Pacita Complex Senior High School

Republic of the Philippines
PACITA COMPLEX SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Tirad Pass St. Pacita Complex
San Pedro City, Laguna
(02) 720-50-32
(02) 720-50-32
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Level : SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL (GRADE 12)

Strand : ABM/STEM
Subject Group : APPLIED SUBJECT
Subject : PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
QUARTER Most Essential Learning No. of Days Taught

Competencies (MELC)
Quarters 1/2
Describes characteristics,
strengths, weaknesses,
and kinds of quantitative
research
Illustrates the importance 12
of quantitative research
across fields
Differentiates kinds of
variables and their uses
Designs a research used
in daily life
Writes a research title 6
Describes background of
research
States research questions
Indicates scope and
delimitation of study 6
Presents written statement
of the problem
Illustrates and explain the
conceptual framework
Defines terms used in
study
Lists research hypothesis 8
(if appropriate)
Presents written review of
related literature and
conceptual framework
Quarters 3/4
2
Chooses appropriate
quantitative research
design
Describes sampling
4
procedure and sample
Constructs an instrument
and establishes its validity
and reliability
Describes intervention (if
applicable)
Plans data collection
procedure 4
Plans data analysis using
statistics and hypothesis
testing (if appropriate)
Presents written research 8
methodology
Collects data using
appropriate instruments
Presents and interprets
data in tabular or graphical
forms
8
Uses statistical techniques
to analyze data – study of
differences and
relationships limited for
bivariate analysis
Draws conclusions from
research findings
8
Formulates
recommendations
Prepared by:
ROLANDO V. CLORES JR.

Subject Teacher
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Subject Title : PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 (PRE-TEST)
Lesson : QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH (BRIEF INTRODUCTION)
A. Write T if the statement is True, F if False. Write your answer on a separate

sheet of paper.
1. Standardized instruments ensure the accuracy, reliability, and validity of data.

Answer: _______
2. Quantitative methods cannot be repeated to verify its findings.

Answer: _______
3. A research design constitutes the blueprint for the selection, measurement

and analysis of data.
Answer: _______
4. Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery.

Answer: _______
5. The main purpose of descriptive research design is to observe, describe and

document aspects of particular situations.
Answer: _______
________________________________________________________________
B. Write S if the statement pertains to the strength of a quantitative research,

W if it’s a weakness.
1. It can be costly, difficult and time-consuming.

Answer: _______
2. It is objective and provides numerical data.

Answer: _______
3. The information on contextual factors to help interpret the results.

Answer: _______
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4. It filters out external factors.
Answer: _______
5. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way.

Answer: _______
________________________________________________________________
C. Read each statement carefully. Identify what is asked for. On a separate

sheet of paper, write the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following is a method that is commonly used in qualitative

research?
a. Self-completion questionnaires
b. Surveys
c. Ethnography
d. Structured Observation
Answer: _______
2. What is meant by the term "grounded theory"?

a. Theories should be tested by rigorous scientific experiments
b. As a social researcher, it is important to keep your feet on the ground
c. Theories should be grounded in political values and biases
d. Theoretical ideas and concepts should emerge from the data
Answer: _______
3. A sensitizing concept is one that:

a. Provides general guidance for more flexible research
b. Imposes a predetermined theoretical model on the social world
c. Helps the researcher to investigate sensitive issues
d. Allows the researcher to measure very small changes in a variable
Answer: _______
4. The flexibility and limited structure of qualitative research designs is an

advantage because:
a. The researcher does not impose any predetermined formats on the social
world
b. It allows for unexpected results to emerge from the data
c. The researcher can adapt his theories and methods as the project unfolds
d. All of the above
Answer: _______
5. Which of the following is not a criticism of qualitative research?

a. The studies are difficult to replicate
b. There is a lack of transparency
c. The approach is too rigid and inflexible
d. The accounts are too subjective and impressionistic
Answer: _______
________________________________________________________________
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Subject Title : PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Topic : CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH (INTRODUCTION)
Most Essential : DESCRIBES CHARACTERISTICS,
Learning STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES, AND KINDS OF
Competency QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
 Research is a careful, detailed and systematic study of a specific problem,

concern, or issue to establish facts.
 This is best accomplished by turning the issue into a question, with the intent
of the research to answer the question.
___________________________________________________________________
WHEN IS A RESEARCH PRACTICAL?
 Practical research means actual doing or using of something rather than

theories and ideas.
 It involves inquiry methods and immersion activities in order to achieve the
correct information.
___________________________________________________________________
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 Ask a question - state the problem

 Research - collect sources
 Hypothesis - an educated guess (If I will…it will…)
 Experiment - design and perform to test hypothesis and variables
 Data/Analysis - record observations, analyze the data, prepare a graph or
table
 Conclusion - accept or reject hypothesis, communicate results
___________________________________________________________________
QUESTIONS THAT DELIMITS RESEARCH
 What is the meaning of life?
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 What is the origin of God?
 Is the universe finite or infinite?
 When did time begin?
 Why is the future unknowable?
 Why do we fear the unknowable?
 Why are there exceptions to every rule?
___________________________________________________________________
TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
a. Used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and
motivations.
b. Used in social science and natural sciences.
2. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
a. Deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance.
b. Quantitative research focuses on numeric and unchanging data and
detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning.
c. Used in psychology, marketing and political science.
___________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY: IDENTIFY THE FOLOWING RESEARCH TOPICS AS QUALITATIVE

OR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
1. What is the future of terrorism?

Answer: ___________________
2. The role and impact of religious iconography in a nation.

Answer: ___________________
3. The power of advertisements.

Answer: ___________________
4. The impact of education on obesity.

Answer: ___________________
5. Role of media for educational purposes.

Answer: ___________________
6. Should marijuana be legalised worldwide?

Answer: ___________________
7. Benefits of Black Friday sales.

Answer: ___________________
8. Terrorist groups and political parties: same goals and different tactics.
Answer: ___________________
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Lesson : QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: CHARACTERISTICS,
STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES, AND TYPES
___________________________________________________________________
TRUE or FALSE.
Directions: Write QUANTITATIVE after the item if the sentence is true while
QUALITATIVE if the statement is false.
1. In quantitative research, researchers know in advance what they are looking

for.
Answer: ____________
2. Quantitative research can be easily misinterpreted because it provides

numerical data.
Answer: ____________
3. Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery.

Answer: ____________
4. Normative research is conducted by researcher whose aim would be to find

out the direction and/or relationship between different variables or group of
respondents under study.
Answer: ____________
5. Qualitative research requires a large number of respondents. It assumes that

the larger the sample is, the more statistically accurate the findings are.
Answer: ____________
6. Evaluation describes the status of a phenomenon at a particular time. It

describes without value judgment a situation that prevents.
Answer: ____________
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7. Correlational is conducted by researchers whose aim would be to find out the
direction and/or relationship between different variables or groups of
respondents under study.
Answer: ____________
8. Methodological is the implementation of a variety of methodologies that forms

a critical part of achieving the goal of developing a scaled-matched approach,
where data from different disciplines can be integrated.
Answer: ____________
9. One characteristics of quantitative research is that its method can be repeated

to verify findings in another setting, thus, reinforcing validity findings.
Answer: ____________
10. In quantitative experiments it filters out external factors, if properly designed,

and so the results gained can be seen, as real and unbiased.
Answer: ____________
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(02) 720-50-32
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(02) 720-50-32
1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
Most Essential : DESCRIBES CHARACTERISTICS,
Learning STRENGTHS,WEAKNESSES, AND KINDS OF
Competency QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 Quantitative research, unlike qualitative research, uses numbers to generalize

a particular inquiry based from objective scales of measurements of units
called variables.
 Statistical treatment is utilized to determine how significant the relationships or
differences between and among variables.
 Research findings serve as bases for generalization on certain phenomena.
___________________________________________________________________
What is Quantitative Research?
 Quantitative research, through the use of computational procedures, is an

objective, methodical experiential investigation of recognizable phenomena.
 It is highlighted with numerical analysis of data expecting that the results that
can be generalized to some bigger population and describe a particular
observation having no biases.
 The primary concern of quantitative research is numbers and its relationship
with events.
 Quantitative research is a type of research which use computational
techniques, an objective, and systematic empirical investigation of observable
phenomena.
 It is important to note that quantitative research is more on numerical analysis
of data.
 The gathered numerical data yield unbiased results that can be generalized to
some larger population and explain a particular observation.
 Quantitative research is deals with numbers and its relationship with events.
___________________________________________________________________
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
1. It is objective NOT subjective.
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a. Precision and accuracy of measurement and analysis is the target of
the concepts. Furthermore, Intuitions and guesses is not practice or
used in developing conclusions or solution to a problem
2. Research questions are clearly defined.
a. Familiarity of the topic of the research have to be more focus so that it
will be clear to the readers and researcher have to be advance in what
he is looking for.
b. Research questions have to be precise and clear for which objective
answers are sought.
c. All phases of the study are carefully designed before data are
gathered.
3. Research instrument is clearly structured.
a. The instrument of the study is well-organized and plan, and with
different dimensions and scales.
b. It is a structured research tools like questionnaires or checklist.
c. It also enable to gather or collect measurable characteristics of the
population like age, socio-economic status, number of children, among
others.
4. Numerical presentation of data.
a. Data are organized and presented in the form of numbers and
statistics.
b. It is also presented in the form of tables, charts, graphs and figures that
consolidate large numbers of data to show trends, relationships, or
differences among variables.
5. Large sample sizes.
a. The greater the sample sizes the more reliable data analysis. This is to
avoid biases in interpreting the results.
b. It also requires normal population distribution curve. A minimum of 20%
of the population can be used as respondents of a research.
6. Replicated but not duplicate.
a. Reliable quantitative studies can be replicated or repeated but not
duplicated to verify or confirm the correctness of the results in another
setting.
b. Validity of the findings may eliminating the possibility of spurious
conclusions.
7. Data can be used to predict future outcomes or forecast.
a. Through complex mathematical calculations and with the aid of
computers and formulated formulas scenarios can be predicting future
results.
8. Data can be used to verify existing facts and develop new concepts.
a. A research can validate an existing fact. In some cases, research can
be used to develop new ideas needed to make life more comfortable.
___________________________________________________________________
Strengths of Quantitative Research
1. Since it is objective and provides numerical data, it can’t be easily

misinterpreted.
2. Statistical techniques was used to facilitates sophisticated analyses and
allows you to comprehend a huge amount of vital characteristics of data.
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3. The data in quantitative research can be analyzed in a quick and easy way.
a. With the use of statistically valid random models, findings can be
generalized to the population about which information is necessary.
4. Replicable.
a. This research can be replicated but with different areas of concern and
location.
b. Dimensions can be also an additive factor to improve the previous
research.
5. By using questionnaire, checklist, tests or standardized instrument the data
can be gathered in a quick and easy way.
___________________________________________________________________
Weaknesses of Quantitative Research
1. It requires a large number of respondents.

a. The larger sample size, the more or better the statistical findings are.
2. It is costly.
a. Due to very large sample, the expenses will be greater in reaching out
to these people and in reproducing the questionnaires.
3. Elaboration on contextual is not factors that can help the results or to explain
variations.
a. In quantitative research there is no need elaborate or have sharing of
thoughts for further information. It is a straight forward answer unlike in
qualitative.
4. Information with Sensitive issues are difficult to gathered when using
structured research instruments like pre-marital sex, homosexual, domestic
violence, among others.
5. If the made questionnaire was not done seriously and correctly the data will
be invalid and inaccurate.
6. Researchers must be watchful on respondents who are just guessing in
answering the research instrument as some of them may not reveal the real
response due to ethical issues.
7. Research instruments preparation and validation may take time if no
standardized tools are available.
___________________________________________________________________
Types of Quantitative Research
Generally, quantitative researches are classified into non-experimental and

experimental as shown in Figure 1.
1. Non-Experimental Research
a. Descriptive
b. Correlational
2. Experimental Research
a. True Experimental
b. Quasi Experimental
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__________________________________________________________________________________
1. Non-Experimental Research.
This kind of research allows the researcher to either describe a situation or
phenomenon or the relationship between two or more variables without any
interference from the proponent.
There are two major kinds of non-experimental research. These are as

follows:
A. Descriptive Research.
a. It deals with describing the nature, characteristics and components

of the population or a phenomenon. Manipulation of variables or
search for cause and effect is not applicable in relating to the
phenomenon.
b. This design attempts to determine the frequency with which it
occurs and to find general attributes of the presently existing
situation .
c. Descriptive research is used if, for example, you want to know how
many hours senior high school students spend in surfing the
internet or the number of malnourished students who failed in the
achievement test , and how healthy is the food served during
recess in the public schools.
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B. Correlational Research.
a. It is primarily concerned with an orderly or systematic investigation
of the nature of relationships, or associations between and among
variables without necessarily investigating into casual reasons
underlying them.
b. Furthermore it is also concerned with, the extent of relationships
that exists between or among the variables. For example , if
Performance in Mathematics can be used to predict performance
then, the higher the Mathematics grade, the higher most likely be
the score in Practical Research 2.
c. Correlational research is employed if you like to know ,for example,
if the following factors are related to each other: sex and
mathematical ability, age and leadership style, and occupation and
life span.
2. Experimental Research.
This kind of research is centrally concerned with constructing research that is
high in causal (internal) validity.
There are two major kinds of experimental research. These are the following:
A. True Experimental Research.

a. This kind of research can be identified by three characteristics:
randomly formed groups, manipulation of the treatment (the IV),
and comparisons among groups.
b. The purpose is to test the true cause and effect relationships of
variables involve in the study. According to Prieto, et al., it offers the
highest internal validity of all the designs.
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B. Quasi-Experimental Research.
a. This kind of research is almost the same as that of True
Experimental Design. The only difference is the absence of random
assignment of subjects to other conditions.
b. Prieto, et al. added that the commonality between the quasi-
experimental and true experimental research is that some subjects
receive intervention and provide data likely to reflect its impact .
REMEMBER
 Quantitative research is deals with numbers and its relationship with events.
 Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and analysis of
data collected using computational techniques.
 Experimental research design allows the researcher to control the
phenomenon.
 In non-experimental research design, the researcher observes the
phenomena as they occur naturally.
___________________________________________________________________
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REFERENCES
 Baraceros, Esther L. Practical Research 2. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.,
2016. Catane, J. A. Conducting Research: A Practical Application. Quezon
City: Goodwill Book Store, 2010.
 Chan, Editha I. Research in Various Disciplines Seeing Through the Process
of Writing. Valenzuela City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc., 2011.
 Ellison, C. Concise Guide to Writing Research. New York: McGraw Hill,
2010.
 Faltado III, Ruben E. et. al. Practical Research 2 Quantitative Research for
SHS. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. , 2016.
 Plata, Sterling L. et. al. Thinking and Writing Research 4th Edition.Manila:
Trailblazer Publications Asia, Inc., 2014.
 Prieto, Nelia G, Naval, Victoria C. and Carey, Teresita G. Practical
Research 2, For Senior High School, Lorimar Publishing Inc, 2017
 Reyes, Marcelo. Social research: A Deductive Approach. Manila: Rex Book
Store,Inc., 2010.
Activity 1 Direction: On a separate sheet of paper, write the characteristics of

quantitative research that best describes each illustration.
Answers:
1. ____________
2. ____________
3. ____________
4. ____________
5. ____________
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___________________________________________________________________
Activity 2 Direction: Supply the missing term.
Answers:
1. ____________
2. ____________
3. ____________
4. ____________
5. ____________
6. ____________
7. ____________
___________________________________________________________________
Activity 3 Directions: Read each statement carefully. Identify the kind of research
that is being referred to.
1. The relationship between the economic status and academic performance of

the respondents.
Answer: ______________________________
2. The percentage of Grade 10 learners who will pursue academic track in

Senior High School.
Answer: ______________________________
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3. Effects of pandemic in the learning habits of Grade 12 learners.
Answer: ______________________________
4. A survey on the preferred course of Grade 12 learners in college.

