain In neck Embedded in thyroid gland Below the stomach Roof of brain In trachea On the top of kidney Outside the lower abdomen in scrotum sac Inside the lower abdomen Function Dise: ase Release hormones which controls pituitary gland, Re Releases growth hormones Hypo (less) secretion wy hregulates the overall of growth hormone wth. : coh leads to dwarfism. rols the secretion of Hy e lyper (more) secretion other endocrine glands. of growth hormone leads to giantisn, It releases the thyroxine Goitre (deficiency of hormone which regulates the iodine) fat, protein and carbohydrates metabolism Release parathormone which regulates the calcium and phosphate ion in blood. Release insulin which regulates Diabetes the sugar level of the body. Release melatonin which regulates the sleep pattern, helps in lightening of skin. Releases thymosin hormones which regulates immunity. Releases adrenaline hormone to prepare body for emergency situations. Releases testosterone hormone which controls the developmental of secondary sexual characters in males and releases sperm from testes. PCOS (poly cystic ovary Releases oestrogen hormones syndrome), which control the development of secondary sexual characters in females and releases female gamete from ovary. Scanned with CamScannerfants in which into new plants ne, roses Vegetative Propagation: There are many pl Ieaves develop Parts like the root, stem, and arcal under appropriate conditions. E.B- To BOW suBi oF grapes for agricultural purposes. Method © Layering © Grafting © Cutting Advantages has © It makes possible the propagation of plants a ee banana, orange, rose and jasmine that have los! capacity to produce seeds. | © Allplants produced are genetically similar enough to the parent plant to have all its characteristics. gin of Bryophyllum fall on the Soil ang de, Buds produced in the notches along the leaf mart into new plants. Spore Formation In Rhizopus, the tiny blob on a stick structures are involved in reproduction. The blobs are sporangia, which contain cells, or spores, that can eventually develop into new Rhizopus individuals. yy thick walls that protect them until they ‘nother moist surface and can begin to © The spores are covered b| come into contact with a! grow. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION J Advantages: — - _4 ‘Master ji: Next topic is Sexual Reproduction e Greater variation Faster than asexual mode of reproduction [Me in my head In Flowering Plants Reproductive parts: Stamen and Carpel Flowers: = Unisexual > Contains either stamens or carpels e.g. Papaya, Watermelons. = Bisexual > Contain both stamens an e.g. Hibiscus, Mustard. at carpels Scanned with CamScanner2 nroductive Patt ny ater ollen grains that are yellowish in colour } roace’ Pp te til): pol reproductive part ¥ entre of a flower ef (er entin MEO ree ott parts wary Ove gotten bottom part Contains ovules hasaneggcell MOTIVATION Work hard for your dream because 60 many poople seek the same dream » conta" + fachowle le 2 middle elongated part 3, stigma + Terminal part «sticky anofmale and female gamete to form azygoteis called fertilization. fertilization: Takes place outside the body of female. E.g. Aquatic Animals. ation: Takes place inside the body of female. E.g. Mammals. gxternal internal fertiliz er of pollen grains from anther of a flower to the stigma of Soar or any other flower of same species is known as ber same flowe! nation. selt-Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains of a flower to the sigmaof same flower. Cross pollination: The transfer of pollen grains of a flower to the stigma of any other flower of same species. Achieved by agents like wind, water or animals No Cie, \ Mg i. we * After the pollen grain lands ona suitable stigma, ithas to reach the female germ cells which are in the ovary. For this, a tube grows (pollen tube) out of the pollen grain and travels through the style to reach the ovary. Ovule gets converted into seed and ovary ripens to form fruit. The seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under appropriate condition. This process is known as germination. Scanned with CamScannerIn Human Being Common changes at Puberty: dy such as ° Growing of thick darker hatrin new partsof the DO y armpits and the genital area between thie “ wellason face. © Thinner hair on armsand legs, as _" develo} * The skin frequently becomes oily and bein 2 p pimples. Changes in girl © Breast size begins to increase. A it. . Derkeningof the skinof the nipplesatthe tpsof Brees © Girlsbegin to menstruate. eAAnal Changesin boys: S 75 yah © Growthofthickhaironface. ©) © Voice begin to crack. ' nlarged and erect, eitherin daydreams Orat night © Penis occasionally begins to become e Male Reproductive System Testes: Formation of germ cel because sperm formation requires Vas Deferens: Delivers the sperm bladder. Urethra: Common passage for both sperm and urine. id to make transport easier for the sperm. 