Journal of Sports Sciences

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Mechanisms of attentional cueing during

observational learning to facilitate motor skill
acquisition

Christopher M. Janelle , Jamy D. Champenoy , Stephen A. Coombes &

Melanie B. Mousseau

To cite this article: Christopher M. Janelle , Jamy D. Champenoy , Stephen A. Coombes

& Melanie B. Mousseau (2003) Mechanisms of attentional cueing during observational
learning to facilitate motor skill acquisition, Journal of Sports Sciences, 21:10, 825-838, DOI:
10.1080/0264041031000140310

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Published online: 13 Jun 2008.

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 /Taylor&Francis
Journal of Sports Sciences, 2003, 21, 825-838 healthsciences

Mechanisms of attentional cueing during observational

learning to facilitate motor skill acquisition
C H R I S T O P H E R M. JANELLE, * JAMY D. CHAMPENOY,
STEPHEN A. C O O M B E S and MELANIE B. M O U S S E A U
Department of Exercise and Sport Sciences, University of Florida, 25 FLG, GainesviZZe, FL 3261 1, USA

Accepted 12 May 2003

We examined the effectiveness of different cueing conditions during observational learning of a soccer accuracy
pass. Sixty participants (30 males, 30 females) were randomly assigned and stratified by sex into one of six
groups: discovery learning, verbal instruction, video model with visual cues, video model with verbal cues, video
model with visual and verbal cues, and video model only. Each participant completed eight blocks of 10 trials
each, with trial blocks 1 and 2 representing the practice phase (no manipulation), trial blocks 3, 4, 5 and 6 the
acquisition phase (manipulation administered) and trial blocks 7 and 8 the retention phase (24 h after
acquisition, with no manipulation). Absolute error, variable error and kicking form were recorded. The results
indicated that those who used video modelling with visual and verbal cues collectively displayed less error and
more appropriate form across acquisition and retention trial blocks compared with other groups. Our findings
suggest that verbal information in addition to visual cues enhances perceptual representation and retention of
modelled activities to improve task reproduction capabilities. Future research directions are proposed with
implications for both direct and indirect perception accounts of skill acquisition through observed behaviours.

Keywords: cueing, discrete task, football, modelling, observational learning, soccer.

Introduction permits the formation of a cognitive fi-amework that

Humans possess an innate desire, interest and capacity
to learn, and pursue the quest for new knowledge in
several ways. Athletes and coaches strive continuously
to enhance performance by developing new skills or
refining current capabilities. A primary means by which
skill acquisition and modification occurs is through
modelling, the process by which individuals imitate the
observed behaviour of others and potentially obtain
performance proficiency with the observed behaviour
by doing so. Coaches rank modelling among the most
frequently used strategies to enhance performance
(Gould et al., 1989; Weinberg and Jackson, 1990) and
regularly employ modelling techniques in practice
sessions. In addition to modelling that may occur in
the practice setting through viewing team-mates,
coaches and athletes now have greater opportunities
for observational learning through the use of video
replay and video training off the field. Furthermore,
researchers have advocated the use of modelling in
teaching motor skills, stating that observation of others
* Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed.
e-mail: cjanelle@hhp.ufl.edu
ultimately guides the observer's resulting actions
(McCullagh et al., 1990; McCullagh and Weiss, 2001).
Inspired by Sheffield's (1961) early notions of
modelling, Bandura's (1969, 1977, 1986, 1997) stimu-
lus-contiguity theory and recent variations of social
cognitive theory hold that behaviours are learned
through observation, imitation and reward or punish-
ment. The main premise is that socially influenced
cognitive processes mediate both the acquisition and
performance of action patterns. These processes in-
clude a response acquisition phase, during which an
observer encodes and mentally rehearses a skill, as well
as a performance reproduction phase, which consists of
successful execution of the coded behaviour. During
the response acquisition phase, attention to the critical
components of the modelled behaviour and retention of
the observed skill are both paramount to eventual
successful reproduction of the modelled act. These two
subprocesses of attention and retention are inextricably
linked to each other in that those cues attended to
during a demonstration are then coded for later
reproduction, and are retained primarily through visual
or verbal codes. According to Bandura (1997), the
entire demonstration is not coded, but rather an

Journal of Sports Sciences ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online O 2003 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: lO.lO8O/O264O4lO3lOOO140310

