Society  is  the  sum  total  of  our  interactions  as  humans,  including  the  interactions  
that  we  engage  in  to  understand  the  nature  of  things  and  to  create  things.  It  is  also  defined  
as  a  group  of  individuals  involved  in  persistent  social  interaction,  or  a  large  social  group  
sharing  the  same  geographical  or  social  territory,  typically  subject  to  the  same  political  
authority  and  dominant  cultural  expectations  (Science  Daily).  
 
Science,  technology  and  society  is  important  to  the  public  because  it  helps  address  
issues   and   problems   that   are   of   concern   to   the   general   population.   Scientific   and  
technological   principles   have   been   and   continue   to   be   applied   to   solve   problems   that  
people   experience   in   their   day-­to-­day   aspects   of   living.   But   scientific   findings   must   be  
applied  at  the  right  scales.  The  impact  of  technological  breakthroughs  on  people,  society  
and  the  environment  must  be  critically  assessed  to  preserve  its  value.    
 

                                                                 Figure  1  The  Interrelationship  of  science,  technology  and  society  

                                                                 Source:  Ihueze  et  al.,  2015.  researchgate.net  

A  lot  of  our  problems  in  modern  society  involve  not  only  technology  but  also  human  
values,   social   organization,   environmental   concerns,   economic   resources,   political  
decisions,  and  a  myriad  of  other  factors.  These  things  sits  at  the  interface  between  the  
three   fields   and   can   also   be   solved   (if   they   can   be   solved   at   all)   by   the   application   of  
scientific  knowledge,  technical  expertise,  social  understanding,  and  humane  compassion.  
 
In  the  past,  science  is  learned  as  an  independent  study  from  other  fields.  It  focuses  
on  the  scientific  methods,  natural  processes  and  understanding  nature.  But  in  the  current  
global   scenario,   science   is   studied   holistically,   often   in   an   interdisciplinary   method,  
emphasizing  systems  rather  than  processes,  synthesis  more  than  analysis  and  predicting  
nature’s  behavior  in  order  to  have  useful  application  in  solving  contemporary  problems.  

2
The   scientific   data   that   have   built   up   a   considerable   base   of   knowledge   led   to   a   vast  
portfolio   of   useful   technologies,   especially   in   the   21st   century,   to   solve   many   of   the  
problems  now  facing  humankind  (UNESCO,  1999).    
 
To   solve   our   contemporary   problems,   science   needs   to   become   more  
multidisciplinary   and   its   practitioners   should   continue   to   promote   cooperation   and  
integration  between  the  social  and  natural  sciences.  A  holistic  approach  also  demands  
that  science  draw  on  the  contributions  of  the  humanities  (such  as  history  and  philosophy),  
local  knowledge  systems,  aboriginal  wisdom,  and  the  wide  variety  of  cultural  values.  
 
The   influence   of   science   and   technology   on   people’s   lives   is   expanding.   While  
recent  benefits  to  humanity  are  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  the  human  species,  in  some  
instances  the  impact  has  been  harmful  or  the  long-­term  effects  give  causes  for  serious  
concerns.  A  considerable  measure  of  public  mistrust  of  science  and  fear  of  technology  
exists  today.  In  part,  this  stems  from  the  belief  by  some  individuals  and  communities  that  
they  will  be  the  ones  to  suffer  the  indirect  negative  consequences  of  technical  innovations  
introduced   to   benefit   only   a   privileged   minority.   The   power   of   science   to   bring   about  
change  places  a  duty  on  scientists  to  proceed  with  great  caution  both  in  what  they  do  and  
what  they  say.  Scientists  should  reflect  on  the  social  consequences  of  the  technological  
applications  or  dissemination  of  partial  information  of  their  work  and  explain  to  the  public  
and   policy   makers   alike   the   degree   of   scientific   uncertainty   or   incompleteness   in   their  
findings.  At  the  same  time,  though,  they  should  not  hesitate  to  fully  exploit  the  predictive  
power   of   science,   duly   qualified,   to   help   people   cope   with   environmental   change,  
especially  in  cases  of  direct  threats  like  natural  disasters  or  water  shortages.  
 