7; Prostate Gland and Seminal Vesicle: Secretes flui fluid also provides nutrition. Sperms are tiny bodies that consist ofalong tail that helps them to move towa rds the femalegem lls or sperm. Located outside the abdominal cavity in se «slower temperature than the normal body temperature * formed which reunites with 2 tube coming from thei, cell. Female Reproductive System Ovaries: The female germ cell or egg is produced. On reaching puberty, one egg is produced every month by one of the ovaries. The egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a thin oviduct or fallopian tube. Two oviducts unite into an elastic bag like structure known —— asthe uterus. * D 5 ‘ Mein Dre The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. pis Die arom 98 ha. Lol ta rh Uterus: Zygote gets implanted in the lining of the uterus, and & - starts dividing. Every month, the lining thickens and is richly t»mre & ¢ supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo. Hiya hog x Scanned with CamScanneretics: Branch of biology which dea peredty: Transfer of trait from one gey remosomes: They are thread like st transfer of trait. ' n : Functional segment of DNA preg ine Different forms of the same sia ang chromosome, X Monohybrid Cross: The cross in which on jgknown as monohybrid cross, and the r; Iswithheredity Neration to the p and variation Next generation, tin the nucleus of the cell which helps inf ne Pair of contrasting trait ist, ‘aken into consideration t! atio 3:1 which we obtain in th a savor ratio. le monohybrid crass is cal vr : The cross in which ty ir pinybrid Cross: ‘ ' tWo pair of contrastin, trait a rts anda dwhichwesticnn ig trait are taken into consideration is cal the dihybrid crossis called dihybrid ratio. selfin Fl generation Press itself in F1 generation but reappears in Dominant Trait: The trait which is able to express its Recessive Trait: The trait which is not able to ex generation Homozygous: Similar type of gene. Heterozygous: Different type of gene. Dominant Gene: The gene which is able to express itself in both homozygous and heterozygous condition. Recessive Gene: The gene which able to express itself only inhomozygous condition. « Inheritance from the previous generation provides both a common body design, and subtle changes in it forthe next generation. * Depending on the nature of variations, different individuals would have different kinds advantages. Genotype: Genetic constitution of an organism is called genotype. Phenotype: Physical appearance of an organism is called phenotype. How genes are selected: INHERITED TRAIT Present in the reproductive cell ACQUIRED TRAITS Not present in the reproductive cell. We acquire it from surroundings. We inherent ‘ a parents. i E.g. Colour of skin, Eg, Trait of speaking English. &. - 1 want, what you want becomes the sacrifice v a v Ifyou don't sacrifice for what yo! Scanned with CamScannerod with the help of a special tissue Cal mother’s BIO ; ) centa the The embryo gets nutrition from « peuiiontieenbng placenta. terine wall. It con! | 5 side ced inn mn surround the vill ty Thisis a disc which is embe vaces, whi ch sul ; ‘Onthe mother'sside are blood sp and oxvee? to pass from the Mother The p ides a large surface area for glucos is , his provides a large s / . ices which can b rhe det 1 also generate waste substane © reno, The developing embryo will also 8 ate wth place o transferring them into the mother’s blo" Gis toning to boys compacing sy egg every month, the onth to recelve a es thick and ok So uterus also prepare: fertilised egg. Thus, I spongy. / ithe egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one oy ining is not needed any longer > ks and comes out through the ovary releases one «itself every ts lining becom Now, however, this li the lining slowly breal vagina as blood and mucous. ; This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation. Itusually lasts for about two to eight days. itted from an infected person toa healthy person through seyua} 2 diseases which can be transm| ytectare known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD). 1) Gonorrhoea, Syphilis are bacterial infection. 