abstraction of the movement is retained for later
reproduction. Those cues that are attended to become
the primary cues relied upon for both visual and verbal
coding of observed movements.
Continuing advances in video and digital technology
have resulted in progressive ease and economic
efficiency in using video and computer equipment for
modelling. As a result of such advances, media
demonstrations of a model have been increasingly
investigated in studies of motor skill learning and
performance (e.g. Martens et al., 1976; Rothstein,
1980; Southard and Higgins, 1987; Whiting et al.,
1987; Schoenfelder-Zohdi, 1992; Williams, 1992;
Magill and Schoenfelder-Zohdi, 1996). The effective-
ness of video models has been corroborated by studies
suggesting that information provided by a model is
equally effective for the observer, regardless of whether
modelling is conveyed through live demonstration or by
video (Martens et al., 1976; Feltz et al., 1979). From a
methodological standpoint, video models are advanta-
geous as they provide an invariant demonstration of the
task, eliminating would-be confounds incurred with the
use of inherently inconsistent live demonstrations.
When considering optimal methods for enhancing
the effectiveness of video or live models, it is evident
that mere observation of a model does not necessarily
lead to ideal learning and reproduction of a task. In
addition to the visual input provided by a model, verbal
cueing may facilitate the performance of the task by
verbally indicating vital form characteristics (Landin,
1994). Taken in the context of social cognitive accounts
of modelling, the additional reinforcement provided by
verbal cues may enable more elaborate coding of the
observed skill due to enhancement of the attention and
retention stages of information processing (Bandura,
1997). Theoretically, enhanced memory coding should
then facilitate proper task reproduction.
Indeed, there is evidence to suggest that verbal cueing
will facilitate skill acquisition beyond that permitted by
visual observation alone. Early research in sport
pedagogy illustrated that verbal instructions are among
the most common teaching behaviours (McKenzie et al.,
1984). Furthermore, Newel1 (1976) documented that
the verbal modality is especially helpful in developing
recognition memory. In line with this suggestion, verbal
instructions have been shown to be beneficial to the
sequencing of skills during task performance (Rothstein,
1980; Doody et al., 1985; Roach and B M t z , 1986;
McCullagh et al., 1990; Magill, 1993).
Specific to modelling, several researchers have
investigated different cueing paradigms with the intent
of identifying methods to facilitate the modelling
process. Interest in this area was no doubt spurred by
Bandura's (1986) qualification that 'people cannot
learn much by observation unless they attend to, and
Janelle et al.
accurately perceive, the relevant aspects of the modeled
activities' (p. 51). Much of this research has been
conducted in the developmental context and has been
influenced heavily by Yando and colleagues' (1978)
two-factor developmental theory of imitation. Accord-
ing to Yando et al. (1978), the effectiveness of
observational learning will depend on the cognitive-
developmental level and motivational orientation of the
learner.
Within the context of Yando and colleagues' (1978)
recommendations, McCullagh, Weiss and colleagues
have undertaken several studies to examine develop-
mental differences in model usefulness, with a primary
emphasis on the sequencing of motor skills. Weiss
(1983) found that older children learned equally well
after exposure to either a silent model or a verbal
model, while younger children benefited significantly
more from the presence of a verbal model. These results
were replicated and extended by Weiss and Klint
(1987), who found that the addition of verbal rehearsal
to verbal cues enhanced model effectiveness for both
younger and older children. Additionally, McCullagh et
al. (1990) determined that verbal cues enhanced the
acquisition of correct form as well as the sequencing of
skills among children. Finally, Weiss et al. (1992)
determined that younger children benefited greatly
from viewing a verbal model and using verbal rehearsal,
while older children performed and learned equally well
under any of the modelling conditions, regardless of the
presence of verbal cues.
In other research, also from the developmental
perspective, emphasis has been placed on understand-
ing the modelling characteristics that influence the
acquisition of discrete motor tasks, rather than the
sequencing of motor skills per se. For example, Wiese-
Bjornstal and Weiss (1992) examined the effectiveness
of verbal cueing on the kinematics and outcome
changes associated with the development of underhand
modified pitching skill in children. Although changes in
performance were not influenced by model type, the
addition of verbal cues significantly improved kinematic
changes in certain variables of interest. Additionally,
Meaney (1994) determined that adults' learning of a
complex motor task was facilitated by the addition of
verbal cues, whereas children benefited from modelling
that included verbal rehearsal.
When considering most previous research (for recent
reviews, see Williams et al., 1999; McCullagh and
Weiss, 2001), it becomes apparent that verbal cues
facilitate skill acquisition by directing the viewer's