Answer: ______________________________
5. The effectiveness of Content-based Instruction in teaching Social Studies in

Grade 11.
Answer: ______________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Activity 4 Directions: Read each statement carefully. Then, identify the kind of
research being referred to. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. It is a systematic investigation of the nature of relationships, or associations

between and among variables without necessarily investigating into casual
reasons underlying them.
Answer: ____________________________________________________________
2. It is concerned with describing the nature, characteristics and components of

the population or a phenomenon.
Answer: ____________________________________________________________
3. This research utilizes scientific method to test cause-and-effect relationships

under conditions controlled by the researcher.
Answer: ____________________________________________________________
4. It is used to gather information from groups of people by selecting and

studying samples chosen from a population. It may be done in various ways
like face-to-face phone, mail, and online.
Answer: ____________________________________________________________
5. It is intended to assess the effects, impacts or outcomes of practices, policies

or programs.
Answer: ____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Directions: Fill in the K-W-H-L chart below to pre-assess your prior knowledge
regarding the topic “Special Relativity”. By the end of the lesson, go back to this
activity to answer the L part.
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___________________________________________________________________
THINK AND ACT
Answer the following:
1. What were your misconceptions about the topic prior to this lesson?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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2. What new or additional learning did you gain from this lesson in terms of
skills, content, and attitude?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Mind Challenge
Directions: Write your concise learning about the following.
1. What is quantitative research?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. What are the characteristics of quantitative research?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Discuss the strengths of quantitative research.

______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
4. Discuss the weaknesses of quantitative research.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. Describe each type of quantitative research. Give example for each.

 Example: Survey – used to gather information from groups of
people by selecting and studying samples chosen from a
population.
 Example: Preference TV network of viewers of grade 12 PCSHS
students
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
RESEARCH WORK
Directions: Research 15 different titles of research and classify them according to

the research type discussed. Choose quantitative research titles only. Do not forget
to include the name(s) of the author(s) of the research titles for proper
acknowledgement. Follow the format below.
# Research Title Research Type

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Lesson : IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
ACROSS VARIOUS FIELDS
___________________________________________________________________
ESSAY
Discuss briefly, what is asked below.
1. How is quantitative research related or important to different fields of

discipline?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Choose two disciplines enumerated below and explain how quantitative

research is used on it.
A. Anthropology
B. Communication
C. Sports Medicine
D. Medical Education
QUANTITATIVE
E. Behavioral Science
RESEARCH and
F. Education
G. Psychology
H. ABM
I. STEM
Answers:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
ACROSS FIELDS
Most Essential : ILLUSTRATES THE IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE
Learning RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS
Competency
___________________________________________________________________
IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS
 People do research to find solutions, even tentative ones, to problems, in

order to improve or enhance ways of doing things, to disprove or provide a
new hypothesis, or simply to find answers to questions or solutions to
problems in daily life.
 Research findings can affect people’s lives, ways of doing things, laws, rules
and regulations, as well as policies, among others. Widely, quantitative
research is often used because of its emphasis on proof rather than
discovery.
 In recent times, research studies are gaining an unprecedented focus and
attention. Then, only the faculty in higher education has so much interest and
conduct researches, but now even the teachers in the basic education are
engrossed in researches and devote time and effort in conducting researches
to improve educational practices that may lead to more quality learning of the
students.
 Many teachers do action researches because there is a serious need to
identify the problems of the deteriorating quality of education. By doing so,
they can address systematically and make educational decisions regarding
the problems met.
 Innovative teaching strategies are product of research. In the natural and
social sciences, quantitative research is the systematic, empirical
investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or
computational techniques.
 The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical
models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena.
 The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it
provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and
mathematical expression of quantitative relationships.
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 Health Sciences (Medical Technology, Dentistry, Nursing, Medicine, etc.) use
quantitative research designs like descriptive, pre-experimental, quasi-
experimental, true-experiment, case study, among others.
___________________________________________________________________
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH & ACCOUNTING, BUSINESS and MANAGEMENT

(ABM)
 Researches can help design a new product or service, figuring out what is
needed and ensure the development of product is highly targeted towards
demand.
 Businessmen can also utilize research results to guarantee sufficient
distribution of their products and decide where they need to increase their
product distribution.
 Conducting researches can also help a business determine whether now is
the proper time to open another branch or whether it needs to apply for a new
loan.
 It may also help a small business decide if a procedure or strategy should be
changed to meet the requirements of the customer base.
 Research is important for any organization to remain in the market. The
primary function of research in ABM is to correctly determine its customers
and their preferences, establish the enterprise in the most feasible location,
deliver quality goods and services, analyze what the competitors are doing
and find ways on how to continuously satisfy the growing and varied needs of
the clients.
___________________________________________________________________
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and ANTHROPOLOGY
 Anthropology is a research method of combining qualitative and quantitative

research data. It is concerned with exploring connections simultaneously,
amidst cultural differences, alternatives and identity. In the contemporary
academic, socio-cultural and political climate concepts have immense
symbolic overtones.
 Quantitative research is used in Anthropology in many aspects. Like true
experiments, it may be used in studying people provided that you follow
certain steps (Bernard, 2004). This is to look into the effects of an intervention
in ethnic behavior of a group.
 In here, you need at least two groups, called the treatment group and the
control group. One group gets the intervention and the other group do not.
Next, individuals may be randomly assigned, either to the intervention group
or to the control group to ensure that the groups are equivalent. Then, the
groups are measured on one or more dependent variables; this is called the
pre-test. After which, the intervention is introduced. Lastly, the dependent
variables are measured again. This is the post test.
 True in experiments with people in laboratory are also common. Laboratory
experiments often produce results that beg to be tested in the natural world by
Anthropologists.
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 Aaron and Mills (1959, as cited by Bernard, 2004) demonstrated in a lab
experiment that people who go through severe initiation to a group tend to be
more positive toward the group than are people who go through a mild
initiation. They reasoned that people who go through tough initiation rites put
a lot of personal investments into getting into the group. Later, if people see
evidence that the group is not what they thought it would be, they are
reluctant to admit the fact because of the investments.
 In Field Anthropology, Janet Schofield and her colleagues did a 3 year
ethnographic study in middle school. During the first year, they noticed that
African-American and white children seemed to react differently to “mildly
aggressive acts’ – things like bumping in the hallway, poking one another in
the classroom, asking for food, or using another student’s pencil without
permission. There appeared to be no event of racial conflict in the school, but
during interviews white students were more likely to report being intimidated
by their African-American peers than vice versa (Sagar & Schofield, 1980, as
cited by Bernard, 2004).
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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and COMMUNICATION
 Researchers are often interested in how an understanding of a particular

communication phenomenon might generalize to a larger population. For
example, researchers can advance questions like “What effect do punitive
behavioral control statements have on a classroom? What communicative
behaviors are associated with different stages in romantic relationships? What
communicative behaviors are used to respond to co-workers displaying
emotional stress? (Allen, Titsworth, Hunt, 2009)
___________________________________________________________________
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and SPORTS MEDICINE
 Quantitative research is used to analyze how sports may be used as an

alternative way of medicating an illness. An example is the research done by
University of Eastern Finland which investigated the relationship between
mushrooming of fast food chains and obesity, as well as the intervention
needed to prevent children’s obesity from reaching serious proportions. The
research focused on the children’s physical activity and physical inactivity and
the concomitant impact on the children’s amount of adipose tissue (fat mass)
and the endurance fitness. The study is used to analyze the certain effect of
physical activity in weight control.
___________________________________________________________________
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and MEDICAL EDUCATION
 Quantitative research in medical education tends to be predominantly

observational research based on surveys or correlational studies. The designs
test interventions like curriculum, teaching-learning process, or assessment
with an experimental group. Either a comparison or controlled group learners
may allow researchers to overcome validity concerns and infer potential
31
cause-effect generalizations. Researchers are using quantitative research to
cope with the emerging trends in recent times.
___________________________________________________________________
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
 Relationship questions in today’s quantitative trend tend to explore how one

behavior exhibited by people is related to other types of behavior. Examples
are verbally aggressive behaviors related to physical aggression – that is,
when a person has a level of verbally aggressive behavior, does he or she
tend to be physically aggressive? Are certain supervisor communication skills
related to the emotional experiences of employees?
 Questions of difference explore how patterns of behavior or perceptions might
differ from one group or type of a person to another: Do people with
disabilities experience emotional labor differently from those without
disabilities? Do women perceive talkativeness (or lack of it) differently form
men? Do communication styles differ from one culture to the next? (Alle,
Titsworth, Hunt, 2009).
 When quantitative researchers explore questions of differences or questions
of relationships, they do so in an attempt to uncover certain patterns of
behavior. If the researcher discovers that a certain relationship exists in
sample that she or he has drawn form the population, she/he is then in a
position to draw generalizations about patterns expected of human behavior.
___________________________________________________________________
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
 Quasi Experiments are most often used in evaluating social problems.

Suppose a researcher has invented a technique for improving reading
comprehension among third graders. She/he selects two third grade classes
in a school district. One of them gets the intervention and the other doesn’t.
Students are measured before and after the intervention to see whether their
reading scores improve. This design contains many of the elements of true
experiment, but the participants are not assigned randomly to the treatment
and control groups.
___________________________________________________________________
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and PSYCHOLOGY
 Mertens (2005) says that the dominant paradigms that guided early
psychological research were positivism and its successor, post positivism.
Positivism is based on rationalistic, empiricist philosophy that originated with
Aristotle, Francis Bacon, John Locke, August Comte, and Immanuel Kant.
The underlying assumptions of positivism include the belief that the social
world can be studied in the same way as the natural world, that there is a
method for studying the social world that is value-free, and that explanations
of a causal nature can be provided.
___________________________________________________________________
32
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH & SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, and
MATHEMATICS
 Medical practitioners, for example, conduct researches to obtain significant

information about diseases trends and risk factors, results of various health
interventions, patterns of care and health care cost and use. The different
approaches to research provide complementary insights.
 Researchers help in determining the effectiveness and even side effect of
drugs and therapies in different populations and various institutions. It is also
necessary in evaluating experiences in clinical practice in order to develop
mechanisms for best practices and to ensure high quality patient care.
Researchers in these fields ultimately aim for man’s longevity.
 As for engineers, architects, and other builders, research helps in providing
designs which are creatively beautiful and at the same time give more
convenience and efficiency as they utilize modern technology to adapt to the
ever changing society. New materials and procedures may be developed so
as to further strengthen the structural materials that can withstand various
calamities and disasters.
___________________________________________________________________
I. ESSAY. Briefly explain what is asked below.
 How important is quantitative research across fields? Cite at least five fields
and explain how quantitative research is interconnected with it.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
II. CONCEPT MAP. Complete the concept map presented below. You add figures so
long as you will use your creativity using the figures given. Present the importance of
quantitative research to different fields.
33
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34
(02) 720-50-32
1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : KINDS OF VARIABLES AND THEIR USES (PRE-TEST)
Most Essential : DIFFERENTIATES KINDS OF VARIABLES AND THEIR
Learning USES
Competency
___________________________________________________________________
IDENTIFICATION. Identify what is being asked in each number. Write your answer
after the statement. Choose your answer from the box below.
1. It refers to the characteristics that have two or more mutually exclusive values
or properties.
2. Variables that represent categories that cannot be ordered in any particular
way.
3. Special kind of independent variables that are measured in a study because
they potentially influence the dependent variable.
4. Variables that have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of
numbers when there is an absolute zero, as opposed to net worth, which can
have a negative debt-to-income ratio-level variable.
5. Kind of variable that are not actually measured or observed in a study. They
exist but their influence cannot be directly detected in a study.
6. It “stands between” the independent and dependent variables, and they show
the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
7. Variables that represent categories that can be ordered from greatest to
smallest.
8. Kind of variable that probably cause, influence, or effect outcomes. They are
variably called treatment, manipulated, antecedent or predictor variables.
9. Variables that depend on independent variables; they are the outcomes or
results of the influence of the independent variable.
10. Variables that have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of
numbers.
___________________________________________________________________
35
INSTRUCTION. Determine if what type of variable are the following. Write I if the
variable is Interval, N if Nominal, R if Ratio or O if Ordinal.
1. Military title
Answer: _______
2. Temperature in degree Celsius
Answer: _______
3. Birthplace
Answer: _______
4. Year level
Answer: _______
5. Favorite type of music
Answer: _______
6. Clothing such as hat, shirt, shoes
Answer: _______
7. A score in 5-item quiz in Math
Answer: _______
8. Feeling for today
Answer: _______
9. Means of transportation
Answer: _______
10. How internet is used at home
Answer: _______
11. Freshman, sophomore
Answer: _______
12. Person’s net worth
Answer: _______
13. Male or female
Answer: _______
14. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Answer: _______
15. Political affiliation
Answer: _______
36
(02) 720-50-32
37
(02) 720-50-32
1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : KINDS OF VARIABLES AND THEIR USES
Most Essential : DIFFERENTIATES KINDS OF VARIABLES AND THEIR
Learning USES
Competency
___________________________________________________________________
THE VARIABLES IN RESEARCH
 The term ‘variable’ has been mentioned several times so that it is necessary
to define it here. In research, a variable refers to a “characteristics that has
two or more mutually exclusive values or properties” (Sevilla and Other,
1988). Sex, for instance, has two properties which are maleness and
femaleness. The ages of different persons have different values; so with their
size, height, weight and income.
 The phenomenon of variety is what makes life interesting; it is one of the
motivating factors of the research undertaking. The root word of the word
variable is “vary” or simply “can change”. These variables are among the
fundamental concepts of research, alongside with measurement, validity,
reliability, cause and effect; and theory.
 Bernard (1994) defines a variable as something that can take more than one
value, and values can be words or numbers.
 A variable specifically refers to characteristics, or attribute of an individual or
an organization that can be measured or observed and that varies among the
people or organization being studied (Creswell, 2002).
___________________________________________________________________
TYPES OF VARIABLES (ALLEN, TITSWORTH, HUNT, 2009)
1. CONTINUOUS VARIABLES – A variable that can take infinite number on the

value that can occur within the population. Its values can be divided into
fractions. Examples of this type of variable include age, height, and
temperature. Continuous variables can be further categorized as:
a. INTERVAL VARIABLES – have values that lie along an evenly
dispersed range of numbers. It is a measurement where the difference
between two values does have meaning. Examples of interval data
include temperature, a person’s net worth (how much money you have
when you subtract your debt from your assets), etc. In temperature,
this may illustrate as the difference between a temperature of 60
38
degrees and 50 degrees is the same as difference between 30 degrees
and 20 degrees. The interval between values makes sense and can be
interpreted.
b. RATIO VARIABLES – have values that lie along an evenly dispersed
range of numbers when there is absolute zero. It possesses the
properties of interval variable and has a clear definition of zero,
indication that there is none of that variable. Examples of which are
height, weight, and distance. Most scores stemming from response to
survey items are ratio-level values because they typically cannot go
below zero. Temperature measured in degrees Celsius and degrees
Fahrenheit is not a ratio variable because 0 under these temperature
scales does not mean no temperature at all.
2. DISCRETE VARIABLES – This is also known as categorical or classificatory