2) Warts, HIV-AIDS are viral infection. cere vention (STD, Pregnancy) Condom on the penis or similar covering worn inthe vagina which acts.as mechanical barrier so that sperm does not reach the egg. Chemical method: Drugs are taken orally as pills to change the hormonal balance of the body so that eggs are not released and fertilisation cannot occur. They can cause side effects too. Loop or the copper-T are placed in the uterus to prev i ent pregnancy. effects due to irritation of the uterus. ° pregnancy. They can causes Supe methods iit vas deferens in the maleis blocked, sperm transfer will be prevented. If ee re arte acres iccub wll not beable to geaeithe uterus, | lace. Surgical methods > can be used to . Surgical methods are safe in the long run, surgery itself pete such blocks ther . problems ifnot performed properly can cause infections and oth Surgery can also be used for removal he remo\ > ismisusedforileglsexslectveaperoner ne esraneles. ratio must be maintained. P ion of female foetuses, For a healthy society renatal sex determinati ion has been prohibited bylaw. Scanned with CamScanneryy OLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION aracteristics are details of appearance of BEN NALOGOUS ORGS HOMOLOGOUS ORGAN ANAS AN Same basic structure Do not ha Common ancestors. same functi Different function Bird in din Fp. forelimbs of Human and sils are the preserved traces of the organisms which live of fossil ading fossil hods to determine the age Relative Method: If we dig into earth and start fi cent than the fossil we find in ifferent isotop! e more re the surface ar cting the ratio of di Carbon Dating: By dete fossil material wild cabbage) Broccoli Cabbage ficial Selection (of ‘Arrested Flower Department — Short Distance between Leaves — Sterile Flowers ~ Cauliflower Kohlrabi Swollen Par Larger Leaves ~ Kale ing Evolutionary Relationships Analysis of the organ structure €.8- presence of feather in some the birds are closely related to reptiles. Comparing the DNA of different species give us 3 direct estimate of now mu has changed during the formation of these species zi Jutionary history of DNA is known as molecular phylogeny. han Species: Homo Sapiens Africa ution is simply the generation of diversity and shaping of the rsity by environmental selection. Twa re ue eT HU HU OD ou JE Scanned with CamScannerro yownton nisa gradual change inthe body design of tio vole! a N organism over a period of time F yaseleton: Promotion of diversity with adaptation Boma gies suk? advantages. *E.g. Green Beetles and Cro a a otic prift: Promotion of diversity without adaptati = in does not give Survival advantage, accidental chaiigeth i x weno the gen. “Eg heels and Elepham Foot pcauired Trait: Trait acquired during the lifetime of individual are not present in the reproductive cells and ia acquit it from the environment, *E.g. Red Beetles and Plant pisease- : Reler NCERT to understand examples Piste Se gvidence of life originated from inanimate matter. 6 18S. Haldane suggested in 1929 that life have developed from the simple inorganic molect which were present on earth soon after it was formed. stanley L Miller and Harold C. Urey in 1953 conducted an experiment in which they assemt anatmosphere similar to that thought to exist on early earth (this had molecules like ammo methane and hydrogen sulphide, but no oxygen) over. This was maintained at a temperature just below 100°C and spal mixture of gases to stimulate lightning. 5% of the carbon (from methane) had been converted t tein molecules. rks were passed through At the end of a week, 1! 0 sir compounds of carbon including aminoacids which make up pro! Speciation CCats: descended from the most feoCous ae fang mactines on the planet A population of Beetles. ‘so cals Geographically barrier like river is introduced. Itdivides them into two sub-population which were geographically isolated. ift and natural selection will Over generations, genetic dri n in each sub population. accumulate different change will be incapable of Eventually members of these two groups pen to be meet. reproducing with each other if they haph Scanned with CamScannerrT X DETERMINATION tegies for sex determination it By Environment: In me animals, the temperature 2 ‘ich! ot ne nes whether the which fertilised eggs are kept determi her animals developingin the eggs willbe male or female. Snails can change their sex. ne inherited from our ys or girls. Goalie aE aeaee Genetically determined: Gel parents decide whether we will be bo\ luman Being hese 22 pair are autosomes and 1 pairs kp, nan being have 23 pair of chromosomes out of t Ir ex chromosome. Women havea perfect pair called XX