attention towards what specifically to observe when
watching the model. In essence, the addition of cues
constrains selective attention by accentuating important
task components. Furthermore, the presence of these
cues may facilitate retention by providing access to a
Cueing during observational learning
comparatively wider (yet more relevant) range of visual
and verbal codes than would otherwise be possible.
Notably, most previous research has been completed
with children and has primarily emphasized the
sequencing of motor tasks rather than the refinement
of a discrete motor skill. As a result, questions remain
about the generalizability of these findings to other age
groups and to complex, yet discrete tasks. Furthermore,
with respect to cueing methodology, other cueing
mechanisms are possible (and potentially desirable),
especially with respect to video modelling, or when
learning fiom observation of computer images. For
example, media-based presentation methodologies per-
mit visual cues to be superimposed on the model,
thereby providing an effective means to accentuate
critical areas of a model that warrant allocation of
attentional resources and mandate information pick-up.
The relative effectiveness of visual cueing in comparison
with verbal cueing has not been examined to date.
However, taking into account the variety of methods to
accentuate model characteristics, as well as how
perception is altered through the use of cueing
mechanisms, it is important to understand the potential
benefits and limitations of different cueing paradigms.
Finally, given that much of the extant literature in
observational learning is void of performance and
learning distinctions, we were interested in examining
cueing influences on retention of the observed skill.
Although the visual model provides all necessary cues
for response reproduction, individuals may not use
effective search strategies to acquire these cues. Thus, it
may not be cue content per se but rather the cueing
function itself that favours the use of verbal cues. If this
is indeed the case, then the presence of visual cues
could accomplish much the same objective as verbal
cues (i.e. directing attention to the most critical aspects
of the task). Alternatively, verbal cues also provide
additional information that is not available through
visual observation - namely, augmented narration with
explicit instruction, which cannot be provided through
visual cueing protocols. The addition of verbal in-
formation thereby permits verbal coding of the move-
ment, which is less likely without verbal input. As such,
combining verbal and visual cues would be expected to
facilitate attention to critical cues, and would enhance
retention of the observed action through the formation of
more elaborate visual and verbal codes.
The aim of this study, therefore, was to examine these
conceptual and practical distinctions so as to determine
the optimal means of observational learning. We
examined changes in both outcome and form across
the acquisition and retention stages of learning the
inside-of-the-foot soccer accuracy pass among indivi-
duals assigned to one of the following conditions:
discovery learning, verbal instruction, video model with
visual cues, video model with verbal cues, video model
with visual and verbal cues, or video model with no
cues. We hypothesized that although providing visual
cues in addition to the video model would be more
effective than discovery learning or mere verbal
instruction (without the video model), the model with
both verbal and visual cues would be most effective for
learning the soccer skill.
Methods
Participants
The sixty participants (30 males, 30 females), aged 18-
27 years (20.3 k 2.1 years; mean k s), were randomly
selected fiom the Sport and Fitness Program at a large
university in the southeastern United States, and then
randomly assigned and stratified by sex into one of six
groups: control (discovery learning), verbal instruction,
video + visual cues, video + verbal cues, video + visual
and verbal cues, and video only. All participants met the
selection requirements for the study, which dictated
that they had no previous soccer experience at
organized recreational, club, high school or college
level and were right foot dominant. All participants
completed and signed an approved informed consent
agreement.
Apparatus and task
Instrumentation
A Sharp VL-L80 (Mahwah, NJ) .video camera was used
to videotape the expert model performing the task. The
video camera was also used to videotape the partici-
pants executing the soccer-kicking task. A Magnavox
T S 2560 BlOl (Greenville, TN) television and Sharp
XA 510 VCR (Malaysia) were used to deliver the video
modelling treatments. Participants who received verbal
cues listened to an audiotape of the established verbal
instructions on a Panasonic RN-108 (Tokyo, Japan)
microcassette player.
Evaluation was conducted individually in a large
auditorium. One size-five Adidas Tango, 32 panel
soccer ball was used for the task. A stationary target was
located flush against the back wall of the gymnasium. A
starting box (1.2 m wide by 1.2 m long), constructed
from cardboard, was positioned 13.7 m perpendicular
fiom the target (see Fig. 1).
Form analysis checklist
A Soccer Pass Form Checklist (see Table 1) was
developed to establish guidelines for form evaluation.
The instrument was created by referencing three motor