The  Role  of  Science  and  Technology  
 
1.   alter   the   way   people   live,   connect,   communicate   and   transact,   with   profound  
effects  on  economic  development;;  
2.   key   drivers   to   development,   because   technological   and   scientific   revolutions  
underpin   economic   advances,   improvements   in   health   systems,   education   and  
infrastructure;;    
3.   The  technological  revolutions  of  the  21st  century  are  emerging  from  entirely  new  
sectors,   based   on   micro-­processors,   tele-­communications,   bio-­technology   and  
nano-­technology.   Products   are   transforming   business   practices   across   the  
economy,  as  well  as  the  lives  of  all  who  have  access  to  their  effects.  The  most  
remarkable   breakthroughs   will   come   from   the   interaction   of   insights   and  
applications  arising  when  these  technologies  converge.  
4.   have  the  power  to  better  the  lives  of  poor  people  in  developing  countries    
5.   differentiators   between   countries   that   are   able   to   tackle   poverty   effectively   by  
growing  and  developing  their  economies,  and  those  that  are  not.    
6.   engine  of  growth    
7.   interventions   for   cognitive   enhancement,   proton   cancer   therapy   and   genetic  
engineering  
 
 

3
  
Reflective  Question:  
With   the   whole   world   suffering   from   CoViD-­19   pandemic,   discuss   the   interplay  
between  science,  technology  and  society  in  mitigating  this  problem.    
 
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________  
 

4
 B.   Historical  Antecedents  in  the  World  
 
Just  like  with  any  other  discipline,  the  best  way  to  truly  understand  where  
we  are  in  science  today  is  to  look  back  at  what  happened  in  the  past.  The  history  
of   science   can   teach   us   many   lessons   about   the   way   scientists   think   and  
understand  the  world  around  us.  A  historical  perspective  will  make  us  appreciate  
more  what  science  really  is.  
 
 
From  Ancient  Times  to  600  BC  
 
Science  during  ancient  times  involved  practical  arts  like  healing  practices  
and  metal  tradition.  Some  of  the  earliest  records  from  history  indicate  that  3,000  
years  before  Christ,  the  ancient  Egyptians  already  had  reasonably  sophisticated  
medical   practices.   Sometime   around   2650   B.C.,   for   example,   a   man   named  
Imhotep  was  renowned  for  his  knowledge  of  medicine.  Most  historians  agree  that  
the  heart  of  Egyptian  medicine  was  trial  and  error.  Egyptian  doctors  would  try  one  
remedy,  and  if  it  worked,  they  would  continue  to  use  it.  If  a  remedy  they  tried  didn’t  
work,   the   patient   might   die,   but   at   least   the   doctors   learned   that   next   time   they  
should  try  a  different  remedy.  Despite  the  fact  that  such  practices  sound  primitive,  
the  results  were,  sometimes,  surprisingly  effective.    
 