and men have mismatched pair in wig, anormal size called Xand other is short size called Y. All children will inherit an X chromosomes n their mother regardless of whether they are boys or girls. So, the sex of the children Wille ermined by what they inherit from their father. CG GZ (mace) CFEMALE) / | xX xy MOTIVATION J J ‘The more hours you study now, the more FEMALE MALE hours you can chill later. ae Scanned with CamScannerIEE ., aeinherited independently when Men ra ith green and wrinkled seed pea men es Pollinated round and yellow colour seec plat in were having round shape and Vellow o a abt it of wrinkled shape and green colour, he ol me the ration, he observed that apart from pa "Ne self : rental ger od because the trait of shape and col con werendent ofeach other. int PARENT x op CRouw , yeLtow) (CURINKLED , GREEN) | TES a GAME y a ay FL. GENERATION ery Coun , YeLtow) OR x Gr t T\ \ RY ty oy Ry wy y F2 GENERATION Ry by Y Pm ay feevy [arvy [Ry [arvy Ry faery ]akyy ferYy ergy vy [ent Rrvy yy [rr yy "4 [er Ya Brgy [ ceyg teyy Phenotype ratio MOTIVATION Round yellow: Round green: Wrinkled yellow: Wrinkled green ‘Spoke to my ex after 7 years 9:3:3:1 “Miss. or Mrs.?” he asked. “Dr | said, How do gene control trait or characteristic? Let us take example of tallness as characteristic. Gene is effective -> Enzyme will be efficient > Hormones will be "eleased in precise amount — Plant height tall > Thus, gene contro}, characteristics or traits. Scanned with CamScannerIENDEL's EXPERIMENT her of Genetics: Gregor Johann Mendel Wea plant was chosen for the experiment Can beself-pollinated Shortlife cycle, Easy tomaintain, Several Pair of Plant round/ er. as well as cross pollinated. f Contrasting traits are visible within the same Wrinkled seeds, tall/short plant, white/violet flow short height was also present in Plants able to express it If TALL. PEA PLANT PARENT GENERATION OF GENE SEPARA TioN / \ T v FL =e + GENERATION T ky ee T t FQ t GENERATION 7 TS1.Tayy © ISH Shoe Phenstitie Rog bate Rat Mk Shar Te rn" soa Vediy “Scanned with CamScannerSoU Deezer? EERACTION Soe i POS SIN) OSECes ace aws of Reflection: Be. theangle of incidence is equalto thean Theincident ray, the normal to inthe same plane. \gle of reflection, qi i ray, the mirr ‘ Oral the point Of incidence and the reflected nese laws of reflection are applicable t includingspherical mirrors.) © all types of mirrors People: Bo mirror reflect | formation of Image bya Plane Mirror; belecedcuen ene | |, Virtual, cannot be obtained on screen, ES ii Erect, upright. ji, Size of the image is equal to that ofthe object. jy, Imageand objectare equidistant from mirror, y._Lateral inversion. SPHERICAL MIRRORS Mirrors whose reflecting surfaces are spherical are called spherical mirrors, CONCAVE Codvex £ MiRRoR © MIQROR - 6 Terms related to Spherical Mirrors: i. Pole (P): The centre of the reflecting surface of spherical mirror is a point called the pole ii, Centre of Curvature (C): The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part of a sphere. This sphere has a centre, this point is called the centre of curvature. | ili, Radius of Curvature (R): The radius of the sphere of which the reflecting surface of spherical mirror forms a part is called the radius of the curvature of the mirror. iv. Principal Axis: A straight imaginary line passing through pole and the centre of curvature, of a spherical mirror. This line is called the principal axis. Scanned with CamScanneryo F. concave mir! -_ypocus (F):In@ Tor, nu Pe int known as the principal bet fas paral to prinipaa isaf i 1 ge allel ays othe principal ai US of the concave mirtor, | pisafier reflection per ‘ cipal axis after reflection In convex mirror, the ru! ‘i ‘cipal focus ofl e convex mirror. appear to meet at a point known as he! A ™ M int’ 8 “8 nN infty th (f): The distance between the pol i | epcalLenet pole and the principal fc ical mirror i ji rte ocalleneth AS, R=2f ipal focus of a spherical mirror is | the di ‘ ‘i erture: The diameter of the reflecting surface of spherical mirror iscalled its aperture. (MN repesentstheaperture in the above figure) ow TO DRAW RAY DIAGRAM jaray pale! 10 the principal axis, after reflection, will 2) Aray passing through the principal focus of a concave ptt princi focus nase ‘ofa concave mirror | mirror or aray whichis drected towards the principal Pact diverge ror te principal focus nase ‘ofa | focus of a convex mirror after reflection, will emerge cavexmiF. parallel to the principal axis. making equal angles 4) The incident and reflected r9¥8 ray passing through the centre of