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of experimental set-up.
control/motor development textbooks (Wickstrom,
1977; Haywood, 1988; Fronske, 1997) and four soccer
textbooks ( C ~ Y Z O W J1978;
X ~ , Negoesco, 1993; Luxba-
cher, 1996; Schum, 1996). The aim of the checklist was
to develop a form rating scale to be completed by
independent raters (who were blind to the experimental
conditions and trials) to evaluate kicking form. The
Soccer Pass Form Checklist was also used to create the
script for verbal instruction and cueing, as well as to
dictate the placement of visual cues.
Task
The task entailed striking the soccer ball accurately and
with proper form towards the target with the right foot.
The ball was placed in a starting box, which served as
the total manoeuvring area for the participants to
approach and position their bodies before striking the
ball. The target consisted of nine one-foot (30.5 cm)
square boxes positioned so that the primary target (the
Janelle et al.
Table 1. Soccer Pass Form Checklist
Plant leg (non-kicking leg)
Step 1. Place plant foot 6 to 8 inches next to (parallel) the
ball, but not in front of it
Step 2. Plant foot is pointing in the direction of the intended
pass (towards the target)
Indirect components of the pass
Step 1 . Shoulders are square to the target as the participant
approaches the ball
Step 2. Hips are square to the target
Kicking leg
Step 1 . Participant leans forward as his or her foot strikes
the ball
Step 2. Participant keeps his or her eyes on the ball
Step 3. The toes are pointed slightly towards the knee of the
kicking leg
Step 4. The kicking foot is turned sideways (toes pointing
away from the midline of the body)
Step 5. The toes and heel are roughly parallel to the ground
(allowing the foot to be close to the playing surface
when the ball is struck)
Step 6. The foot meets the centre of the ball, at the area
where the inner shin meets the foot
Step 7. The participant flexes his or her knee and contacts
the ball with the inside surface of the kicking foot
Step 8. As the kick is being executed, the ankle is rigid
Step 9. The kicking leg and ankle follow through, properly
positioned, towards the target after the participant
strikes the ball
centre, or fifth box inward fiom either direction) was
directly in line with the starting position box (see Fig.
1). Being a soccer accuracy pass, the target dimensions
represented the approximate size of a human foot; the
intended target in an applied context.
Measures of interest
Primary measures of interest included both traditional
error scores as well as form scores (as obtained from the
Soccer Pass Form Checklist). Target scores were
calculated as follows: the participant received a score
of 0 for manoeuvring the ball so that it struck the most
central box, with subsequent scores of 1, 2, 3 and 4
being awarded as accuracy progressively deviated from
the centre target panel. Thus, points increased by 1 in
both directions from the primary target or centre box. A
negative denotation was given to all scores attained
when the ball struck any box left of the central target
box, while positive scores were assigned to kicks to the
right of the target. Trials that completely missed the
target above and to the left of the central target received
a score of -5 and attempts missing above and to the
Cueing during observational learning
right of the central target received a score of + 5. The
score value closest to the central target box was
automatically given if the ball made contact on two
separate boxes (i.e. if the ball struck the line between
two adjacent boxes) within the same trial.
The second measure involved rating form in the
kicking accuracy task. The Soccer Pass Form Checklist
(see Table 1) was used to evaluate kicking form on trial
blocks 2, 3, 6 and 7. This allowed a comparison of
critical form elements from the last practice (baseline)
trial block (2) to the first acquisition trial block (3), and
then a final evaluation of form from the last acquisition
trial block (6) to the first retention trial block (7). As
mentioned, independent blind raters with fundamental
soccer knowledge rated the form of all of the
participants from the videotaped performance. Each of
the two raters possessed extensive soccer experience in
the UK and the USA, collectively having competed at
the club and collegiate levels, respectively.
Treatments
All groups consisted of five males and five females
(n = 10). The discovery learning or 'control' group
received a written manuscript of soccer history that did
not include any specific reference to the soccer pass.
The verbal instruction group received only a verbal
description of the task to be executed. The verbal
instruction script outlined the critical steps to executing
the kick. For example, the initial stage of kick execution
was narrated as such: 'the plant leg should be placed 6-
8 inches next to the ball in a parallel position, but not in
front of it. The plant foot should also be pointing in the
direction of the intended pass, towards the target. Also,
your non-kicking knee in the plant leg should be flexed'.
The video + visual cues group viewed a video model
performing the task that included directional arrows
(visual cues) superimposed on the videotape to indicate
critical areas of interest (i.e. the kicking and plant legs,
the shoulders and hips, the arms, etc.).
The video +verbal cues group viewed a video model
executing the soccer pass that was accompanied by
verbal cues highlighting task-relevant information. An
example of a verbal cue is the following: 'notice how the
expert flexes the knee in the kicking leg and contacts the
centre of the ball with the inside surface of her kicking
foot'.
The video+visual and verbal cues group viewed a
video model with both the visual and verbal cues that
were used independently in the other experimental
conditions. Finally, the video-only group viewed an
unmodified video of the model performing the desired
soccer pass.
The video model was a highly skilled female, a
starter on the university's National Championship
Team and a member of the US National Develop-
ment Team. The video was created to isolate one
correct execution of the task and looped for 3 min
(42 shots). The verbal instruction was given by means
of an audiotape (3 min) that was the same length in
duration as the videotape (3 min). Verbal narration
was provided in a pre-scripted, standardized dialogue
corresponding with specific portions of the videotape.
Although the manner in which information was
presented varied, the content was consistent across
all groups, and cueing information highlighted all
steps used to evaluate form. The control group's
written manuscript required a reading time of
approximately 3 min.
Procedure
Each group performed eight trial blocks with 10
separate trials executed for each block. All participants
received written standardized instructions before trial
block 1 of the 'practice phase. Instructions consisted of
four statements: '(1) You the participant shall not go
outside the starting parameter while manoeuvring your
body to strike the ball; (2) the soccer ball must be
placed at the top of the starting parameter, but not
outside of it, in a stationary position before being
struck; (3) the ball should be struck in a manner that
keeps it on the ground; and (4) your objective is to
propel the soccer ball towards the central target box'.
All groups received their particular instructional
modality before trial blocks 3, 4, 5 and 6, thereby
rendering the practice phase free of any potential
confounds due to treatment modality. Trial blocks 1
and 2 constituted the practice phase, trial blocks 3, 4,
5 and 6 the acquisition phase, and trial blocks 7 and 8
the retention phase. No manipulation was given
during the retention phase, which was conducted
approximately 24 h after the acquisition phase. All
participants engaged in a 90 s break after each trial
block was completed. During this 90 s, the partici-
pants relaxed by sitting quietly.
Design and analyses
Performance proficiency on the kicking task was
determined through the analysis of both error scores
and kicking form scores.
Outcome
With respect to outcome scores, specific error
measures included: (1) absolute error, a measure of
accuracy which gives an average deviation of kicks
from the target without respect to position; and (2)
variable error, a measure of variability across trials