variable. This is any variable that has limited number of distinct values and
which cannot be divided into fractions like sex, blood group, and number of
children in family. Discrete variable may also categorized into:
a. NOMINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that cannot be ordered
in any particular way. It is a variable with no quantitative value. It has
two or more categories but does not imply ordering of cases. Common
examples of this variable include eye color, business type, religion,
biological sex, political affiliation, basketball fan affiliation, etc. A sub-
type of nominal scale with only two categories just like sex is known as
dichotomous.
b. ORDINAL VARIABLE – It represents categories that can be ordered
from greatest to smallest. This variable has two or more categories
which can be ranked. Examples of ordinal variable include education
level, income brackets, etc. An illustration of this is, if you ask people if
they like listening to music while studying and they could answer either
“NOT VERY MUCH”, “MUCH”, “VERY MUCH”, then you have an
ordinal variable. While you can rank them, we cannot place a value to
them. In this type, distances between attributes do not have any
meaning. For example, you used educational attainment as a variable
on survey, you might code elementary school graduates = 1, high
graduates = 2, college undergraduate = 3, and college graduate = 4. In
this measure, higher number means greater education. Even though
we can rank these from lowest to highest, the spacing between the
values may not be the same across the levels of the variables. The
distance between 3 and 4 is not the same with the distance between 1
and 2.
___________________________________________________________________
KINDS OF VARIABLES
Several experts have lumped together the following as the major kinds of variables:
1. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES – Those that probably cause, influence, or

affect outcomes. They are invariably called treatment, manipulated,
antecedent or predictor variables. This is the cause variable or the one
39
responsible for the conditions that act on something else to bring about
changes.
a. EXAMPLE: A study on the relationship of study habits and academic
performance of UTNHS senior high school students. STUDY HABITS
is the independent variable because it influenced the outcome or the
performance of the students.
2. DEPENDENT VARIABLES – those that depend on the independent

variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent
variable. That is why it is also called outcome variable.
a. EXAMPLE: A study on the relationship of study habits and academic
performance of UTNHS senior high school students. ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE is the dependent variable because it is depending on
the study habits of the students; if the students change their study habit
the academic performance also change.
3. INTERVENING OR MEDLING VARIABLES – variables that “stand between”

the independent and dependent variables, and they show the effects of the
independent variable on the dependent variable.
a. EXAMPLE: Even if farm production is good, if the attitude towards
payment is negative, loan repayment would be low, whereas, if the
attitude towards repayment is positive or favorable, loan repayment
would be high.
4. CONTROL VARIABLES – a special type of independent variables that are

measured in the study because they potentially influence the dependent
variable. Researchers use statistical procedures (e.g. analysis of covariance)
to control these variables. They may be demographic or personal variables
that need to be “controlled” so that the true influence of the independent
variable on the dependent variable can be determined.
5. CONFOUNDING VARIABLES – Variables that are not actually measured or

observed in a study. They exist but their influence cannot be directly detected
in a study. Researchers comment on the influence of confounding variables
after the study has been completed, because these variables may have
operated to explain the relationship between the independent variables and
dependent variable, but they were not or could not be easily assessed.
___________________________________________________________________
40
ACTIVITY: Identify the variables and the constant in each research title you have on
the lesson Characteristics of Quantitative Research. Determine the independent and
dependent variable; then determine whether discrete or continuous variable.
Example: A study on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of

BSU college students.
41
(02) 720-50-32
42
(02) 720-50-32
1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : DESIGNING A RESEARCH USED IN DAILY LIFE
Most Essential : DESIGNS A RESEARCH USED IN DAILY LIFE
Learning
Competency
___________________________________________________________________
MATCHING TYPE. Match the items in COLUMN A with those of COLUMN B by

choosing the letter of the correct answers
Column A Column B
1. the posttest of the treated a. Normative
groups is compared with that
of an untreated group b. Survey
2. a test of children in school is
used to assess the c. Census
effectiveness of teaching or
the deployment of a d. Evaluative
curriculum
3. useful when the objective of e. Comparative
the study is to see general
picture of the population under f. Ex-post facto
investigation in terms of their
social and economic g. Descriptive
characteristics, opinions, and
their knowledge about the h. Correlational
behavior towards a certain
phenomenon i. Bivariate Correlational
4. conducting a research on the
study habits of the high school j. Prediction
students you are to use the
range of score to describe the k. Multiple Regression
level of their study habits
5. discusses why and how a l. Pre-Experimental
phenomenon occurs
6. selecting groups, upon which m. Quasi Experimental
a variable is tested, without
any random pre-selection n. True Experimental
processes
43
7. uses correlation coefficient to
show how one variable (the
predictor variable) predicts
another (the criterion variable)
8. employs both treated and
control groups to deal with
time-related rival explanations
9. it obtains score from two
variables for each subject, and
then uses them to calculate a
correlation coefficient
10. term that seems synonymous
to survey research
44
(02) 720-50-32
45
(02) 720-50-32
1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : DESIGNING A RESEARCH USED IN DAILY LIFE
Most Essential : DESIGNS A RESEARCH USED IN DAILY LIFE
Learning
Competency
___________________________________________________________________
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical,

mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires,
and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational
techniques. The kind of research is dependent on the researcher’s aim in
conducting the study and the extent to which the findings will be used. Quantitative
research designs are generally classified into experimental and non-experimental as
the following matrix below.
46
1. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN. This allows the researcher to control
the situation. In doing so, it allows the researcher to answer the question,
“What causes something to occur?” This kind of research also allows the
researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to
distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.
Further, this research design supports the ability to limit alternative
explanations and to infer direct causal relationships in the study; the approach
provides the highest degree level of evidence for single studies.
a. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN.
i. A type of research apply to experimental design that with least
internal validity. One type of pre-experiment, the simple group,
pretest-post-test design, measures the group two times, before
and after the intervention.
ii. Instead of comparing the pretest with the posttest within one
group, the posttest of the treated groups is compared with that
of an untreated group. Measuring the effect as the difference
between groups marks this as between-subjects design.
Assuming both groups experienced the same time-related
influences, the comparison group feature should protect this
design from the rival explanations that threaten the within-
subject design.
b. QUASI – EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. In this design, the researcher can
collect more data, either by scheduling more observations or finding
more existing measures.
Quasi-experimental design involves selecting groups, upon which a
variable is tested, without any random pre-selection processes. For
example, to perform an educational experiment, a class might be
arbitrarily divided by alphabetical selection or by seating arrangement.
The division is often convenient and, especially in an educational
situation, causes as little disruption as possible. After this selection, the
experiment proceeds in a very similar way to any other experiment,
with a variable being compared between different groups, or over a
period of time. There are two types of quasi-experimental design, these
are:
i. Non-Equivalent Control Group. This refers to the chance
failure of random assignment to equalize the conditions by
converting a true experiment into this kind of design, for purpose
of analysis.
ii. Interrupted Time Series Design. It employs multiple measures
before and after the experimental intervention. It differs from the
singlegroup pre-experiment that has only one pretest and one
posttest. Users of this design assume that the time threats such
as history or maturation appear as regular changes in the
measures prior to the intervention.
c. TRUE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. It controls for both time-related and
grouprelated threats. Two features mark true experiments: two or more
differently treated groups; and random assignment to these groups.
These features require that the researchers have control over the
experimental treatment and the power to place subjects in groups.
47
True experimental design employs both treated and control groups to
deal with time-related rival explanations.
A control group reflects changes other than those due to the treatment
that occur during the time of the study. Such changes include effects of
outside events, maturation by the subjects, changes in measures and
impact of any pre-tests.
True experimental design offers the highest internal validity of all the
designs. Quasi-experimental design differs from true experimental
design by the absence of random assignment of subjects to different
conditions. What quasiexperiments have in common with true
experiments is that some subjects receive an intervention and provide
data likely to reflect its impact.
2. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. In this kind of design, the researcher

observes the phenomena as they occur naturally and no external variables
are introduced.
In this research design, the variables are not deliberately manipulated nor is
the setting controlled. Researchers collect data without making changes or
introducing treatments. This may also be called as DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN because it is only one under nonexperimental design.
Descriptive Research Design’s main purpose is to observe, describe and
document aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs and sometimes to serve
as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory development. The
types of descriptive design are as follows:
a. SURVEY. It is used to gather information from groups of people by
selecting and studying samples chosen from a population. This is
useful when the objective of the study is to see general picture of the
population under investigation in terms of their social and economic
characteristics, opinions, and their knowledge about the behavior
towards a certain phenomenon.
b. CORRELATIONAL. It is conducted by researchers whose aim would
be to find out the direction, associations and/or relationship between
different variables or groups of respondents under study. Correlational
Research has three types, these are:
i. Bivariate Correlational Studies – It obtains score from two
variables for each subject, and then uses them to calculate a
correlation coefficient. The term bivariate implies that the two
variables are correlated (variables are selected because they
are believed to be related).
Example: Children of wealthier (variable one), better educated

(variable 2) parents earn higher salaries as adults.
ii. Prediction Studies – It uses correlation coefficient to show how

one variable (the predictor variable) predicts another (the
criterion variable).
Example: Which high school applicants should be admitted to

college?
48
iii. Multiple Regression Prediction Studies – All variables in the
study can contribute to the over-all prediction in an equation that
adds together the predictive power of each identified variable.
Example: Suppose the High School GPA is not the sole

predictor of college GPA, what might be other good predictors?
c. EX-POST FACTO or CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE. This kind of research

derives conclusion from observations and manifestations that already
occurred in the past and now compared to some dependent variables.
It discusses why and how a phenomenon occurs.
Example 1: A researcher is interested in how weight influences stress-

coping level of adults. Here the subjects would be separated into
different groups (underweight, normal, overweight) and their stress-
coping levels measured. This is an ex post facto design because a pre-
existing characteristic (weight) was used to form the groups.
Example 2: What is the Effect of Home Schooling on the Social Skills

of Adolescents?
d. COMPARATIVE. It involves comparing and contrasting two or more

samples of study subjects on one or more variables, often at a single
point of time. Specifically, this design is used to compare two distinct
groups on the basis of selected attributes such as knowledge level,
perceptions, and attitudes, physical or psychological symptoms.
Example: A comparative Study on the Health Problems among Rural

and Urban People in Ilocos Region, Philippines
e. NORMATIVE. It describes the norm level of characteristics for a given

behavior. For example: If you are conducting a research on the study
habits of the high school students you are to use the range of score to
describe the level of their study habits. The same true is when you
would want to describe their academic performance.
f. EVALUATIVE. It is a process used to determine what has happened
during a given activity or in an institution. The purpose of evaluation is
to see if a given program is working, an institution is successful
according to the goals set for it, or the original intent was successfully
attained. In other words, in evaluation judgments can be in the forms of
social utility, desirability, or effectiveness of a process. For example,
we can cite here a situation. In evaluation study, it will not just be
considering the performance of the students who were taught under
modular instruction; instead, it is the rate of progress that happened
among the students who were exposed to modular instruction.
Example: A test of children in school is used to assess the

effectiveness of teaching or the deployment of a curriculum.
49
g. METHODOLOGICAL. In this approach, the implementation of a variety
of methodologies forms a critical part of achieving the goal of
developing a scalematched approach, where data from different
disciplines can be integrated.
 RANDOMIZATION. Participant being assigned to either receive (experimental

group) or not receive (control group) treatments or interventions.
o Lottery method/slip of paper
o Flip a coin/tossing a coin
o Random table
 MANIPULATION. The process of maneuvering the intervention so that its
effect on the dependent variable can be observed or measured. It refers to
conscious control of the independent variable by the researcher through
treatment or intervention to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
o IV – Medication
o DV – Pain level
 CONTROL. Refers to the use of control group and controlling the effects of
extraneous variables on the dependent variable in which the researcher is
interested. It refers to a group of subjects whose performance is used to
evaluate the performance of the experimental group. The subject in the
control and experimental groups are similar in number and characteristics but
the subjects in the control group do not receive experimental treatment or any
intervention.
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

 PRETEST POST TEST GROUP DESIGN. In this experiment, the researcher
conducts experimental group and control group. Individuals in the
50
experimental group receive experimental treatment whereas those in the
control group do not.
 POST TEST ONLY GROUP DESIGN. The researcher assigns participants

and conducts experimental group and control group. The researcher conducts
post test study only where the experimental group receives intervention and
the control group does not.
 SOLOMON 4 GROUP DESIGN. It is a standard pre-test post test two group

design and two group post test design. The various combinations are
untested groups with treatment and control group.
QUASI EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

 NON-EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP DESIGN. In this experiment, the
researcher conducts experimental group and control group. The researcher
conducts two groups without randomization.
51
 TIME SERIES DESIGN. Measurement of the same variables are taken at
different points of time.
 MULTIPLE TIME SERIES DESIGN. A series of quasi experimental design

where a series of periodic measurement is taken from units (experimental and
control group).
PRE-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

 ONE SHOT CASE STUDY. This design fails to include control and
randomization. A single group is often studied but no comparison is made.
 ONE GROUP PRE-TEST POST TEST DESIGN. A type of pre-experimental

design where pre-test and post test are taken with intervention but fails to
include randomization and control.
 STATIC GROUP COMPARISON DESIGN. There are two groups in this

design. The researcher gives intervention to one group and post test to both
groups.
52
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
 DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN. Intended to design; effective when the area has
been previously studied; describbes attitude, behaviour, or othere
characteristics of a group; does not involve manipulation of variables (IV);
provides data for initial investigation of data using graphs, charts, and/or
tables.
o DEVELOPMENTAL DESIGN
o SURVEY DESIGN. A very popular method mostly used in descriptive

studies. It is used to learn about attitudes, beliefs, opinions, behaviors,
etc. It uses standardized data collection method by asking structured
questions using questionnaires, interviews, and/or surveys.
o CAUSE COMPARATIVE DESIGN. Beyond relationship, it describes
cause and effect.
 Ex Post Facto. Researcher first observes an effect and then
tries to define the cause.
 Correlation. Researchers measure two variables and assess
statistical relationship between the two variables.
 Positive correlation. Increase in one variable is
associated with the increase in the other variable.
 Negative correlation. Increase in one variable is
associated with the decrease in the other variable.
53
 Zero correlation. No meaningful relationship is seen
between the two variables.
 PREDICTIVE STUDY DESIGN. Allows to calculate the value of one variable
(criterion variable) related in another variable (predictive variable). It allows to
make estimates with typical analysis on regression.
 RELATIONSHIP STUDY DESIGN. Investigates the degree to which variation
in one variable related in another variable. Mainly, it shows the relationship
between variables with typical analysis on correlation.
___________________________________________________________________
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
A scientific method of observation to gather non-numerical data while focusing on

meaning-making. This often occurs through case study, personal experience,
introspection, life story, cultural along with observational, historical, etc. It varies
depending upon the method used. Participant observations, in-depth interviews like
face-to-face or on the telephone, and focus groups are examples of methodologies
which may be considered during qualitative research.
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH DESIGN. Involves analysis of events that occured

in the remote (or) recent past. It shows patterns that occured in the past and
over time which can help us to see where we came from and what kind of
solutions we have used in the past, how we examine current events and
educational practices.
54
 PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH. An inductive, descriptive research
approach developed from phenomenological philosophy. Its aim is to describe
an experience as it is actually lived by the person. It is based in a paradigm of
personal knowledge and subjectivity, and emphasizes the importance of
personal perspective and interpretation.
 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH. An art and science of describing a group or
culture. It refers to the investigation of a culture through in-depth study of the
members of the culture. It involves the systematic collection, description, and
analysis of data for development of theories of cultural behavior. It studies
people ethnic groups and other ethnic formations, their ethno genesis,
resettlement composition, social welfare characteristics, as well as their
material and spiritual culture.
 CASE STUDY. The researcher sheds light on a phenomenon by studying in-
depth a single case. The case can be an individual, family, group, institution,
community, or other social unit.
 GROUNDED THEORY. It operates almost in a reverse fashion from
traditional research and at first may appear to be in contradiction to the
scientific method.
___________________________________________________________________
WRITTEN WORKS #1 (The following written activity is graded and recorded)
INSTRUCTIONS: Choose 3 types of experimental quantitative research designs

under any of the following: True Experimental, Quasi Experimental, and Pre-
Experimental Designs.
In not more than nor less than 5 sentences, briefly explain the characteristics of each
research design of your choice. Make sure to observe proper academic writing
formats (spelling, grammar, punctuation marks, capitalization, etc.)
Do not copy nor repeat the definitions or explanations given in this module for this
activity. Make sure to explain your answers using your own words based on how you
have understood each research design.
55
The following guide may be used in answering this activity:
A. Ideas are well-explained and well-organized 5 pts.