The  Egyptian  medicine  was  considered  advanced  as  compared  with  other  
ancient  nations  because  of  one  of  the  early  inventions  of  Egyptian  civilization  –  the  
papyrus.  The  papyrus  is  an  ancient  form  of  paper,  made  from  the  papyrus  plant,  
a  reed  which  grows  in  the  marshy  areas  around  the  Nile  river.  As  early  as  3,000  
years  before  Christ,  Egyptians  took  thin  slices  of  the  stem  of  the  papyrus  plant,  laid  
them  crosswise  on  top  of  each  other,  moistened  them,  and  then  pressed  and  dried  
them.  The  result  was  a  form  of  paper  that  was  reasonably  easy  to  write  on  and  
store.   The   invention   of   this   ancient   form   of   paper   revolutionized   the   way  
information  was  transmitted  from  person  to  person  and  generation  to  generation.  
Before  papyrus,  Egyptians,  Sumerians,  and  other  races  wrote  on  clay  tablets  or  
smooth   rocks.   This   was   a   time-­consuming   process,   and   the   products   were   not  
easy  to  store  or  transport.  When  Egyptians  began  writing  on  papyrus,  all  of  that  
changed.  Papyrus  was  easy  to  roll  into  scrolls.  Thus,  Egyptian  writings  became  
easy  to  store  and  transport.  As  a  result,  the  knowledge  of  one  scholar  could  be  
easily  transferred  to  other  scholars.  As  this  accumulated  knowledge  was  passed  
down   from   generation   to   generation,   Egyptian   medicine   became   the   most  
respected   form   of   medicine   in   the   known   world.   Papyrus   was   used   as   a   writing  
material  as  early  as  3,000  BC  in  ancient  Egypt,  and  continued  to  be  used  to  some  
extent  until  around  1100  AD.  
 
Although  the  Egyptians  were  renowned  for  their  medicine  and  for  papyrus,  
other  cultures  had  impressive  inventions  of  their  own.  Around  the  time  that  papyrus  
was  first  being  used  in  Egypt,  the  Mesopotamians  were  making  pottery  using  the  
first  known  potter’s  wheel.  Not  long  after,  horse-­drawn  chariots  were  being  used.  

5
 As  early  as  1,000  years  before  Christ,  the  Chinese  were  using  compasses  to  aid  
themselves  in  their  travels.  The  ancient  world,  then,  was  filled  with  inventions  that,  
although  they  sound  commonplace  today,  revolutionized  life  during  those  times.  
These  inventions  are  history’s  first  inklings  of  science.    
 
  The  Advent  of  Science  (600  BC  to  500  AD)  
 
The  ancient  Greeks  were  the  early  thinkers  and  as  far  as  historians  can  tell,  
they  were  the  first  true  scientists.  They  collected  facts  and  observations  and  then  
used  those  observations  to  explain  the  natural  world.  Although  many  cultures  like  
the  ancient  Egyptians,  Mesopotamians,  and  Chinese  had  collected  observations  
and  facts,  they  had  not  tried  to  use  those  facts  to  develop  explanations  of  the  world  
around  them.    
 
Scientific   thought   in   Classical   Antiquity   becomes   tangible   from   the   6th  
century   BC   in   pre-­Socratic   philosophy   (Thales,   Pythagoras).   In   circa   385  
BC,   Plato   founded   the   Academy.   With   Plato's   student   Aristotle   begins   the  
"scientific   revolution"   of   the   Hellenistic   period   culminating   in   the   3rd   to   2nd  
centuries   with   scholars   such   as   Eratosthenes,   Euclid,   Aristarchus   of  
Samos,  Hipparchus  and  Archimedes.  
 
This   period   produced   substantial   advances   in   scientific   knowledge,  
especially  in  anatomy,  zoology,  botany,  mineralogy,  geography,  mathematics  and  
astronomy;;   an   awareness   of   the   importance   of   certain   scientific   problems,  
especially  those  related  to  the  problem  of  change  and  its  cause;;  and  a  recognition  
of  the  methodological  importance  of  applying  mathematics  to  natural  phenomena  
and  of  undertaking  empirical  research.  
 
The  scholars  frequently  employed  the  principles  developed  in  earlier  Greek  
thought:  the  application  of  mathematics  and  deliberate  empirical  research,  in  their  
scientific  investigations.  This  was  passed  on  from  ancient  Greek  philosophers  to  
medieval  Muslim  philosophers  and  scientists,  to  the  European  Renaissance  and  
Enlightenment,  to  the  secular  sciences  of  the  modern  day.  
 