based on the standard deviation of each shot from the
target (Schmidt and Lee, 1999). These particular
error scores were of greater relative interest than other
possibilities due to the type of task chosen for this
experiment. The soccer accuracy pass is one that, by
definition, mandates a high level of accuracy. Simi-
larly, evaluation of variable error over the course of
the skill acquisition and retention periods permitted
us to gain a perspective on how consistently the
passes could be executed.
Error scores routinely deviate from a normal dis-
tribution, thereby violating a basic assumption of
analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Nevi11 and Copas,
1991). As such, before running the analyses of variance,
the normality of residuals was visually checked for
absolute and variable error scores between groups
across all trial blocks of interest. Minimal deviation
from normality was apparent through visual inspection.
Accordingly, Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests confirmed
that the absolute and variable error scores did not
differ significantly from normal during any of the eight
trial blocks (P-values ranged from 0.22 to 1.00). As
such, raw error data were deemed appropriate for use in
further analyses.
Kicking form
In addition to the accuracy scores, kicking form (as
determined using the Soccer Pass Form Checklist) was
evaluated by two blind raters during four separate trial
blocks to determine whether modelling had induced
learning of proper form (despite the possibility that
accuracy scores may not have changed). Ratings were
obtained for each trial based on the number of correct
attributes (critical steps as portrayed on the rating form)
achieved for each kick.
In all analyses, the group factor referred to
the learning modality (control, verbal instruction,
video + visual cues, video + verbal cues, video + visual
and verbal cues, video-only). T o delineate potential
baseline skill level differences as well as the extent of
learning from the practice period to the retention test,
separate 6 x 2 (group x trial block) analyses of variance
were performed for each error and form score, with
levels of the trial block factor in each analysis being the
second and seventh trial blocks. Error data were then
analysed in their entirety using separate two-way
analyses of variance for each of the three kicking
sessions.
Separate 6 x 2, 6 x 4 and 6 x 2 (group x trial block)
analyses of variance with repeated measures on the last
factor were then conducted for each of the error scores
during practice, acquisition and retention, respectively.
A 6 x 4 (group x trial block) ANOVA with repeated
measures on the last factor was conducted on trial
Janelle et al.
blocks 2, 3, 6 and 7 to analyse changes in form across
the practice, acquisition and retention phases of the
experiment.
For all analyses, traditional F-tests were computed
and, in cases where the sphericity assumption was
violated, appropriate P-values based on conservative
degrees of freedom adjustments were used for compar-
isons. Alpha was set at P= 0.05 for all analyses before
adjustments for violations of the sphericity assumption.
Tukey HSD follow-up analyses were used for further
evaluation of significant main effects, and simple effects
analyses were used when significant interactions were
identified.
Results
Descriptive statistics for the error (absolute and
variable) and form scores across practice, acquisition
and retention sessions are shown in Tables 2, 3 and 4,
respectively.
Baseline equivalence among groups and evidence
of learning
Preliminary analyses of absolute error yielded significant
main effects for trial block (F1,54=21.4JP<0.001,
11' = 0.42) and group (F5,54= 3.04, P < 0.0 1, 11' = 0.27).
A significant group x trial block interaction was also
revealed (F5,54= 6.95, P < 0.001, 11' = 0.32). Simple
effects tests indicated that all groups performed similarly
during trial block 2. However, during trial block 7, the
video+visual and verbal cues group recorded fewer
errors than the video-only, control and video + verbal
cues groups. Also, the verbal instruction and video +
visual cues groups demonstrated greater accuracy than
the control and video + verbal cues groups. For variable
error, a similar pattern emerged. Significant main effects
were identified for trial block (FIy54= 20.0, P <0.001,
r12 = 0.27) and group (F5,54= 2.61, P < 0.035,
11' = 0.20), and there was a significant group x trial block
interaction (F5,54= 8.12, P < 0.00 1, r12 = 0.43). Simple
effects tests indicated that all groups performed similarly
during the practice period, but differences emerged
within trial block 7. Specifically, the video +visual and
verbal cues group and the video + visual cues group both
recorded less error variability than the control, video +
verbal cues and video-only groups, while the verbal
instruction group recorded less error variability than the
video + verbal cues and control groups. Finally, analysis
of form scores revealed significant main effects for trial
block (F1y54 = 212, P < 0.001, r12 = 0.80) and group
(F5y54=5.10,P<0.001, 11'=0.32) and a significant
group x ma1 block interaction (F5,54= 12.3, P < 0.00 1,
11' = 0.53). Post-hoc simple effects tests again identified
Cueing during obseruational learning 831