B. Ideas are clear and concise 4 pts
C. Ideas are understandable yet needs further explanation 3 pts
D. Ideas are not very well presented in an organized manner 2 pts
E. No evidence of understanding of the lesson at all 1 pt
Answers:
1. ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : RESEARCH TITLE (THREATS IN VALIDITY)
Most Essential : WRITES A RESEARCH TITLE
Learning
Competency
___________________________________________________________________
Directions: Choose the letter of your answer.
1. Content validity
a. The extent to which a measure is related to an outcome.
b. The degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be
measuring.
c. The degree to which an assessment instrument is relevant to, and
representative of, the targeted construct it is designed to measure.
2. Construct validity
measuring.
3. Criterion validity
measuring.
4. Internal validity has to do with interpreting findings of research within the study
itself.
a. True
b. False
c. Undecided
5. External validity has to do with interpreting findings within the study and
generalizing them beyond the study.
a. True
b. False
c. Undecided
6. Attrition is the loss of study units from a sample. It occurs when an analysis
does not include a sample member who was randomly assigned.
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a. True
b. False
c. Undecided
7. Mortality is the loss of study units from a sample. It occurs when an analysis
does not include a sample member who was randomly assigned.
a. True
b. False
c. Undecided
8. It is the processes within subjects which act as a function of the passage of
time.
a. Attrition
b. Maturation
c. Motality
9. A confounding effect that occurs when subjects of an experimental study
attempt to change or improve their behavior simply because it is being
evaluated or studied.
a. John Henry Effect
b. Pygmalion Effect
c. Hawthorne Effect
10. A psychological phenomenon wherein high expectations lead to improved
performance in a given area.
a. John Henry Effect
b. Pygmalion Effect
c. Hawthorne Effect
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(02) 720-50-32
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(02) 720-50-32
1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : RESEARCH TITLE (THREATS IN VALIDITY)
Most Essential : WRITES A RESEARCH TITLE
Learning
Competency
___________________________________________________________________
RESEARCH TOPIC VS. RESEARCH TITLE
You get quantitative (numbers) and qualitative (words) ways of studying things,
among others. For quantitative studies, you need a question you can answer with
numbers. The question could be called the hypothesis. The question you ask is
usually based on something that frustrates you or something you want to help fix
(Pierre Sutherland, PhD).
The niche area
 When we say “niche area” (pronounced ‘neesh’ or ‘nish’), we refer to an area

of expertise or focus.
The Research Topic
 A research topic falls within the perimeter of a niche area.
The Research Title
 A research title expands on the research topic and also falls under the
perimeter of a niche area. It should have the following characteristics:
o Short, descriptive, and to the point.
o Contains key variables in the research study (investigative areas)
o Relates to the topic, niche area, and discipline
o Attracts the attention and interest of the reader(s)
o Makes clear sense
The easiest way to conceptualize the niche area, research topic, and research title
would be through the following illustration:
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Sample research topics and titles (ABM):
1. Topic: Food Industry

Sample title: Operations Responsiveness of Food Industries around San
Pedro City, Laguna
2. Topic: Online Sellers
Sample title: Strategic Management of Online Sellers around San Pedro City,
Laguna
3. Topic: Superstitious Beliefs of Enterpreneurs
Sample title: Superstitious Beliefs of Entrepreneurs around San Pedro City,
Laguna
Sample research topics and titles (STEM):
1. Topic: Learning Strategy and Learning Beliefs

Sample title: Learning Strategy and Learning Beliefs of STEM students of
AMA Senior High School Biñan
2. Topic: Symmetrical Patterns
Sample title: Symmetrical Patterns of Selected Houses in Barangay Nueva,
San Pedro City Laguna
3. Topic: Vaccination in the 21st Century
Sample title: Human Papillomavirus Effectiveness by Number of Doses
___________________________________________________________________
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
“Achieving validity in research is very important.”

(Crowl, 2004; Wiersma, 2003; Gall, 2003; Stanley and Campbell, 1983)
What is Validity in research?
 Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to

measure. If research has high validity, that means it produces results that
correspond to real properties, characteristics, and variations in the physical or
social world.
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 High reliability is one indicator that a measurement is valid. If a method is not
reliable, it probably isn’t valid.
Sample scenarios:
a. If the thermometer shows different temperatures each time, even

though you have carefully controlled conditions to ensure the sample’s
temperature stays the same, the thermometer is probably
malfunctioning, and therefore its measurements are not valid.
b. If a symptom questionnaire results in a reliable diagnosis when
answered at different times and with different doctors, this indicates
that it has high validity as a measurement of the medical condition.
Types of Validity
1. Content validity - refers to the degree to which an assessment instrument is

relevant to, and representative of, the targeted construct it is designed to
measure.
 “Do the questions really assess the construct in question, or are the
responses by the person answering the questions influenced by other
factors?”
Content validity is most often measured by relying on the knowledge of people
who are familiar with the construct being measured. These subject-matter
experts are usually provided with access to the measurement tool and are
asked to provide feedback on how well each question measures the construct
in question. Their feedback is then analyzed, and informed decisions can be
made about the effectiveness of each question.
2. Criterion validity - criterion validity refers to a test’s correlation with a concrete

outcome. The relationship between test performance and a business metric
can be quantified by a correlation coefficient (ranging from -1.0 to +1.0), which
can be used to demonstrate how strongly correlated two variables are
depending on how close the number is to -1.0 or +1.0. The more correlated
the two variables are, the more predictive validity the test has. There are two
main types of criterion validity:
 Concurrent validity - measures how well a new test compares to an
well-established test. It can also refer to the practice of concurrently
testing two groups at the same time, or asking two different groups of
people to take the same test. For example, a company could
administer a sales personality test to its sales staff to see if there is an
overall correlation between their test scores and a measure of their
productivity.
 Predictive validity - is determined by seeing how likely it is that test
scores predict future performance. It refers to the degree to which
scores on a test or assessment are related to performance on a
criterion or gold standard assessment that is administered at some
point in the future.
i. There should be a positive correlation between test scores and
future performance. Determining predictive validity is a long-
term process that involves testing candidates and then
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comparing their test scores to a measure of their performance
after they have occupied their positions for a long period of time.
3. Construct validity - the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or
purports, to be measuring. Construct validity defines how well a test or
experiment measures up to its claims. It refers to whether the operational
definition of a variable actually reflect the true theoretical meaning of a
concept.
 Construct validity is a device used almost exclusively in social
sciences, psychology and education. For example, you might design
whether an educational program increases artistic ability amongst pre-
school children. Construct validity is a measure of whether your
research actually measures artistic ability, a slightly abstract label.
 The term ‘construct validity' can be a little misleading, because it often
makes people think of how an experiment is physically constructed or
designed. A construct refers to a "theorized psychological construct".
i. Does the theoretical concept match up with a specific
measurement / scale used in research? Construct validity refers
to whether a scale or test measures the construct adequately.
 An example is a measurement of the human brain, such as
intelligence, level of emotion, proficiency or ability.
 Some specific examples could be language proficiency, artistic ability
or level of displayed aggression, as with the Bobo Doll Experiment.
These concepts are abstract and theoretical, but have been observed
in practice.
 An example could be a doctor testing the effectiveness of painkillers on
chronic back sufferers.
i. Every day, he asks the test subjects to rate their pain level on a
scale of one to ten - pain exists, we all know that, but it has to be
measured subjectively.
ii. In this case, construct validity would test whether the doctor
actually was measuring pain and not numbness, discomfort,
anxiety or any other factor.
iii. Therefore, with the definition of a construct properly defined, we
can look at construct ability, a measure of how well the test
measures the construct. It is a tool that allows researchers to
perform a systematic analysis of how well designed their
research is.
 Construct validity is valuable in social sciences, where there is a lot of
subjectivity to concepts. Often, there is no accepted unit of
measurement for constructs and even fairly well known ones, such as
IQ, are open to debate.
___________________________________________________________________
What is Reliability in research?
 Reliability refers to how consistently a method measures something. If the

same result can be consistently achieved by using the same methods under
the same circumstances, the measurement is considered reliable.
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Sample scenarios:
a. You measure the temperature of a liquid sample several times under

identical conditions. The thermometer displays the same temperature
every time, so the results are reliable.
b. A doctor uses a symptom questionnaire to diagnose a patient with a
long-term medical condition. Several different doctors use the same
questionnaire with the same patient but give different diagnoses. This
indicates that the questionnaire has low reliability as a measure of the
condition.
 However, reliability on its own is not enough to ensure validity. Even if a test is
reliable, it may not accurately reflect the real situation.
a. The thermometer that you used to test the sample gives reliable
results. However, the thermometer has not been calibrated properly, so
the result is 2 degrees lower than the true value. Therefore, the
measurement is not valid.
b. A group of participants take a test designed to measure working
memory. The results are reliable, but participants’ scores correlate
strongly with their level of reading comprehension. This indicates that
the method might have low validity: the test may be measuring
participants’ reading comprehension instead of their working memory.
___________________________________________________________________
HOW ARE RELIABLITY AND VALIDITY ASSESSED?
Type of reliability What does it assess? Example

Test – retest The consistency of a A group of participants
measure across time: do complete a questionnaire
you get the same results designed to measure
when you repeat the personality traits. If they
measurement? repeat the questionnaire
days, weeks or months
apart and give the same
answers, this indicates high
test-retest reliability.
Interrater The consistency of a Based on an assessment
measure across raters or criteria checklist, five
observers: do you get the examiners submit
same results when different substantially different results
people conduct the same for the same student project.
measurement? This indicates that the
assessment checklist has
low inter-rater reliability (for
example, because the
criteria are too subjective).
Internal consistency The consistency of the You design a questionnaire
measurement itself: do you to measure self-esteem. If
get the same results from you randomly split the
different parts of a test that results into two halves, there
are designed to measure should be a strong
the same thing? correlation between the two
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sets of results. If the two
results are very different,
this indicates low internal
consistency.
Type of validity What does it assess? Example
Construct The adherence of a A self-esteem questionnaire
measure to existing theory could be assessed by
and knowledge of the measuring other traits
concept being measured. known or assumed to be
related to the concept of
self-esteem (such as social
skills and optimism). Strong
correlation between the
scores for self-esteem and
associated traits would
indicate high construct
validity.
Content The extent to which the A test that aims to measure
measurement covers all a class of students’ level of
aspects of the concept Spanish contains reading,
being measured. writing and speaking
components, but no
listening component.
Experts agree that listening
comprehension is an
essential aspect of language
ability, so the test lacks
content validity for
measuring the overall level
of ability in Spanish.
Criterion A test that aims to measure A survey is conducted to
a class of students’ level of measure the political
Spanish contains reading, opinions of voters in a
writing and speaking region. If the results
components, but no accurately predict the later
listening component. outcome of an election in
Experts agree that listening that region, this indicates
comprehension is an that the survey has high
essential aspect of language criterion validity.
ability, so the test lacks
content validity for
measuring the overall level
of ability in Spanish.
***Validity is harder to assess than reliability, but it is even more important. To obtain
useful results, the methods you use to collect your data must be valid: the research
must be measuring what it claims to measure. This ensures that your discussion of
the data and the conclusions you draw are also valid.
***To assess the validity of a cause-and-effect relationship, you also need to

consider internal validity (the design of the experiment) and external validity (the
generalizability of the results).
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***Internal validity has to do with interpreting findings of research within the study
itself.
***External validity has to do with interpreting findings and generalizing them beyond
the study.
___________________________________________________________________
THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY
1. History - the specific events which occur between the first and second
measurement.
2. Maturation - the processes within subjects which act as a function of the
passage of time. (ex: If the project lasts a few years, most participants may
improve their performance regardless of treatment.)
3. Testing - the effects of taking a test on the outcomes of taking a second test.
4. Instrumentation - the changes in the instrument, observers, or scorers which
may produce changes in outcomes.
5. Statistical regression - it is also known as regression to the mean. This
threat is caused by the selection of subjects on the basis of extreme scores or
characteristics. (ex: Give me forty worst students and I guarantee that they
will show immediate improvement right after my treatment.)
6. Selection of subjects - the biases which may result in selection of
comparison groups. Randomization (random assignment) of group
membership is a counter-attack against this threat. However, when the
sample size is small, randomization may lead to Simpson Paradox (a
phenomenon in probability and statistics, in which a trend appears in several
different groups of data but disappears or reverses when these groups are
combined.)
7. Experimental mortality - the loss of subjects. For example, in a Web-based
instruction project entitled Eruditio, it started with 161 subjects and only 95 of
them completed the entire module. Those who stayed in the project all the
way to end may be more motivated to learn and thus achieved higher
performance.
8. Selection-maturation interaction - the selection of comparison groups and
maturation interacting which may lead to confounding outcomes, and
erroneous interpretation that the treatment caused the effect.
THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY
1. Reactive or interaction effect of testing - a pretest might increase or

decrease a subject's sensitivity or responsiveness to the experimental
variable.
2. Interaction effects of selection biases and the experimental variable.
3. Reactive effects of experimental arrangements - it is difficult to generalize
to non-experimental settings if the effect was attributable to the experimental
arrangement of the research.
4. Multiple treatment interference - as multiple treatments are given to the
same subjects, it is difficult to control for the effects of prior treatments.
___________________________________________________________________
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POSSIBLE TEST EFFECTS IN EXPERIMENTS
1. Hawthorne Effect - refers to a type of reactivity in which individuals modify an

aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.
Consider the following:
In April 1927 – June 1932, an experiment (by Mayo and others) involved only five
telephone relay assemblers. In their regular department workstations, these young
women assembled the relays from about 35 separate small parts, a process
requiring modest skills of memory, dexterity, and hand-eye coordination. After
monitoring their performance for two weeks without their knowledge, the researchers
moved the five women to a separate relay-assembly test room in order to measure
the effect of two variables: rest periods and the length of the workday.
“Regardless of the conditions, whether there were more or fewer rest periods, longer
or shorter workdays, the women worked harder and more efficiently. Although this
effect was probably due to several reasons, the most important was that the women
felt they were doing something special; that they were expected to perform
exceptionally. They were happy, a lot of attention was paid to them, and they
complied with what they thought the experimenter (their boss) wanted.” (Jonathan
Freedman, et al, Social Psychology, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, 1981).
2. John Henry Effect (compensatory rivalry) - named after John Henry, an

enormously strong and hard-working African–American railroad worker and
folk tale hero of the late 19th century, possibly based on a real person.
If members of the experimental group are provided with a powerful new tool,
members of the control group may treat this as a challenge and, using the old tool,
may try to beat the experimental group members in productivity (competition or
rivalry).
3. Novelty Effect – newness of teh set-up. In the context of human