 
  Islamic  Golden  Age  
 
The  Islamic  Golden  Age  was  a  period  of  cultural,  economic  and  scientific  
flourishing  in  the  history  of  Islam,  traditionally  dated  from  the  eighth  century  to  the  
fourteenth  century,  with  several  contemporary  scholars  dating  the  end  of  the  era  
to  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century.  This  period  is  traditionally  understood  to  have  
begun  during  the  reign  of  the  Abbasid  caliph  Harun  al-­Rashid  (786  to  809)  with  the  
inauguration   of   the   House   of   Wisdom   in   Baghdad,   where   scholars   from   various  
parts  of  the  world  with  different  cultural  backgrounds  were  mandated  to  gather  and  
translate   all   of   the   world's   classical   knowledge   into   the   Arabic   language   and  
subsequently   development   in   various   fields   of   sciences   began.   Science   and  

6
 technology   in   the   Islamic   world   adopted   and   preserved   knowledge   and  
technologies  from  contemporary  and  earlier  civilizations,  including  Persia,  Egypt,  
India,  China,  and  Greco-­Roman  antiquity,  while  making  numerous  improvements,  
innovations  and  inventions.  
 
Islamic   scientific   achievements   encompassed   a   wide   range   of   subject  
areas,   especially   astronomy,   mathematics,   and   medicine.   Scientific   inquiry   was  
practiced   in   other   subjects   like   alchemy   and   chemistry,   botany   and   agronomy,  
geography  and  cartography,  ophthalmology,  pharmacology,  physics  and  zoology.    
 
Islamic  science  was  characterized  by  having  practical  purposes  as  well  as  
the  goal  of  understanding.  Astronomy  was  useful  in  determining  the  Qibla,  which  
is   the   direction   in   which   to   pray,   botany   is   applied   in   agriculture   and   geography  
enabled  scientists  to  make  accurate  maps.  Mathematics  also  flourished  during  the  
Islamic   Golden   Age   with   the   works   of   Al-­Khwarizmi,   Avicenna   and   Jamshid   al  
Kashi   that   led   to   advanced   in   algebra,   trigonometry,   geometry   and   Arabic  
numerals.  
 
There  was  also  great  progress  in  medicine  during  this  period.  Al-­Biruni,  and  
Avicenna  produced  books  that  contain  descriptions  of  the  preparation  of  hundred  
of   drugs   made   from   medicinal   plants   and   chemical   compounds.   Islamic   doctors  
describe   diseases   like   smallpox   and   measles,   and   challenged   classical   Greek  
medical  knowledge.        
 
Likewise,  Islamic  physicists  such  as  Ibn  Al-­Haytham,  Al-­Biruni  and  others  
studied  optics  and  mechanics  as  well  as  astronomy,  and  criticized  Aristotle’s  view  
of  motion.  
 
The   significance   of   medieval   Islamic   science   has   been   debated   by  
historians.  The  traditionalist  view  holds  that  it  lacked  innovation,  and  was  mainly  
important  for  handing  on  ancient  knowledge  to  medieval  Europe.  The  revisionist  
view  holds  that  it  constituted  a  scientific  revolution.  Whatever  the  case,  science  
flourished   across   a   wide   area   around   the   Mediterranean   and   further   afield,   for  
several  centuries,  in  a  wide  range  of  institutions.  
 
 
Science  and  Technology  in  Ancient  China    
 
Ancient   Chinese   scientists   and   engineers   made   significant   scientific  
innovations,   findings   and   technological   advances   across   various   scientific  
disciplines   including   the   natural   sciences,   engineering,   medicine,   military  
technology,  mathematics,  geology  and  astronomy.  
 
Ancient  China  gave  the  world  the  Four  Great  Inventions  that  include  the  
compass,  gunpowder,  papermaking  and  printing.  These  were  considered  as  
among  the  most  important  technological  advances  and  were  only  known  to  Europe  

7
 1000  years  later  or  during  the  end  of  the  Middle  ages.  These  four  inventions  had  
a   profound   impact   on   the   development   of   civilization   throughout   the   world.  
However,   some   modern   Chinese   scholars   have   opined   that   other   Chinese  
inventions  were  perhaps  more  sophisticated  and  had  a  greater  impact  on  Chinese  
civilization  –  the  Four  Great  Inventions  serve  merely  to  highlight  the  technological  
interaction  between  East  and  West.  
 