Table 2. Absolute error (AE) descriptive statistics Table 2. (continued)

Groupa n Mean s Groupa n Mean s

Practice Trial block 5 Control

Trial block 1 Control vows
vows VI
VI VOWC
VOWC VO
VO VOVC
VOVC
Trial block 6 Control
Trial block 2 Control vows
vows VI
VI VOWC
VOWC VO
VO VOVC
VOVC
Retention
Acquisition Trial block 7 Control
Trial block 3 Control vows
VOVIS VI
VI VOWC
VOWC VO
vo VOVC
VOVC
Trial block 8 Control
Trial block 4 Control vows
vows VI
VI VOWC
VOWC vo
VO VOVC
VOVC -

"VOVIS = video + visual cues; VI = verbal instruction; V O W C =

(continued overleaf) video + visual and verbal cues; VO = video only; VOVC =
video + verbal cues.

no differences during the practice period. However, the Error scores

video + verbal and visual cues group demonstrated
better form than all other groups during trial block 7.
Furthermore, the control group exhibited significantly
worse form compared with all groups during trial block
7. Finally, the verbal instruction group displayed
significantly better form during trial block 7 than the
video-only and video + visual cues groups.
Given that analysis of performance during the
practice phase yielded no main effects or interactions
for any measure as related to the group factor, we
assumed that the six groups were statistically equivalent
in terms of initial skill, so an analysis of covariance was
not necessary for evaluation of acquisition and retention
data in the remaining analyses. Similarly, the significant
trial block main effects identified in all preliminary
analyses confirmed a significant learning effect from the
practice phase to the retention phase of the study that
was observable among all of the dependent measures of
interest.
Absolute error
Analysis of absolute error during the acquisition phase
yielded significant main effects for group (F5,54= 7.55,
P t 0 . 0 0 1 , 112=0.41) and trial block (F3,162= 13.5,
P < 0.001, v2 = 0.20). More importantly, however,
there was a significant group x trial block interaction
(F15y162 = 2.52, P < 0.01, r12 = 0.19). Simple effects tests
indicated that the verbal instruction group performed
better than the control, video-only and video +verbal
cues groups during trial block 3. The video + visual and
verbal cues group performed more accurately than the
control and video-only groups during trial blocks 4, 5
and 6. The video +verbal cues group performed worse
than the video +visual and verbal cues, verbal instruc-
tion and video +visual cues groups durng trial block 5
and worse than the video + visual and verbal cues and
video+visual cues groups during trial block 6. Also,
during trial block 6, the video +visual and verbal cues
 Janelle et al.

Table 3. Variable error descriptive statistics Table 3. (continued )

Groupa n Mean s Groupa n Mean s

Practice Trial block 5 Control

Trial block 1 Control vows
vows VI
VI VOWC
VOWC VO
VO VOVC
VOVC
Trial block 6 Control
Trial block 2 Control vows
vows VI
VI VOWC
VOWC VO
VO VOVC
VOVC
Retention
Acquisition Trial block 7 Control
Trial block 3 Control VOVIS
vows VI
VI VOWC
VOWC VO
VO VOVC
VOVC
Trial block 8 Control
Trial block 4 Control vows
vows VI
VI VOWC
VOWC vo
VO VOVC
VOVC
"VOVIS = video + visual cues; VI = verbal instruction; V O W C =
(continued overleaf) video + visual and verbal cues; VO = video only; VOVC =
video + verbal cues.

group performed better than the verbal instruction
group (see Fig. 2).
Analysis of the retention phase produced a significant
group main effect (F5,54= 13.8, P < 0.001, 11' = 0.56).
Consistent with the final trial block of acquisition, the
video + visual and verbal cues group exhibited fewer
errors than the video-only and video+visual cues
groups. Also, the video +visual cues and verbal
instructions groups performed better than the control
group during this phase. Furthermore, the video + ver-
bal cues group exhibited greater deviation from the
target in kicking accuracy than all other groups, except
for the control group (see Fig. 2).
Variable error
There was a significant main effect for group
(F5,,, = 8.31, P < 0.001, 11' = 0.44) and a significant
= 2.35, P < 0.01,
group x trial block interaction (F15,162
= 0.18) during the acquisition period. Simple effects
tests indicated that the video +visual and verbal cues
group exhibited less variable error than the control
group during all acquisition trial blocks and less variable
error than the video-only group during trial blocks 5
and 6. The verbal instruction group performed with
greater consistency than the control group during trial
block 3. The video +verbal cues group exhibited less
consistency than all other groups during trial block 5
and less consistency than the video +visual and verbal
cues group in trial block 6 (see Fig. 3).
During retention, significant group differences were
identified (F5,14= 16.8, P < 0.001, 11' = 0.61). Post-hoc
analyses of the group main effect indicated that the
video + visual cues, verbal instruction and video + visual
and verbal cues groups performed with greater con-
sistency than the control group. Furthermore, the
video + verbal cues group performed significantly worse
than all other groups, excluding the control group. The
video +visual and verbal cues group performed sig-
nificantly better than the video-only group (see Fig. 3).
Cueing during observational learning

Table 4. Form descriptive statistics during trial block 3. Once again, in trial blocks 6 and 7
all experimental groups, except the video +visual cues
Groupa n Mean s group, exhibited better form than the control group.
Furthermore, during trial blocks 6 and 7, the video +
Practice visual and verbal cues group exhibited significantly
Trial block 2 Control
better form than all other groups except the verbal
VOWS
instruction group. Finally, form ratings were signifi-
VI
VOWC cantly higher for the verbal instruction group than for
VO the video +visual cues group during trial block 7 (see
VOVC Fig. 4).