performance, is the tendency for performance to initially improve when new
technology is instituted, not because of any actual improvement in learning or
achievement, but in response to increased interest in the new technology.
Love, A., Kavazis, A., Morse, A., & Mayer, K.C. (2013). The influence of soccer
specific stadiums on attendance in Major League Soccer. Journal of Applied Sports
Management, 5(2), 32-46.
During their first, second, and third seasons in soccer-specific stadiums, Major
League Soccer (MLS) clubs reported attendance figures that were significantly
higher than those of their final seasons in multipurpose venues. By their fourth
seasons in soccerspecific stadiums, clubs’ attendance averages were still greater
than those during their final seasons in multipurpose venues, but no longer to a
statistically significant extent. These results suggest that a novelty effect exists for
newly constructed soccer-specific stadiums in MLS, and this novelty effect appears
to persist for a period of at least 3 years. The existence of such a novelty effect is
consistent with previous research that has identified an attendance increase
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associated with new venues in contexts such as MLB (Coates & Humphreys, 2005;
Howard & Crompton, 2003), the NBA (Coates & Humphreys, 2005; Howard &
Crompton, 2003), the NFL (Howard & Crompton, 2003), the NHL (Howard &
Crompton, 2003)...
4. Pygmalion Effect - a psychological phenomenon wherein high expectations

lead to improved performance in a given area. The effect is named after the
Greek myth of Pygmalion, a sculptor who fell in love with a statue he had
carved, or alternately, after the psychologist Robert Rosenthal, whose
interests include self-fulfilling prophecies, which he explored in a well-known
study of the Pygmalion Effect: the effect of teachers' expectations on
students.
Sarah Gentrup & Camilla Rjosk (2018). Pygmalion and the gender gap: do teacher
expectations contribute to differences in achievement between boys and girls at the
beginning of schooling? (Pages 295-323)
This study examined the role of teacher expectations in the emerging gender gaps in
reading and mathematics in the first year of schooling. First, they investigated
whether boys and girls differ in their vulnerability to teacher expectancy effects.
Second, they analysed whether gender-specific effects of teacher expectations
contribute to gender achievement gaps. The analyses were based on 1,025 first-
grade students in Germany. Among the majority of the students, boys and girls did
not differ in their vulnerability to teacher expectancy effects. Further analyses
examined a subgroup of students who were targets of relatively strong teacher
expectation bias and who showed unexpectedly high or low achievement gains. In
this specific subgroup, girls’ mathematics achievement was more adversely
affected by negatively biased expectations and benefitted less from positive bias
than boys’ achievement. Mediation analyses revealed that teacher expectation bias
did not substantially contribute to gender gaps in reading or mathematics.
5. Placebo Effect - a phenomenon that occurs when a person believes he or

she is receiving real treatment and reports an improvement in his or her
condition.
Pierre Rosenzweig MD, Sylvie Brohier PhD, & Andreas Zipfel PhD. Clinical
Pharmacology and Therapeutics (1993) 54, 578–583; doi:10.1038/clpt.1993.190
In contrast to the plethora of publications on placebo effects in patients, very little is

known about placebo effects in healthy volunteers during clinical pharmacology
studies. We therefore reviewed the adverse events spontaneously reported during
placebo administration in 109 double‐blind, placebo‐controlled studies involving 1228
volunteers. The overall incidence of adverse events in the healthy volunteers during
placebo administration was 19%. As expected, complaints were more frequent after
repeated dosing (28%) and in elderly subjects (26%). Overall, the most frequent
adverse events were headache (7%), drowsiness (5%), and asthenia (4%), with
some variation depending on study design and population. In conclusion, these data
shed new light on the impact of experimental conditions on the results of safety
evaluations in healthy volunteers participating in clinical pharmacology studies.
___________________________________________________________________
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SAMPLE PUBLISHED RESEARCH TITLES:
1. Does STEM Stand Out? Examining Racial/Ethnic Gaps in Persistence Across

Postsecondary Fields by Catherine Riegle-Crumb, Barbara King, Yasmiyn
Irizarry (February 21, 2019) https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X19831006
2. Why are some STEM fields more gender balanced than others? by Cheryan,
Sapna,Ziegler, Sianna A.,Montoya, Amanda K.,Jiang, Lily. Psychological
Bulletin, Vol 143(1), Jan 2017, 1-35
3. Looking Beyond Academic Performance: The Influence of Instructor Gender

on Student Motivation in STEM Fields by Sabrina M. Solanki, Di XuFirst
(March 13, 2018) https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218759034
4. Analysis of Senior High School - Accountancy, Business and Management

Strand Teachers Performance by Roxer Erwin B. Garcia, Jennielle Anne B.
Narca, John Alexis Narca, Len Kristinne P. Mariano, and Jennifer G. Fronda.
Vol. 8 No. 1 (2020) https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v8.i1.2020.260
5. Personality Traits in Relation to Academic Performance of Accountancy,

Business and Management Strand Students by Gyllevi Prylle F. Bongato and
Emma S. Rulona (September 2018)
___________________________________________________________________
A. WRITTEN WORKS #2 (This activity is graded and recorded)
INSTRUCTION: Choose a research topic below. List and discuss all possible threats
to the internal and external validity of the research project. Make sure to observe
proper academic writing formats (spelling, grammar, punctuation marks,
capitalization, etc.)
1. Reading Motivation of University of Manila’s English majors

2. Teacher Personality: Its influence(s) in student performance
3. Gender equality/inequality in literacy levels in the province of Laguna
B. PERFORMANCE TASK #1 (This activity is graded and recorded)
INSTRUCTION: This is a group activity. Formulate and prepare 5 research titles

based on the strand which you belong to. Choose your preferred research topic/title
by rating them on a scale of 1 to 5, 1 being your group’s top choice and 5 as your
group’s least choice. Be ready to present and defend your preferred research title(s).
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(02) 720-50-32
1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Most Essential : DESCRIBES BACKGROUND OF RESEARCH
Learning
Competency
___________________________________________________________________
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
 The background of the study is a part of a research provided in the

introduction section of the paper.
 A compilation of adequate information that is based on the analysis of the
problem or proposed argument, the steps and methods needed to arrive at
the design, and the implementation of the results achieved and feasible
solutions.
Johnson Olawale, Background of the study in research: How to write one (2020)
Steps on how to do a background of the study for a research or thesis:
1. Conduct preliminary research on your area of study and specific topic.

2. Develop research question or thesis statement as guide.
3. Write thesis statement or research question to determine own opinion or
stance on specific topic or issue.
4. Make sure sources provide details on the history and past research related to
research question.
5. Create five separate sections that cover the key issues, major findings, and
controversies surrounding the thesis, as well as sections that provide an
evaluation and conclusion.
6. Conclude by identifying any further study that needs to be done in that area,
or provide possible solutions to the issue that haven't been considered before.
7. Revise and edit as often as needed and possible.
___________________________________________________________________
SAMPLE RESEARCH (BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY)
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INSTRUCTION: Choose one research title listed below based on your strand. Write
a two-paragraph introduction with 5 sentences only for each paragraph as the
background of the study of the chosen research title.
1. The relationship between crime statistics and immigration

2. Quantitative analysis of the marketing strategies followed by different
automobile companies in Sta. Rosa Laguna
3. Negative impacts of bioterrorism on the environment
4. The implementation and impact of brain chips
5. Using social insights for better marketing ROIs
6. The current capabilities and future goals of genetic engineers
7. Peripheral blood stem cells in cancer patients
8. COVID19 vaccine efficacy: The pros and cons of the guinea pigs
INSTRUCTION: This is a group activity. Write down a 5 paragraph synopsis of your

group’s research background of the study. Prepare to present the background of
your group’s research.
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(02) 720-50-32
1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Most Essential : STATES RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Learning
Competency
___________________________________________________________________
WHAT IS A RESEARCH QUESTION
A research question is the question around which you center your research. It should
be:
 Clear - it provides enough specifics that one’s audience can easily

understand its purpose without needing additional explanation.
 Focused - it is narrow enough that it can be answered thoroughly in the
space the writing task allows.
 Concise - it is expressed in the fewest possible words.
 Complex - it is not answerable with a simple “yes” or “no,” but rather requires
synthesis and analysis of ideas and sources prior to composition of an
answer.
 Arguable - its potential answers are open to debate rather than accepted
facts.
You should ask a question about an issue that you are genuinely curious and/or
passionate about.
The question you ask should be developed for the discipline you are studying. A
question appropriate for Biology, for instance, is different from an appropriate one in
Political Science or Sociology.
___________________________________________________________________
Why is a research question essential to the research process?
 Research questions help writers focus their research by providing a path

through the research and writing process.
 The specificity of a well-developed research question helps writers avoid the
“all-about” paper and work toward supporting a specific, arguable thesis.
___________________________________________________________________
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TOP THREE TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1) Descriptive Research questions
Descriptive researches are used to assist a study that aims to describe something.
For example, polls conducted on public opinions. The aim of this study is to
understand the public various opinions, which are mainly descriptive. Questions
starting with “How much?”, “What amount?”, “what is”, “what are” etc. comes under
the heading of descriptive research questions. Here are some examples:
Question: How many calories do Indians consume per week?
Variable: Weekly calorific intake
Group: Indians
Question: What are the important factors that affect the choice of Canadian
university students?
Variable: Factors that affects choices.
Group: Canadian university students.
Question: How often do Indian students obtain foreign university scholarships?
Variable: Foreign university scholarships.
Group: Indian students.
The above questions help the researcher in quantifying the variables, but the units
differ according to the needs of the researcher. Descriptive research questions also
calculate the proportions and percentages. Some examples follow;
Question: What percent of Indian population is below the national average in calorie
consumption?
Variables: Calorie intake
Group: Indian population.
Question: What proportion of Indian students makes into top American and
Canadian universities?
Variables: Top American and Canadian universities.
Group: Indian Students.
The difference between the first set of questions and that of above questions is that
the former is interested in frequencies while the latter is aiming to find out the
percentage.
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A descriptive quantitative research needs many numbers of descriptive research
questions compared to other research methods.
2) Comparative Research Questions
To analyze the difference between two or more groups, on the dependent variables,
we use comparative research questions. Comparative research questions begin with
“what is the difference between?’’. It may look into the distinguishing features of a
variable upon different groups. A study to determine the proportion of males and
females, who would vote for two different political parties, is a comparative research.
Now, here are some examples for comparative research questions:
Question: What is the difference the daily caloric intake of Indian men and Indian
women?
Dependent Variable: Caloric intake
Groups: Indian men, Indian women
Question: What are the difference in the perceptions on online shopping among
young people and older people?
Dependent Variable: Perception towards online shopping
Groups: Younger generation, Older generation
Question: What are the differences in the usage of computer devices between
Indian male and female university students?
Dependent Variable: Usage of computer devices
Groups: Indian male students, Indian female students
Question: What is the attitudinal difference between Indian boys and girls on Chetan
Bhagats novels?
Dependent variable: Attitude towards Chetan Bhagats novels
Group: Indian boys, Indian girls
The group involves different kinds of independent variables, which could be

distinguished on the basis of gender, generation and educational level. The
complexity of the comparative research could be increased by the number of
dependent variables. Primarily the comparative research questions aim to bring out
the differences between two or more groups.
3) Causal Research Questions
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When a research is aimed to find out whether a variable causes one or more
outcome variables, it is called a causal or relationship research. It is the study of
cause and effect. For example, if the public opinion is affected by a recent event
(cause), causal research would try to understand what the effect of that particular
event is.
The research questions try to identify the relationship between different variables
upon one or more groups. The two objectives of causality research are identifying
the cause and variables affected by it. In order to frame a causal research question,
the “What is the relationship between”, should be followed by “between or amongst”’.
Some examples of causal research questions are as follow:
Question: What is the relationship between age and attitudes towards online dating
among youth?
Dependent Variable: Attitudes towards online dating.
Independent Variable: Age
Group: Youth
Question: What is the relationship between leisure time and mental health among
teens?
Dependent Variable: Mental health
Independent variable: Leisure time
Group: Teenagers
The above examples display that causal research questions are interested in
association relationship, interactions and trends. Among the three types of research
questions, casual research questions seem to be more demanding.
___________________________________________________________________
Steps to developing a research question
1. Choose an interesting general topic.

2. Do some preliminary research on your general topic.
3. Consider your audience.
4. Start asking open-ended “how” and “why” questions about the general topic.
5. Evaluate the questions to determine whether they would be effective research
questions or whether they need more revising and refining.
a. Is it clear?
b. Is it focused?
c. Is it complex?
6. Begin the research process.
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Sample research questions:
Unclear: How should social networking sites address the harm they cause?
Clear: What action should social networking sites like MySpace and Facebook take
to protect users’ personal information and privacy?
The unclear version of this question doesn’t specify which social networking sites or
suggest what kind of harm the sites might be causing. It also assumes that this
“harm” is proven and/or accepted. The clearer version specifies sites (MySpace and
Facebook), the type of potential harm (privacy issues), and who may be
experiencing that harm (users). A strong research question should never leave room
for ambiguity or interpretation.
Unfocused: What is the effect on the environment from global warming?
Focused: What is the most significant effect of glacial melting on the lives of
penguins in Antarctica?
The unfocused research question is so broad that it couldn’t be adequately

answered in a book-length piece, let alone a standard college-level paper. The
focused version narrows down to a specific effect of global warming (glacial melting),
a specific place (Antarctica), and a specific animal that is affected (penguins). It also
requires the writer to take a stance on which effect has the greatest impact on the
affected animal. When in doubt, make a research question as narrow and focused as
possible.
Too simple: How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.?
Appropriately Complex: What main environmental, behavioral, and genetic factors

predict whether Americans will develop diabetes, and how can these commonalities
be used to aid the medical community in prevention of the disease?
The simple version of this question can be looked up online and answered in a few
factual sentences; it leaves no room for analysis. The more complex version is
written in two parts; it is thought provoking and requires both significant investigation
and evaluation from the writer. As a general rule of thumb, if a quick Google search
can answer a research question, it’s likely not very effective.
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INSTRUCTION: Choose one research title listed below based on your strand.
Formulate three research questions for your chosen title.

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INSTRUCTION: This is a group activity. Write down three research questions for
your group’s research topic/title. Prepare to present your group’s research questions
for your research topic/title.
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
Most Essential : INDICATES SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF STUDY
Learning
Competency
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SCOPE OF A STUDY
 Scope refers to the depth at which the research area will be explored. Facts
and theories about the subject are included in this area. For instance, one
might decide to carry out a study of the impact of mobile devices on the
behavior patterns of elementary school kids. However, it's infeasible to cover
all aspects of the selected subject. If so, the scope will have to be restricted to
a specific section of the target population over a specified duration.
In the above-cited study, a group of 25 kids in grades 3 to 5 at one particular school

would be an ideal coverage to study their behavior patterns for five months. These
would form the delimitations of the research.
DELIMITATION OF A STUDY
 Delimitation parameters or characteristics that limit the scope and outline the
boundaries of the study. These parameters include sample size, time, and
geographic area. Additionally, the researcher is free to decide which research
tools and methodologies to use as well as particular theories that apply to the
data. Delimitations like insufficient time and financial resources might be
imposed to allow further analysis or investigations.
Here, researchers are tasked with the responsibility of explaining why specific
exclusions and choices were made and how they might affect the outcome of the
research. In the example mentioned above, the researcher might explain why a
sample group of 25 children was chosen together with children from grades 3 to 5
and not the rest of the grades.
LIMITATIONS
 According to research guides from the University of Southern California,

limitations are the constraints on the concept of any data collected,
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applications to practice, and utility of findings that were not accounted for
beforehand. These affect the methods used to set internal and external
validity.
In this case, the researcher might discover that several children from grades 3 and 5
could not make it to school on the research day due to torrential downpour.
In qualitative research, some limitations might mean that the results of the larger
population can not be generalized. This is particularly true when the definition of the
population is broad, for example, middle-aged men.
 When writing the paper, the researcher should ensure that any delimitation
factor is noted down at the introduction, discussion, and conclusion sections.
He or she should clarify why the study included and excluded some
delimitations. Additionally, the researcher can state further how the study's
results relate to the more far-flung population while incorporating the
delimitating factors.
 The effects of delimitation factors on external validity is a suitable place to

start when discussing the limitations of any study and the assumptions used.
According to Informedia Services (IMS), assumptions are accepted as actual
findings by researchers who read dissertations or thesis. Some calculations,
assumptions, and selections can be made when the researcher is considering
proper and realistic designs for their presentations.
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Sample Scope and Delimitations (1)
The main focus of this project was the design of an efficient Energy Recovery System
of Seawater Reverse Osmosis Plant. The system will be using pressure technology
by application of pressure exchanger as an energy recovery device. Pressure
exchanger transfer pressure from a high pressure stream to slow pressure stream in
a ceramic motor. The proposed system is limited only in reducing high power
consumption of the high pressure pump. The project can be used in all existing
Seawater Reverse Osmosis Plant in the Philippines. Some calculations, assumptions,
and selections were made as a consideration of a proper and realistic design.
Sample Scope and Delimitations (2)
This study was conducted to determine the status of online marketing strategies in
luring out target consumers for business establishments to be known. This way, the
status or the respondents of the study will focus solely on local businesses run in
Tacloban City, specifically food services. Fast food chains will be excluded in this
study, as the scope strictly constricts the businesses that are locally owned. Aspects
to be looked in to will be the methods and strategies, facilities, customer services
offered, and current problems the entity is facing.
In coherence with the fast modernizing society, this study will study and somehow
introduce systems that will be important for owners to manage and interact with
consumers. Such systems will suffice those present in web, mobile, and social
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channels. Thus, interaction will yield results to be used for actions that will improve the
locality of the subject.
___________________________________________________________________
a 2-paragraph scope and delimitation for the research title you have chosen.