curvature ofa siemiror or directed in the direction of the centre with the principal ratte ofa convex mirror, after reflection, 'S ‘ted back along the same path. Scanned with CamScannerCONCAVE MIRROR om b Image formation . Og al RR MOTIVATION Time is money. Money is power. Power is pizza and pizza is knowledge. ra infinity N e) Size of the image Nature of the Diagram Position of the Position of the object image image (a) At infinity AtF (Focus) Point sized Real and Inverted (b) Beyond C BetweenC&F Small Real and Inverted (c) AtC AtC Same size Real and Inverted (d) BetweenC&F Beyond Enlarged Real and Inverted (e) At At infinity Highly enlarged Real and Inverted () Between P&F — Behindthe mirror Enlarged Virtual and Erect (GANTT LICK ANY PART OF you ra aa Uses of concave mirror: i. Torches, search lights, vehicles headlights etc. ji. Shaving mirror iii, In solar furnace iv. Used by dentist to view teeth ENCEPT YOUR TONGUE Scanned with CamScannervex MIRROR 4 formation: iagrar Position of the Position of the Size of the image — Nature of the object image image a) At infinity At the focus F Point sized Virtual and Erect (behind mirror) » Between infinity Between PF Small Virtual and Erect and pole P (behind mirror) of convex mirrors : Rear view mirror in vehicles iN CONVENTION & MIRROR FORMULA. (object onthe et ™ Direction of, _ nee 4 Thasdentign \ Height upwards (rd Distance towards Distance wrwards The le eed phe right (ove) N Mirror k right sb positive. Mirror k left sb negative. Princy axis k upr sb positive. . Princy axis k niche sb negative. object distance from pole (Tip: always negative) focal length (Tip: positive for convex mirror and negative for concave mirror) image distance from pole Inet 1 =—+— =-— (Mirror Formula) Causes fi Ust use the New Cartesian Sign Convention while substituting numerical values for u, v nthe mirror formula for solving problems. Scanned with CamScanner| Ma respec (m): Gives the relative extent to which the image of an object is magn © the object size ir ee ie LE TET pe U3) kK h > height/size of object _h' > height/size of image nooy nea ier -ve(m)>realimage — +ve(m) > virtual image A negative sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is real. A posi the value of the magnification indicates that the images virtual REFRACTION OF lig, When light travels obliquely from one medium to another, the direction of propagation the second medium changes. This phenomenon is known as refraction of light. © Thelightray bend towards the normal when enter from rarer toa denser medium, © Thelight ray bend away from normal when enter from denser toararer medium, My Therapist: Retracton Retraction: Sant Rat Yu Sete Rar Laws of Refraction of Light: The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent i. media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane. ii, The ratio of sine angle of incidence to the sine angle of refraction is cot a given colour and for the given pair of media. This is known as Snell sini =— = constant sinr This constant value is called refractive index of the second medium with respec Scanned with CamScanneracrive INDEX , ray of light travels obliques or? Y from one trans » second medit : Parent medium into another direction res ne seo a. The extent of the corer Medium ito another direction par rmedialsxPTCSSEd NEES of herefryener” fen Girection that takes place in a active index - tractive Index of Medium 2 with respect 4g spect to jum 115 ven BY the ratio ofthe speed of itn eum andthespeedof light in medium 2 speed of light in medium 1 v% rg el * speed of light inmedium 2 ~ y, e absolute refractive index of a medium is the ratio. «peed ight in vacuum or airand speed of light in Teo medium. (c= 3x10 m/s) Coated Cc Tinie speed of light in air (ieee c ~ Speed of light inmedium — lids (MCI 4 ITE yolute refractive index of water is 1.33 lute refractive index of glass is 1.52 RICAL LENS isparent material bound by two surfaces, of which both surfaces are spherical, alens. «CONVEX LENS + CONCAYF LENS + CONVERGING © NVERGING “THICK AT AibbLe + THICK AT EDGES intre of Curvature (C); A lens has two spherical surfaces. Each surface forms a part of a here, The centre of these spheres are called centre of curvature. incipal Axis: An imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of curvature of alens Called its principal axis. tical Centre (0): The central point of alens lled the optical centre. 1 Study for the day you won't have ture: The effective diameter of the circular fo wcay’ he price tag. line of a spherical lensis called its aperture. 5 Scanned with CamScanner