Acquisition
Trial block 3 Control Discussion
VOWS
VI The results of previous investigations have indicated
VOWC
that the use of verbal or video instructions is beneficial
VO
for learning and performance. These results have been
VOVC
demonstrated in experiments employing various ath-
Trial block 6 Control letic skills, including a racquetball task (Southard and
VOWS Higgins, 1987), a ski simulator task (Whiting et al.,
VI 1987; Schoenfelder-Zohdi, 1992) and a complex
VOWC rhythmic gymnastics task (Magill and Schoenfelder-
VO Zohdi, 1996). Furthermore, researchers who have
VOVC combined verbal cueing with modelling have demon-
strated additional benefits to skill acquisition than using
Retention
a visual model only (Rothstein, 1980; Doody et al.,
Trial block 7 Control
vows 1985; Roach and Bunvitz, 1986; Masser, 1993; Landin,
VI 1994). The main aim of this study was to examine the
VOWC effectiveness of different instructional methods on the
VO learning and performance of a soccer accuracy kick,
VOVC with implications for determining the effectiveness of
different modelling and cueing modalities. The specific
"VOVIS =video +visual cues; VI =verbal instruction; V O W C = treatments used included four types of modelling: video
video + visual and verbal cues; VO = video only; VOVC =
modelling with visual cues, video modelling with verbal
video + verbal cues.
cues, video modelling with both visual and verbal cues,
and video modelling with no cues. These modalities
were compared with the effectiveness of verbal instruc-
Form analysis
tions and discovery learning (the control group).
Inter-rater reliability was computed for the two raters With the exception of a few non-significant trends
who evaluated kicking form according to the Soccer that were probably due to conservative post-hoe tests, the
Pass Form Checklist. The analysis demonstrated collective form and error data confirmed that the
excellent consistency across the two raters in determin- participants exposed to video modelling with both
ing overall kicking form (r = 0.90). The mixed-model verbal and visual cueing increased kicking accuracy
ANOVA of form produced significant main effects for and consistency at a more expedient rate, and then
group (F5,54=9.37, P < 0.001, 112 = 0.47) and trial maintained relatively higher proficiency over time,
block (F3,162= 141, P < 0.001, q2 = 0.68). Furthermore, compared with the participants who used alternative
there was a significant group x trial block interaction modelling modalities or learning strategies. These
( F ~ ~7.58, , ~P ~ < 0.001,
~ = v2 = 0.43). ~ollow-upsimple findings suggest that learning was facilitated through
effects analyses indicated no significant differences the use of verbal and visual attentional cues in
between groups during the practice phase. In trial combination with the video model. In addition to
block 3, the video +visual and verbal cues, verbal outcome measures, form changes indicated the devel-
instruction and visual + verbal cues groups exhibited opment of a more refined movement pattern by the
significantly superior form in comparison with the participants who used the video modelling with verbal
control and video + visual cues groups. The video-only and visual cues than those who used other instructional
group exhibited better form than the control group modes. Taken together, it would appear that the
 Janelle et al.

+Control
-m- VOVlS
+VI
+VOVVC
*VO
+VOVC

Practice Acquistion Retention

Trial Block
Fig. 2. Absolute error (AE) across practice, acquisition and retention. VOWS = video + visual cues; VI = verbal instruction;
V O W C = video + visual and verbal cues; VO = video only; VOVC = video + verbal cues.

+Control
-0- VOVlS
+VI
+vowc
*VO
+VOVC

Practice Acquistion Retention

I I I I I

3 4 5 6

Trial Block
Fig. 3. Variable error (VE) across practice, acquisition and retention. VOWS = video + visual cues; VI = verbal instruction;
V O W C = video + visual and verbal cues; VO = video only; VOVC = video + verbal cues.
Cueing during observational learning
5 ' 2 3
Trial Block
Fig. 4. Form ratings for selected trial blocks across practice, acquisition and retention. VOWS = video + visual cues; VI = verbal
instruction; V O W C = video + visual and verbal cues; VO = video only; VOVC = video + verbal cues.
participants who watched the video model and were
verbally and visually directed towards critical aspects of
the task were more capable of creating an ideal kicking
form that led to enhanced outcome scores compared
with the participants in the other learning modalities.
Integration of these findings requires discussion of the
interaction among the changes in form that may have
led to increased accuracy and less variability in kicking
outcome measures, as well as theoretical accounts for
the findings.
As in several previous studies (e.g. Rothstein, 1980;
Doody et al., 1985; McCullagh et al., 1WO), the results
of the present investigation support the notion that
augmenting visual demonstrations with cues enhances
the acquisition of a discrete motor skill. As an extension
to previous work (e.g. Wiese-Bjornstal and Weiss,
1992), our findings indicate that the beneficial aspects
of verbal cueing extend beyond sequencing aspects of
motor skills, permeating not only the outcome of the
movement for a discrete motor task, but also the
underlying critical form necessary for skill reproduc-
tion. In addition, the augmented information provided
through verbal cues apparently enhanced information
processing beyond that which could be achieved
through the sole provision of visual cues, and the
findings suggest that adults exhibit similar benefits to
children with regard to cueing efficacy.
Popular conceptual explanations provide reasonable
(though admittedly incomplete) accounts for the pre-
+Control
--I--VOVIS
+VI
+V O W C
*VO
-0- VOVC
6 7
sent results. Specifically, the findings can be accom-
modated within variations of the stimulus-contiguity
and social cognitive theories of Bandura (1969, 197 1,
1977, 1986, 1997). T o reiterate Bandura's central
notions, the four processes involved in observational
learning are: (1) acquiring critical aspects of the
modelled act; (2) remembering these critical cues; ( 3 )
producing the modelled activity; and (4) being moti-
vatedheinforced to do so. These comprise the attention,
retention, motor reproduction and motivation compo-
nent processes, respectively. Although visual cueing
mechanisms may be facilitative, especially during the
attention stage of the modelling process, the combina-
tion of verbal and visual cues here apparently provided
strategic links to enhance retention. The cues arguably
allow the formation of a more information-rich sym-
bolic representation from which motor actions could
accurately be reproduced.
Hypothetically, the delimiting function of cue im-
portance may help in reproduction of the task through
facilitation of the concept-matching process that under-
lies response programming. Additionally, it is certainly
possible that restriction of cues (and overall information
load) may have a motivational influence because of the
perception of a more clearly delineated and easily
attainable goal. Although Bandura's motivational com-
ponent is possibly a critical conjugate to the modelling
process and may be influenced by cue type from the
present results, clear statements cannot be made to