INSTRUCTION: This is a group activity. Write down the scope and delimitation for
your group’s research study. Prepare to present your group’s output.
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Most Essential : PRESENTS WRITTEN STATEMENT OF THE
Learning PROBLEM
Competency
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THESIS STATEMENTS/RESEARCH QUESTIONS/PROBLEM STATEMENTS
A thesis statement presents the position that you intend to argue within your paper,
whereas a research question indicates your direction of inquiry in your research. in
general, thesis statements are provided in course-level papers, whereas research
questions are used in major research papers or theses.
___________________________________________________________________
Thesis Statement
The statement or question is a key piece of information within your writing because it
describes the parameters of your study.
Your statement should:
 Be specific
 Be appropriate to the type of paper you are writing
 Appear within the first section of your text so that it is immediately clear to your
reader what the paper is about
Example: “Peanut butter and jelly sandwiches are the best type of sandwich because
they are versatile, easy to make, and taste good.”
In this example, you see the stated opinion (the best type of sandwich), which means
a chosen stance. Next, an explanation that the opinion is correct with several key
reasons.
The advantage of a clear thesis statement is that it will also help you to stay on track.
At any time during your writing process, you should be able to make a direct
connection between what you are writing and your thesis statement. If that connection
is not clear, you may need to either adjust your writing, or revisit your thesis statement.
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Thesis statements can change during the evolution of a paper; however, make sure
you re-examine your outline before you divert too far from your original plan.
Informative and Persuasive Thesis Statements
 Informative Thesis Statement
In this statement, you are telling the purpose of your statement, but you are not making
an argument or expressing a view as you might in a different piece of writing. Your
thesis statement should be clear and accessible to readers, and it should also make
them want to keep reading to learn more about the topic.
Example: Fly fishing is a great way to relieve stress and build one’s confidence.
 Persuasive Thesis Statement
A persuasive thesis statement usually contains an opinion and the reason why your
opinion is true. Unless your puspose is simply to inform, your thesis is considered
persuasive whether you are comparing or contrasting, arguing a point, or narrating
ideas when it contains your opinion and the reason(s) why it should be accepted or
true.
Example: Due to increasing over-dependence on technology, many people struggle

to think for themselves.
___________________________________________________________________
Research question(s)
A research question should:
 Be clear and specific

 State the focus of investigation in the research
 Not be answerable with a yes/no response
Example: What are the differences in attitudes towards online banking between
Millennial adults and older people?
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Problem statements
A problem statement concisely details a vision and method that will be used to solve
a problem.
A problem statement should:
 Be clear and specific

 Discuss potential problems for the writer/researcher
 Not offer a solution
It has a specific form:

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 Vision – what does the world look like if we solve the problem
 Issue statement – one or two sentences that describe the problem using
specific issues. It is not “lack of a solution” statement.
 Method – the process that will get followed to solve the problem.
Example:
(Vision)
We want all of our software releases to go to production seamlessly, without defects,
where everyone is aware and informed of the outcomes and status.
(Issue statement)
Today we have too many release failures that result in too many rollback failures. If
we ignore this problem; resources will need to increase to handle the cascading
problems, and we may miss critical customer deadlines which could result in lost
revenue, SLA penalties, lost business, and further damage to our quality reputation.
(Method)
We will use our Kaizen Blitz methodology in evaluating the last release to help us
improve our processes.
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Statement of the Problem in Research Writing
A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the
problem addressed by a study. The statement of the problem briefly addresses the
question: What is the problem that the research will address?
Goals
The ultimate goal of a statement of the problem is to transform a generalized

problem (something that bothers you; a perceived lack) into a targeted, well-defined
problem; one that can be resolved through focused research and careful decision-
making.
Writing a statement of the problem should help you clearly identify the purpose of the
research project you will propose. Often, the statement of the problem will also serve
as the basis for the introductory section of your final proposal, directing your reader’s
attention quickly to the issues that your proposed project will address and providing
the reader with a concise statement of the proposed project itself.
A statement of problem need not be long and elaborate: one page is more than
enough for a good statement of problem.
Key characteristics
1. It should address a gap in knowledge.

2. It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research
3. It should lead to further research
4. The problem should render itself to investigation through collection of data
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5. It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time, and
resources
6. The approach towards solving the problem should be ethical
Format
Part A (The ideal): Describes a desired goal or ideal situation; explains how things
should be.
Part B (The reality): Describes a condition that prevents the goal, state, or value in
Part A from being achieved or realized at this time; explains how the current situation
falls short of the goal or ideal.
Part C (The consequences): Identifies the way you propose to improve the current
situation and move it closer to the goal or ideal.
Example
Statement 1
“The Ministry of Youth is dedicated to allocating enterprise development funds to

both the youth and women. These funds are made available in order to start
entrepreneurial ventures that create and expand employment. (Provide relevant
statistics and quote)”
Statement 2
“One of the main focuses of the ministry is consistency. Unfortunately, consistency in

allocating funds to the next generation of recipients requires prior knowledge of
previous allocations and established practices. The current continuous disbursement
method does not allow for adequate analysis of previous disbursements before a
current disbursement is done.”
Statement 3
“Continuing with this current disbursement method prevents consistency and causes
decisions to become grossly political, which in turn inhibits the achievement of the
goals of the funds. Developing a more informed disbursement system could help
better implement the consistency focus of the ministry and at the same time help the
ministry better monitor and evaluate its funds.”
This proposed research aspires to explore options for a new funds disbursement
system that would focus on consistency. To do this, the researcher will carry out a
full stakeholder analysis and use it to propose appropriate policy interventions.
Sample statement of a problem
An established trend in the small business start-up financing in Kenya is to establish

funds. Some of these funds include the youth fund and women fund. These funds
have helped improve the rate of start-ups in the country. However, after the start-up
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stage, the ventures start developing problems. First, they face problems in
management which lead to a marketing problem and eventually to stagnation and
early exit.
A study by the Institute of Development Studies (RoK, 2004) revealed that only 38%
of the businesses are expanding while 58% have not added workers. According to
the survey, more enterprises are likely to close in their first three years of operation.
Four years later the same institute conducted another study in Central Kenya. This
study revealed that 57% of small businesses are in stagnation with only 33% of them
showing some level of growth.
In our current project, we propose to examine factors that have an impact on small
business sustainability. We will employ both qualitative and quantitative approaches
to gather both primary and secondary data and information with the objective of
determining success factors for the growth of small business in Kenya.
Specifically, we shall employ the product life cycle (PLC) model to identify the needs
of a small business at the various stages of the PLC.
References:
1. RoK, (2008). Economic Survey. Nairobi, Kenya. Government Printer.

2. Nyaga C.N. (2009). Non-financial constraints hindering growth of SMEs in
Kenya: The case of plastic manufacturing companies in industrial area in
Nairobi county. (A masters research thesis, University of Nairobi).
3. Nyagah C.N. (2013). Non-financial constraints hindering growth of SME’S in
Kenya: the case of plastic manufacturing companies in industrial area in
Nairobi County (Doctoral dissertation).
___________________________________________________________________
a 3-part statement of the problem (ideal, reality, consequences) for the title chosen.

INSTRUCTION: This is a group activity. Write down the statement of the problem for
your group’s research study. Prepare to present your group’s output.
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Most Essential : ILLUSTRATES AND EXPLAINS THE CONCEPTUAL
Learning FRAMEWORK
Competency
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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK IN RESEARCH
 Illustrtaes what you expect to find through your research.

 Defines the relevant variables in the study and maps out how they might
relate to each other.
 Should be constructed before beginning collecting data.
 Often represented in visual format
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When to create a conceptual framework
 If you want to investigate any kind of relationship between variables.

 Developed based on literature review of existing studies on the topic.
Example:
You want to know if students who study more hours get higher exam scores. To
investigate this question, you can use methods such as an experiment or survey to
test the relationship between variables.
Before you start collecting data, construct a conceptual framework to show exactly
which variables you will measure and how you expect them to relate to each other.
Identifying variables
 Variables are simply the characteristics or properties that you want to study.
The conceptual framework will map the expected relationship between them.
Example (given above): two key variables are “hours of study” and “exam score”
 For cause-and-effect relationship, identify at least two variables (IV and DV)
 Causal relationships often involve several variables that affect the DV.
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Example (given above):
IV – hours of study (predictor or explanatory variable/expected cause)
DV – exam score (response or outcome variable)
Thus – “exam score” depends on “hours of study”
Designing a conceptual framework
 May come in different ways depending on what kinds of relationships you

expect to find.
Basic design components:
Component Meaning
Box Variable
Arrow Causal relationship
Line Correlation
 To indicate a causal relationship, each arrow should start from the

independent variable (the cause) and point to the dependent variable (the
effect).
 Use a line when you expect a correlation between two variables, but no
cause-and-effect relationship.
HOURS OF STUDY EXAM SCORE

(IV) (DV)
Expanding the conceptual framework
 As you develop your conceptual framework, you should also aim to identify
other variables that might influence the relationship between your
independent and dependent variables.
 Common variables to be incorporated are:
1. Moderator variables - alters the effect that an independent variable has
on a dependent variable, on the basis of the moderator’s value;
changes the effect component of the cause-and-effect relationship;
also referred to as the interaction effect.

(IV) (DV)
IQ
(ModV)
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 In this example, we expect that the number of hours a student studies is
related to their exam score: the more you prepare, the higher your score will
be.
 Now we add the moderator “IQ.” A student’s IQ level changes the effect that
the variable “hours of study” has on the exam score: the higher your IQ, the
fewer hours of study you must put in to do well on the exam.
 In other words, the “IQ” moderator moderates the effect that the number of
study hours has on the exam score.
2. Mediator variables – can be difficult to interpret; care must be taken

when drawing conclusions from them.

(IV) (DV)
Number of practice
problems completed
(MedV)
 In this example, the relationship between the independent variable (“hours of

study”) and the dependent variable (“exam score”) takes center stage: our
hypothesis is that the more hours a student studies, the better they will do on
the exam.
 Now we add the mediating variable of “number of practice problems
completed”, which comes between the independent and dependent variables.
The hours of study impacts the number of practice problems, which in turn
impacts the exam score.
 The more hours a student studies, the more practice problems they will
complete; the more practice problems completed, the higher the student’s
exam score will be. By adding the mediating variable of “number of practice
problems completed,” we help explain the cause-and-effect relationship
between the two main variables.
NOTE: A moderating variable can impact the outcome of a dependent variable, but it
is not affected by the independent variable.
For example, the variable “IQ” is a moderator, not a mediator: although IQ may
impact the exam score (the dependent variable), the number of hours spent studying
(the independent variable) does not affect IQ. No matter how many hours you study,
your IQ will not increase.
3. Control variables – variables that are held constant to prevent from

influencing the outcome of a study; for cause-and-effect relationship, it
is important to consider which variables might influence the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables and control these
so that results are as accurate as possible.
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HEALTH
(CV)

(IV) (DV)
 To test whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between “hours of

study” and “exam score,” we also need to consider other variables that could
potentially impact students’ exam scores.
 For example, it is likely that if a student feels ill, they will get a lower score on
the exam. Therefore, we add “health” as a control variable.
 That means we should keep the variable “health” constant in our study – we
will only include participants who are in good health on the day of the exam.
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INSTRUCTION: Choose 2 research titles listed below based on your strand.

Construct a conceptual framework for the researches you have chosen. Afterwards,
write a short description about the conceptual framework explaining what is the
research all about. Take note of the variables which might affect the possible
result(s) of your chosen researches. See the examples given for this topic.

INSTRUCTION: This is a group activity. Construct the conceptual framework of your

group’s research. Write down the description of your group’s research conceptual
framework. Prepare to present the conceptual framework of your group’s research
along with the variables included in your study.
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
Most Essential : DEFINES TERMS USED IN STUDY
Learning
Competency
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OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS (QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD)
 An operational definition is how we (the researcher) decide to measure the

variables (anything that can be measured) in our study.
 To operationally define the independent variable (IV), you have to figure out
how will you measure the IV. There is no one right answer. There are lots of
ways to measure these items.
 However, there are usually hundreds of ways to measure a dependent
variable (DV) ex: behavior.
 If variables in a hypothesis are defined operationally, the hypothesis may or
may not be a good one; if variables are not defined operationally, the
hypothesis is surely a poor one. (Crowl, 1999)
Variables are defined:

a. In terms of how they are measured
b. In observable terms
c. In terms of use in specifying how the variable is measured
Tuckman, 1999 (cited by Wasanasomsithi, 2004):
An operation definition is needed “because researchers need to convey meanings in

sufficiently precise language so that any reader from any background understand
exactly what is being said and in sufficient detail to allow replication of the study”
(p. 42).
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Defining terms operationally
1. Helpful way to clarify meaning

2. All operations and activities, concepts and terms must be specified
3. Specified to? (whom)
___________________________________________________________________
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Operational Definitions (OD)
 A clear statement of how you judge or identify a term in your research:

o to remove ambiguities
o to define precisely
o to clarify one's position
o to identify your variables/parameters
o to provide exactness
Points about OD:
 Unless you have an operational definition of a research variable, it is

impossible to collect data on the extent to which it exists or is occurring.
 OD provides observable/empirical criterion/criteria of that which is being
defined.
 A concept may have more than one O.D.
 An O.D. may be unique for the situation/study
Conceptual Definitions Operational Definitions

Dictionary; Concept studied;
Vague and subject to different interpretations Specific and particular to a situation
Specific to your own study
Example: What is sleepiness?
Conceptual Definition Operational Definition

Sleepy: ready for or needing sleep Sleep deprivation: person who has slept less
than 2 hours over a 24-hour period
Too vague for research purposes
Hard to measure or observe (empirically How many hours did you sleep last night?
unsound) None
2 hours
4 hours
6 hours
8 hours
More on OD:
 Readers should not misinterpret your findings

 Precision of language must be far more exacting than in ordinary
conversations.
 You need to be consistent/your research is replicable.
 Very specific in meaning
 Very specific to your own study
Goal in defining operationally:
 To make your variables observable and measurable
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 Being empirical (verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or
pure logic)
Examples:
Which is an observable characteristic of a successful teacher?

a. A person who is satisfied with their teaching.
b. A person who makes the students behave quietly.
c. A person who identifies theirself as a teacher.
d. A person who is well-liked by students.
Aggresive boy:
a. Parent – “child who asks questions often”
b. Teacher – “ child who bothers the class
Diamond ring:
a. Husband – “makes wife happy”
b. Wife – “make up for being unfaithful”
Blue:
a. “Like the sky”
b. “Like my feelings”
c. “Like the deep sea”
d. “Like the night”
An intelligent child (the following are ODs of intelligence in a child. Each can be
applied according to your choice as the researcher):
a. Gets a grade of 90 or above
b. Can solve 25 math problems in 5 minutes
c. Can distinguish between red, yellow, and green lights in a traffic
d. Can take an order a hamburger and Coke for a group of 12 people.
e. Can reproduce a drawing after looking at it for 5 seconds
f. Can remember 60% of people's clothes in a crowd
g. Can learn a foreign language song after listening to it 5x
h. Can follow instructions to bake cookies with 70% accuracy
i. Can respond to an adult's smile and infer the meaning
Hunger:
a. May be defined as the withholding of food from the participants for 24 hours
(this is the procedure used by the Rr to study hunger)
b. A hungry person may be defined as any person who rings a bell at the rate of
10 times to get food.
What is fear?
a. The person's galvanic skin response (GSR) when presented with a snake.
b. The number of times a person hides her/his face when a picture of a snake is
shown.
c. The number of heartbeats a person has when shown a picture of snakes.
d. The amount of time a person can sit inside a room with a live poisonous
snake
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How to write ODs properly:
 ODs need to specifically define the variables, especailly the IV and DV.
 Improve the ODs by being specific.
o CITIES with GOOD PUBLIC TRANSIT SYSTEMS are BETTER than
CITIES with POOR PUBLIC TRANSIT SYSTEMS.
Specific determiners of variables:
Cities
Good/poor
Public transit systems
Better
o “Motivated to learn English” can be defined as (according to the
researcher’s choice):
 As shown by enthusiasm in class
 As judged by the students’ English teacher using a rating scale
 As measured by an “English Interest” questionnaire
 As shown by attention to English tasks in class
 As reflected by achievement in English
 As demonstrated by number of English books read outside of
class
 As demonstrated by achievement in English
 ODs require three parts (ABC)
o A – defining the general concept; may be found in books or dictionary
o B – specific definition as used in the study
o C – what did/will you use to measure the concept (questionnaire, tests,
interview questions, etc.)
Example: Teachers’ Perceptions Regarding the Implementation of Cooperative

Learning (CL) in the K10-12 Classroom
o Identify the IV: Cooperative Learning (CL)

o Identify the DV(s): Teachers’ Perceptions
o Identify the CV: Pilipino (subject) teachers
Two research questions for the study:

o What are the Pilipino teachers’ perceptions about implementing CL in the
classroom?
o What perceived barriers do Pilipino teachers encounter while implementing
CL in their classrooms?
How to define the IV (ABC):
o A: general concept or description of CL as found in the literature
“Cooperative Learning (CL) is a method of teaching and learning where students

learn not only by themselves, but also learn from the other group members.”
(defining the general concept of CL; maybe found in books, etc.)
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o B: defining the concept of CL as used/chosen in the study
Specifically, Johnson and others (1994) indicated that “cooperative learning is the
instructional use of small groups through which students work together to maximize
their own and each other’s learning.” (defining the concept of CL as specified in
the specific study)
o C: defining CL more specifically in the subject (Pilipino) taught

“In this study, CL refers to a pedagogical practice that Pilipino teachers implement in
their classes.” (defining CL more specifically in the subject taught)
How to define the DV (ABC):
o A: general concept of Teacher Perception as found in the literature

“Perception is influenced by one’s past experiences, beliefs and expectations
(Hildberg, 2001).” (from related literature)
o B: the specific definition of Teacher Perception as used in the study
“In this study, teacher’s perception relates to teachers’ opinions or ideas on what
they perceive based on their own observation and experience towards implementing
CL in the classroom.” (researcher’s choice)
o C: how Teacher Perception is measured

“This perception was measured by a Cooperative Learning Survey Questionnaire
adapted from Koutselini’s Cooperative Learning Checklist (Koutselini, 2009).”
(measurement used)
How to define the Perceived Barriers (ABC):
o A: “A barrier is a problem, rule or situation that prevents someone from doing

something, or that makes something impossible.” (Google dictionary)
o B: “In this study, perceived barriers refer to the Pilipino teachers’ thoughts and
feelings on the obstacles in implementing CL in the classroom.” (researcher’s
choice)
o C: “Moreover, these feelings and thoughts were measured by interviews using

questions based on the Cooperative Learning Survey (Hong Than, 2011).”
(measurement used)
OD of CV (Pilipino teachers):
o A: “Pilipino, as a required subject in the curriculum as prescribed by the

DepEd. (general description)
o B: “In this study, Pilipino teaching pertains to the teaching of Pilipino as

guided by the textbook ‘Wikang Pambansa’” (specific lesson chosen by
researcher)
102
o C: “In this study, Pilipino teachers refer to those who teach the language in a
K10-12 high school setting in the City of San Pedro, Laguna” (specific
geographical location of teachers)
REMEMBER:
You own your thesis/research, thus, you must define your variables according to how
you want it measured.
___________________________________________________________________
INSTRUCTION: Choose one research title from the list below. Identify the variables
in the research you have chosen (IV, DV, CV, ModV, MedV, etc.) Afterwards, write
down the Operational Definition of terms for each variable using the ABC format.

INSTRUCTION: This is a group activity. Identify the variables in your approved

research study. Using the ABC format, write down the operational definitions of the
variables for your group’s research study. Prepare to present your group’s output in
powerpoint presentation.
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Most Essential : LISTS RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Learning
Competency
___________________________________________________________________
HYPOTHESIS/HYPOTHESES STATEMENT(S)
Objective of a study:
 Refers to what is to be investigated empirically in a study
 May take the form of asking one or more questions or testing one or more
hypotheses about the nature of the relationship among variables
(Weirsma, 1999; Crowe, 1996)
Ex: Objective of this thesis may be to compare the mathematics achievement of

booys and girls.
Purpose of a study
 Refers to whom and why the study is being carried out
Ex: The purpose of this study is to complete the requirements for a degree.
A research question asks how the variables under investigation may be

related.
Ex: attitude --- personality
1. How does teacher’s personality affect students’ attitude?

2. How does students’ personality affect students’ learning attitude?
3. How does students’ personality affect their attitude towards errors?
4. What type of teacher personality affects students’ attitude towards second
language learning?
5. What is the relationship between the learner’s personality and attitude
towards learning?
6. How does an extrovert teacher affect students’ attitude?
7. When does an extrovert teacher affect students’ attitude?
8. Which type of personality affects students’ attitude?
105
Hypothesis/Hypotheses
 Tentative, testable statement(s) about the way in which variables are related.
 An idea which is suggested as a possible explanation for a particular situation
or condition, but which has not yet been proven to be correct. (Collins Cobuild
English Dictionary, 1995, Harper Collins, p. 830)
 A hypothesis SUGGESTS
o It is a statement, a “hunch”, an intelligent guess of a possible outcome
of your research based on your experience and knowledge you
obtained from the review of the literature.
o A “guess” about relationship(s) between variables.
Myth: Research is a way to prove that an answer is right or wrong. Instead, consider
that “research process is one in which you can collect evidence that will support or
not support the relationship you want to establish or the hypotheses you stated.”
(Hatch and Lazaraton, 1991, p.24)
A good hypothesis (Mason and Bramble, 1978):
1. Is consistent with previous research

2. Provides a reasonable explanation
3. States as clearly as possible the expected relationship/difference between or
among variables
4. Is stated in a sentence
5. Must be testable
Situation: John’s home telephone is not working.
Which is reasonable?
a. An elephant is sitting on the telephone wires outside.
b. He did not pay his bills.
c. The air conditioner in his home is not working.
d. A typhoon will hit Laguna tomorrow.
Hypopthesis:
a. Students with long hair read better and pay more attention.
b. Students who ate a good breakfast read longer and pay more attention in
Reaading Class.
Hypopthesis:
a. Playing Mobile Legends every night will increase your grade in the Oral
Conversation class.
b. Practicing speaking with your foreign teacher 3x a week will increase your oral
conversation proficiency.
___________________________________________________________________
106
Writing the hypothesis/hypotheses
1. A hypothesis must be stated in a declarative sentence form.
Declarative Form:
a. Students will understand poetry-reading more when they are given pre-
reading activities.
b. There is a difference in the performance of male and female

salespersons in marketing XYZ brand of coffee.
Not a declarative sentence:

a. Do pre-reading activities affect student’s understanding of poetry?
b. Is gender of salespersons a significant factor when evaluating sales

performance?
2. A stated hypothesis should be testable.
Which are testable?
a. Some students behave better than others because they have an

invisible little angel on their shoulders while others have an invisible
little devils on theirs.
b. Some students behave better than others because their teachers say
“good job” after they finish each written work.
c. First grade students who brush their teeth after meals everyday after
lunch will have no false teeth when they are 60 years old.
d. First grade students who brush their teeth after lunch everyday will
have fewer decayed teeth at the end of their year.
3. A stated hypothesis must be operational in that the relationship between

variables/situations are clearly and specifically stated.
a. Literature students in my English class are highly motivated to read the

novel Pride and Prejudice.
b. Literature students in my English class read Pride and Prejudice in one

week. Furthermore, they volunteer to dramatize the story in the class.
c. Students will understand 20 Spanish vocabulary words in two days.
d. Students will be able to use 20 Spanish vocabulary words in simple

sentences after a two day instruction.
e. Wearing NIKE ALL STAR sports shoes will improve your exercise
capability.
107
f. Wearing NIKE ALL STAR sports shoes will increase your jogging time
from 30 minutes to 45 minutes in four weeks.
4. A hypothesis must describe a relationship or non-relationship between two or

more variables or situations.
a. There is a relationship between drinking coffee at 7pm and not being

able to sleep at nights.
b. There is a correlation between incidences of drunk driving and the
number of car accidents during the New Year season in the city of
Iloilo.
c. Students’ comprehension of vocabulary words increase if the words
were taught with pictures than oral explanations.
d. Having a math tutor does not increase a child’s proficiency in math
exercises in the classroom.
___________________________________________________________________
FOUR TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
1. H1: Non-Directional
2. H2: Directional Positive
3. H3: Directional Negative
4. H0: Null hypothesis
Note: Hypotheses are “guesses “about relationships between/among variables.
108
a) H1: Non-directional
1. Achievement scores in science will be significantly related to methods of

instruction.
2. There will be a difference in the opinions of US voters on gay marriages.
3. Teaching Method A /B will have a relationship to writing fluency
4. Creative thinking will affect student’s achievement in Geometry
Note: for H1 non-directional, the effect, relationship, differences, etc. between the
independent and dependent variable exists but the effect, etc. is not identified as
positive or negative effect, difference or relationship.
b) H2: Positive Directional Hypotheses
1. Increase in hours of practice of volleyball in rural San Pedro has significantly

increased students’ physical fitness.
2. More food lunch money for schools resulted in higher number of students
attendance in those schools..
3. Students taught by Method A will get higher/more scores in Achievement than
those taught by Method B.
4. The Michael Jackson concert marketing program had a positive effect on
ticket sales.
For H2: directional hypotheses, there is an effect and it is stated in the

positive.
c) H3: Negative Directional Hypotheses
1. Increase in hours of practice of volleyball in rural San Pedro has significantly

decreased students’ physical fitness.
2. More food lunch money for schools resulted in lower number of students
attendance in those schools.
109
3. Students taught by Method A will perform less in Achievement scores than
those taught by Method B.
4. The Michael Jackson concert marketing program had a negative effect on
ticket sales.
For H3: directional hypotheses, there is an effect and it is stated in the

negative.
d) Null Hypothesis: (also written as H0)
1. Increase in hours of practice of volleyball in rural San Pedro will have no

effect on students’ physical fitness.
2. More food lunch money for schools will not increase nor decrease the number
of student attendance in those schools..
3. Students taught by Method A will not have any difference in Achievement
scores than those taught by Method B.
4. The Michael Jackson concert marketing program will not have an effect on
ticket sales.
Null hypothesis: (null means "nothing") is a statistical hypothesis.
1. There will be no significant relationship between teaching Methods A and B

and students' science achievement scores.
2. Teaching Methods A and B will not have any significant difference in students'
science achievement scores.
3. There will be no significant difference in attitudes toward school exhibited by
students who do and students who do not participate in extracurricular
activities.
4. The true difference between attitudes toward school exhibited by students
who do and students who do not participate in extracurricular activities is zero.
___________________________________________________________________
110
TO REVIEW:
H0 - no relationship
 There is no difference between...
 Creativity and intelligence are not correlated...
 Students' level of motivation has no effect on.....
H1- significant relationship

(no direction specified)
 There is a relationship between...
 Creativity and intelligence are correlated...
 Students' level of motivation has an effect on...
H2 - significant relationship
(positive direction) (e.g., better)
 Walking 3x a week and weight loss is positively related.
 Walking 3x a week will positively affect weight loss...
 Creativity will have a positively significant impact on one's intelligence.
 A creative child will also be an intelligent child.
 Creativity and intelligence are positively correlated.
 Student's level of motivation has a positive effect on student-teacher
interaction.
H3 - significant relationship
(negative relationship) (e.g., less)
 Walking 3x a week and weight loss are negatively related.
 Walking 3x a week will negatively affect weight loss.
 Creativity will have a negatively significant impact on one's intelligence.
 A creative child will not be an intelligent child.
 Creativity and intelligence are negatively correlated.
 Students' level of motivation has a negative effect on student-teacher
relationship.
a) A research hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of a study. The prediction

may be based on an educated guess or a formal theory.
b) It can be stated in many ways- the statistical form is the null form.
c) If using non directional hypothesis, we may state the research purpose or the
research question.
___________________________________________________________________
INSTRUCTION: Formulate the hypotheses statements for the following research

questions.
1. What is the relationship between the amount of teacher talk and student
participation in the Pilipino classroom?
a. H0
b. H1
111
c. H2
d. H3
2. What is the effect of stress management pre-exercises on students’
performance in Public Speaking?
a. H0
b. H1
c. H2
d. H3
3. How does spanking a 3-5 year old child affect his/her kindergarten social
behavior?
a. H0
b. H1
c. H2
d. H3
4. Is smoking in the classroom related to the incidence of cancer among UP
students?
a. H0
b. H1
c. H2
d. H3
5. What is the relationship between having a portable computer and students’
achievement in Science?
a. H0
b. H1
c. H2
d. H3
6. What is the difference in scores between male and female students in a PE
Physical Fitness Test?
a. H0
b. H1
c. H2
d. H3
7. What is the relationship between choice of students’ teaching method and
their achievement in ED103 course?
a. H0
b. H1
c. H2
d. H3
8. What is the effect of hiring a tutor on students’ ability to complete their weekly
module assignments?
a. H0
b. H1
c. H2
d. H3
INSTRUCTION: This is a group activity. Write down the hypothesis statement(s) of

your group’s approved research. Prepare to present them using ppt.
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1st Semester
S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Grade: : 12
Topic : REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Most Essential : PRESENTS WRITTEN REVIEW OF RELATED
Learning LITERATURE AND CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND
Competency
___________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Has 2 parts:
1. Conceptual Background – a discussion of your concepts as described in

books, etc.
2. Review of Related Studies – a discussion of the research studies you have
encountered during your literature review. These studies are related to your
own.
 literature (not Literature) – the collective body of prior work (Tuckman, 1999,
p.48)
Objectives of reviewing literature(s):
1. To find literature that supports a pre-existing idea that you have

2. To shape your thinking about an idea based on what is currently known about
it
___________________________________________________________________
Reviewing the literature (Part A)
The process of locating, analyzing, and synthesizing the published books, research
articles, and opinion papers pertaining to a particular topic.
Purposes (Gall, Gall and Borg 2003):
1. Delimiting the research study

“Studies are doomed to failure if the researcher does not limit sufficiently the
scope of the study” (p.90)
“Selecting a limited problem and investigating it in depth is far better than a
superficial study of a broad problem.” (p.90)
114
Example topic: instructional leadership
 leadership as manifested by supervisors, principals, consultants, etc
 behavior of instructional leadership
 outcomes of effective and ineffective leadership
 styles of instructional leadership
2. Discovering important variables

 Reveal variables and their relationships
 Reveal whether relationships
 between/among variables are
 conceptually important
 Indicates which areas are currently of interest
3. Distinguishing what has been done and what needs to be done

 if researcher wants an original study, review will reveal what has been
done
 suggest a number of directions worth pursuing
4. Synthesizing and gaining perspective

 Summarizing past work and bringing it up to date
 A synthesis/summary enables others to see significant
overlaps/gaps/new direction
5. Determining and supporting meanings and relationships

“... Prior relationships between variables must be explored, examined,
reviewed in order to build both a context and a case for subsequent
investigation…” (Tuckman, p. 50)
6. Seeking new lines of inquiry
7. Avoiding fruitless approaches to similar studies done (2000-2010)

 employing same research methodology providing no significant result
indicates no need for additional studies and suggest that the
researcher has not done an adequate review of the literature.
8. Establishing the significance of a problem

 Justification of a problem may use literature citations
9. Identifying recommendations for further research.
Importance (Gall, Gall and Borg 2003, pp. 90-91):
1. Provides background context surrounding the research problem.