support or refute its relative importance. At present,
possibilities concerning the response reproduction and
motivation components of Bandura3s framework are
purely speculative and are not accommodated within
the scope of existing theory, but provide interesting
potential avenues for future research efforts.
Despite the overall advantages that are evident with
the provision of both verbal and visual cues, the
relatively superior performance of the verbal instruction
condition compared with the remaining modalities
warrants discussion. Although variations of social
cognitive theory can broadly account for the current
findings, the recent 'integrated approach3 proposed by
McCullagh and colleagues (e.g. McCullagh et al., 1989;
McCullagh and Weiss, 200 1) more completely explains
our results, especially with respect to the discrepancy of
error scores among the groups of interest. During
retention, it is evident from the obtained error scores
that the verbal instruction and video modelling with
visual cues groups performed similarly. Given the
similarities in performance for the verbal instruction
and the video +visual cues groups, it would appear as
though a reciprocal and critical link was missing in these
conditions that prevented the production of ideal
movement patterns (compared with the video + visual
and verbal cues group). According to McCullagh et al.
(1989), visual cues may be directly perceived and
thereby used for motor production, but the central
representation of these events exerts a mediating effect
on this process. Without verbal input, the central
representation of the activity was possibly less refined,
leading to relatively poorer performance for the
video +visual cues group compared with the video +
verbal and visual cues group. Similarly, without visual
input, performance was weakened for those in the
verbal instruction only condition. It would appear as
though movement parameters acquired through the
visual mode will indeed vary depending on the
influence of the principal controlling process (i.e. the
central representation), which is either enhanced or
reduced by other augmented information sources.
Recommendations for fiture research
Implicated in this study are several directions for future
research. A critical issue that has yet to be sufficiently
addressed in the observational learning literature is the
nature of the information conveyed during demonstra-
tions. Specifically, Scully and Newel1 (1985), in
referring to social cognitive notions, insightfidly em-
phasized that 'It is important to recognize that these
theories do not elaborate on what cues are picked up by
the performer, leaving implicit the notion that every
movement cue is in the same fashion transformed and
Janelle et al.
coded3 (p. 171). Although the present investigation has
delineated how highlighting specific cues using different
cueing mechanisms transfers to eventual skill reproduc-
tion, mere inferences can be made concerning whether
the cued model attributes were those that were in fact
attended to. Acknowledging this limitation, it is
important for future researchers to identify what
information is actually being detected. This could
certainly be facilitated through the use of eye-tracking
instrumentation to record gaze behaviour while viewing
modelled actions. A few researchers have recorded eye
movements to address observational learning questions
(e.g. Daugs et al., 1986; Williams, 1989; Ishikura and
Inomata, 1998). However, these investigations were
largely concerned with directional issues (i.e. whether a
static sequence of patterns is viewed right to left or left
to right; Daugs et al., 1986; Williams, 1989) or with the
angle of visual presentation (Ishikura and Inomata,
1998). More recently, Horn and colleagues (2002) used
eye-tracking instrumentation to explore variations in
visual search patterns across model modalities (i.e.
video and point-light models), yet whether attentional
shifts follow attentional cueing instructions remains
unanswered.
Related to understanding the timing of attentional
shifts, recent work by Black and Wright (2000, 2002)
and Shea et al. (2001) has begun to address the
specificity of timing issues (i.e. absolute vs relative
timing) as related to different model types. Interest-
ingly, Shea et al. (2001) demonstrated that relative
timing could be learned from a correct model; in this
case, one that was computer generated. Indeed, in the
current study, a correct model was presented through
video. Future projects should evaluate the efficac; of
viewing artificially generated images, how model effec-
tiveness might relate to task specificity, and how
potentially different cueing paradigms might influence
model value.
In addition to clarifymg what is being perceived, an
area of particular interest with respect to video (or
computer) modelling is the use of self-modelling
paradigms. Only a few studies have been conducted in
this area. With the exception of Starek and McCullagh
(1999) and Winfrey and Weeks (1993), most are replete
with methodological flaws. However, given the increas-
ing availability of imaging mechanisms in sports that
allow and encourage self-instruction, the effectiveness
of video self-modelling techniques and how such
practices can be made more effective deserves empirical
attention (Williams et al., 1999).
Finally, it would be of benefit to conduct a similar
study to the one reported here, but isolating the primary
groups of interest with a simpler design. A potentially
economic means of replication would involve crossing
the visual and verbal manipulations of interest here in a
Cueing during obseruational learning
factorial design. As such, the reliability of the findings
obtained here could be assessed and then potentially
extended to other creative modelling protocols. Simi-
larly, further replication and understanding of other
traditional issues in modelling, such as the speed of the
demonstration, the ideal methods to model tasks of
different types and complexity, and the best angle at
which to view either self- or other models, is needed.
Clarification of how these factors interact with cueing
modalities will undoubtedly enhance the capability to
acquire and refine motor skills and to do so more
efficiently.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their gratitude to David
Markland and two anonymous reviewers for helpful com-
ments on an earlier draft of the manuscript.
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