2. Focuses on importance of the research question and the reason to find out an
answer to the question.
3. Constitutes an analysis of the existing literature providing a documented,
logical rationale for the questions or hypotheses posed in the study.
115
“The object of the review of literature is not to find literature that supports some
preexisting idea you may have. It’s rather to shape your thinking about an idea on
the basis of what is currently known” (Crowl, 1996, p. 36)
Steps in literature review (Gall, Gall and Borg 2003):
1. Search preliminary sources (indices to particular bodies of literature, library

index, encyclopedias, Google scholar, etc)
2. Use secondary sources (written reviews of pther researchers of studies that
are relevent to your own topic; publications written by someone other than the
person(s) who actually carried out the study)
3. Read primary sources (the original report, document, thesis, dissertation, etc.
written by individuals who were actually the researchers of the study)
4. Synthesize the literature (inform the reader about what is already known, what
is not yet known, and about problems or questions you plan to investigate)
___________________________________________________________________
Using secondary sources
A good secondary source tells you what is known about the topic you are
investigating.
1. Review articles in journals, textbooks, encyclopedias, handbooks, scholarly

books, etc.
2. Combine knowledge from many primary sources into a single publication.
Always make a complete bibliography of each study you read.
Synthesizing the findings of your literature review:
 involves reporting the information you have gathered
Poor reviews:
 Does not relate how other researchers’ and theorists’ work relate to
one’s study
 Focuses on research findings only; ignores the soundness of the
methodology used
 Does not give the reader a sense of confidence about the findings
o e.g., check the data gathering instrument. Was the
questionnaire validated? How was reliability established?
 Consists of isolated findings, opinions and ideas.
 The report is a series of paragraphs that are not connected to one
another.
___________________________________________________________________
Note-taking
1. Copy the complete citation of the article.

2. Copy all the hypotheses or research questions.
3. List the number and type of subjects.
116
4. Describe briefly the materials used, including tests or measuring instruments.
5. Describe the research procedures used.
6. Report the results, noting which hypotheses have or have not been supported
or how the research questions have been answered.
7. Note the important points from the discussion section
8. Critically evaluate the article.
In reviewing a journal article that is related to your study, the following information
should be mentioned:
 The author(s)
 Date of publication
 Purpose of study/research question asked
 Sample
 Method of data collection (questionnaire, interview, etc)
 Method of data analysis
 Findings
 Conclusion
___________________________________________________________________
DOCUMENTATION IN FORMAL WRITING
What is documentation?
“...process by which you give credit to the appropriate sources for every borrowed
idea in your paper.” (Winkler and McCuen 1994, p.125)
What are borrowed ideas?
 Direct quotations
 Summaries
 Paraphrases
 Any idea, conclusion, information, or data specifically derived from the work of
someone else.
Plagiarism
 Representing the words or ideas of another as one’s own in any academic

activity
 “Plagiarism includes but may not be limited to the intentional use of another
person’s work, words, or ideas as your own without acknowledging the source
in order to gain improperly from the use of the source.” (University of Michigan
Student Planner and Handbook, 2001-2002. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press)
What constitutes plagiarism?
 Turning in another person's work as your own, and this includes a paper from
free website
117
 Copying a paper, an excerpt, a paragraph, or a line from a source without
proper acknowledgement (these can be from a print source, such as a book,
journal, monograph, map, chart, or pamphlet, or from a nonprint source, such
as the web and online databases
 Taking materials from a source, supplying proper documentation, but leaving
out quotation marks
 Paraphrasing materials from a source without documentation of that source
 Purchasing a paper from a research service or a commercial term paper mill
 Sharing or swapping from a local source (from student papers that were
previously submitted)
 Creating invalid or faked citations
How to avoid plagiarizing?
 Acknowledge sources by giving credit. If you do not, intentionally or not, it is

plagiarism.
When Do we need to Provide Documentation?

(Winkler and McCuen 1994, p.124)
“If the idea, opinion, or conclusion is of the kind that any well-read person is likely to
know, then no documentation is necessary… Any idea, conclusion, information, or
data specifically derived from the work of someone else must be acknowledged.”
What to document?
 Direct quotations (word-for-word transcription of another's words) even if you

only use a portion of the original material.
 Paraphrases of another's words, ideas, opinions, facts, and information.
 Diagrams, statistics, charts, pictures, illustrations, images, and so on.
 Ideas, opinions, facts, specific terms, and data that you acquire from sources
and that would not be considered common knowledge.
 All copyrighted material - whether it is in print, visual, audio, or online.
 Any quotable phrases you include in your paper, even if they are famous
quotes.
 Ideas, opinions, facts, and data that your readers might want to know more
about or might question.
 Any material you use that causes you to wonder if you are committing
plagiarism or not.
What not to document?
 Sayings, proverbs, or biblical citations.

 Common knowledge (facts, dates, events, concepts, information usually
known by an educated public).
Types of documentation
a. Old style notations (Chicago style/Turabian style)

b. Parenthetical style
118
i. Modern Language Association (MLA)
ii. American Psychological Association (APA: widely used and
preferred)
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN APA & MLA
APA STYLE MLA STYLE
Kasson, J. (1976). Civilizing the machine: Kasson, John F. Civilizing the Machine:
technology and republican values in Technology and Republican Values in
America 1776-1900. New York: Penguin. America 1776-1900. New York: Penguin,
1976
 Author's last name and first initial  Author's last name written out
only completely
 Date of publication appears at  Date of publication appears at end
beginning of citation of citation
 Only first word of title is capitalized  All major words in title capitalized
(and proper nouns
Format of an APA manuscript (general instructions):

 Paper: A4 8 ½ X11 heavy white bond
 Font: 12 points (Times New Roman, Courier)
 For figures 8-14 points (Helvetica)
 Double Space (no extra spacing)
 Margins: at least 1” top, bottom, left and right
Format of an APA manuscript (title page):
Foreign Language Anxiety: Beginning

Teachers’ Perspective
(formal paper’s title)
A Paper Presented
In Partial Fulfillment of the Course
Requirements in
Quantitative Methods of Research
First Semester 2021
By
Your name
To
Eva Salazar-Liu, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
College of Education
University of Antique
Date of submission
119
General guidelines for citations: Authors within text
 One author – cite only the  Several personality factors
surname were… by Oxford (1995) ….
 Two authors – cite surnames of  Ehrman and Oxford (1995)
both authors argued that…
 3-5 authors – in first citation, cite  Ehrman, Oxford, Liu, Cenney
all surnames and Chang (2003)…
 6 or more authors – cite only fist  Erhman, et.al (2003)…
author’s surname
 Quote articles, italicize books  In the article “Ways to Achieve
Superiority”
 In the book Dance of Anger
Citations within text and list of references
References and Bibliography
 Reference list – list of works you specifically cited and used in your study.
 Bibliography – list of works for recommended or further reading.
 Thus, APA requires a REFERENCE LIST.
General guidelines for references
 Journal:
Author. (year). Title of article. Title of article, V #, pages.
 Book:
Author. (year). Title of book. Location: Publisher.
 Electronic source:
Author. (year). Title of article. Title of Journal, #, pages. Retrieval information.
120
121
___________________________________________________________________
Reviewing Related Studies (Part B)
Format for Reviewing a Research Study:

Having identified and chosen a journal research study, to review this study in your
Chapter Two is relevant because:
 It establishes the status of research done in your topic

 It provides you with support on the hypothesis/es you have made
 It proves that your study is a continuation of studies in your area.
Reviewing it in your Chapter Two includes the following:
a. The author(s)
b. year of publication
c. setting of the study, if mentioned
d. purpose of the study or the questions raised
e. hypothesis, if any
f. description of samples
g. sampling methodology involved
h. method of data collection (type of research method employed)
i. instrument used in the data collection
j. procedure used in data analysis (t-test, F test, tests of r, etc), hypothesis
confirmed or rejected?
k. results of the data analysis/es (including significant figures and numbers)
l. conclusion(s) made by the author(s)
Note: refer to colors above and example given. Also, in your Chapter Two, each
study is written in completed ONE paragraph. Thus, if this Part B of your Chapter 2
has seven paragraphs, it indicates you are reviewing seven related research studies.
Example:
Koff and Bauman (1997) investigated the effects of three new classes: wellness,
fitness and sports skills on college women’s body image, body-self relations and
lifestyle behaviors. To test the hypothesis that the women would report greater number
of positive results (than the two existing Physical Education programs), 140 enrolled
female students, aged between 18-22, were divided into three class groups. Pre- and
post test data were obtained using the following instruments: Lifestyle Assessment
(adapted from Bauman, 1992); Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire
(BSRQ) (Brown, Cash and Mikulka, 1990) and Figure Rating Scale (Stunkard, et. al.
1983). Paired t test data (p=.01) on the BSRQ indicated that significant changes
occurred in five of the seven subscales (e.g., Appearance Evaluation, p=.005; Fitness
Orientation, p<.001) as well as in body satisfaction (p=.007).
Thus, the hypothesis was partly confirmed. Among lifestyle activities, there was an
increase only in fitness-oriented activities (p<.001). The authors concluded that
“participating in sports skills classes for six weeks, while associated with an increase
of fitness-oriented activities, appeared to have little effect on other types of behavior
that are typically associated with a healthier lifestyle” (p.562).
122
INSTRUCTION: Read the following excerpt from a research study of Steinbeck

(Social Media Comments: Poorer Self-Esteem). Paraphrase the excerpt in just one
paragraph. Be sure to include the following in paraphrasing the study:
1. The author(s)
2. Objective/purpose of the study
3. Participants/subjects involved
4. Method(s) used
5. Procedure(s)
6. Result(s)
7. Conclusion(s) made by the author(s)
Steinbeck, S. (2020). Social media 'likes' and comments lead

to poorer self-esteem. Medical Press (September 2020).
Retrieved from
https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-09-social-media-comments-
poorer-self-esteem.html
The Trondheim Early Secure Study is a research project that

studies the psychological and social development of children
and adolescents. Two sets of data were obtained: Sixteen year-
old children were interviewed about social media use. Self-
image was measured using a questionnaire.
Results showed that about 95 percent were on Facebook, and 70-
80 percent used Instagram and Snapchat.
The connection between other-oriented social media use and
poorer physical self-image was strong for girls, but no such
link showed up for boys. These reasons may explain some of the
difference. Haferkamp and others (2012) showed that women are
more likely than men to use social media to compare themselves
to others. Also, social comparison also has a stronger
negative effect on women's body image than it does on men's
body image (Myers & Crowther, 2009).
INSTRUCTION: This is a group activity. In your Chapter Two, each study is written
in completed ONE paragraph. Thus, if this Part B of your Chapter 2 has seven
paragraphs, it indicates you are reviewing seven related research studies. Prepare at
least (but is not limited to) 3 related research studies of your group’s paper. Write
down a paraphrase of each related study following the format one related research
study – one complete paragraph. Follow the guidelines in your Written Works #10 in
writing down the paraphrase(s) for this activity.
123

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PACITA COMPLEX SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Level : SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL (GRADE 12)

QUARTER Most Essential Learning No. of Days Taught

ROLANDO V. CLORES JR.

A. Write T if the statement is True, F if False. Write your answer on a separate

1. Standardized instruments ensure the accuracy, reliability, and validity of data.

2. Quantitative methods cannot be repeated to verify its findings.

3. A research design constitutes the blueprint for the selection, measurement

4. Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery.

5. The main purpose of descriptive research design is to observe, describe and

B. Write S if the statement pertains to the strength of a quantitative research,

1. It can be costly, difficult and time-consuming.

2. It is objective and provides numerical data.

3. The information on contextual factors to help interpret the results.

5. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way.

C. Read each statement carefully. Identify what is asked for. On a separate

1. Which of the following is a method that is commonly used in qualitative

2. What is meant by the term "grounded theory"?

3. A sensitizing concept is one that:

4. The flexibility and limited structure of qualitative research designs is an

5. Which of the following is not a criticism of qualitative research?

 Research is a careful, detailed and systematic study of a specific problem,

WHEN IS A RESEARCH PRACTICAL?

 Practical research means actual doing or using of something rather than

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

 Ask a question - state the problem

QUESTIONS THAT DELIMITS RESEARCH

 What is the meaning of life?

ACTIVITY: IDENTIFY THE FOLOWING RESEARCH TOPICS AS QUALITATIVE

1. What is the future of terrorism?

2. The role and impact of religious iconography in a nation.

3. The power of advertisements.

4. The impact of education on obesity.

5. Role of media for educational purposes.

6. Should marijuana be legalised worldwide?

7. Benefits of Black Friday sales.

1. In quantitative research, researchers know in advance what they are looking

2. Quantitative research can be easily misinterpreted because it provides

3. Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery.

4. Normative research is conducted by researcher whose aim would be to find

5. Qualitative research requires a large number of respondents. It assumes that

6. Evaluation describes the status of a phenomenon at a particular time. It

8. Methodological is the implementation of a variety of methodologies that forms

9. One characteristics of quantitative research is that its method can be repeated

10. In quantitative experiments it filters out external factors, if properly designed,

 Quantitative research, unlike qualitative research, uses numbers to generalize

What is Quantitative Research?

 Quantitative research, through the use of computational procedures, is an

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

1. It is objective NOT subjective.

Strengths of Quantitative Research

1. Since it is objective and provides numerical data, it can’t be easily

Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

1. It requires a large number of respondents.

Types of Quantitative Research

Generally, quantitative researches are classified into non-experimental and

There are two major kinds of non-experimental research. These are as

a. It deals with describing the nature, characteristics and components

A. True Experimental Research.

Activity 1 Direction: On a separate sheet of paper, write the characteristics of

Activity 2 Direction: Supply the missing term.

1. The relationship between the economic status and academic performance of