As  stated  by  Karl  Marx,  "Gunpowder,  the  compass,  and  the  printing  press  
were  the  three  great  inventions  which  ushered  in  bourgeois  society.  Gunpowder  
blew  up  the  knightly  class,  the  compass  discovered  the  world  market  and  found  
the  colonies,  and  the  printing  press  was  the  instrument  of  Protestantism  and  the  
regeneration   of   science   in   general;;   the   most   powerful   lever   for   creating   the  
intellectual  prerequisites.”  
 
 
  The  Renaissance  (1300  AD  –  1600AD)  
   
The   14th   century   was   the   beginning   of   the   cultural   movement   of   the  
Renaissance,   which   was   considered   by   many   as   the   Golden   Age   of   Science.  
During   the   Renaissance   period,   great   advances   occurred  
in   geography,   astronomy,   chemistry,   physics,   mathematics,   anatomy,  
manufacturing,   and   engineering.   The   rediscovery   of   ancient   scientific   texts   was  
accelerated   after   the   Fall   of   Constantinople   in   1453,   and   the   invention  
of  printing  democratized  learning  and  allowed  a  faster  propagation  of  new  ideas.    
 
Marie   Boas   Hall   coined   the   term   Scientific   Renaissance   to   designate   the  
early   phase   of   the   Scientific   Revolution,   1450–1630.   More   recently,   Peter   Dear  
has   argued   for   a   two-­phase   model   of   early   modern   science:   a   Scientific  
Renaissance   of   the   15th   and   16th   centuries,   focused   on   the   restoration   of   the  
natural  knowledge  of  the  ancients;;  and  a  Scientific  Revolution  of  the  17th  century,  
when  scientists  shifted  from  recovery  to  innovation.  
 
But   this   initial   period   is   usually   seen   as   one   of   scientific   backwardness.  
There  were  no  new  developments  in  physics  or  astronomy,  and  the  reverence  for  
classical   sources   further   enshrined   the   Aristotelian   and   Ptolemaic   views   of   the  
universe.  Renaissance  philosophy  lost  much  of  its  rigour  as  the  rules  of  logic  and  
deduction   were   seen   as   secondary   to   intuition   and   emotion.   At   the   same  
time,   Renaissance   humanism   stressed   that   nature   came   to   be   viewed   as   an  
animate  spiritual  creation  that  was  not  governed  by  laws  or  mathematics.  Science  
would   only   be   revived   later,   with   such   figures   as   Copernicus,   Gerolamo  
Cardano,  Francis  Bacon,  and  Descartes.  
 
The   most   important   technological   advance   of   all   in   this   period   was   the  
development  of  printing,  with  movable  metal  type,  about  the  mid-­15th  century  in  
Germany.   Johannes   Gutenberg   is   usually   called   its   inventor,   but   in   fact   many  
people  and  many  steps  were  involved.  Block  printing  on  wood  came  to  the  West  

8
 from  China  between  1250  and  1350,  papermaking  came  from  China  by  way  of  the  
Arabs  to  12th-­century  Spain,  whereas  the  Flemish  technique  of  oil  painting  was  
the   origin   of   the   new   printers’   ink.   Three   men   of   Mainz—Gutenberg   and   his  
contemporaries   Johann   Fust   and   Peter   Schöffer—seem   to   have   taken   the   final  
steps,  casting  metal  type  and  locking  it  into  a  wooden  press.  The  invention  spread  
like   the   wind,   reaching   Italy   by   1467,   Hungary   and   Poland   in   the   1470s,   and  
Scandinavia   by   1483.   By   1500   the   presses   of   Europe   had   produced   some   six  
million   books.   Without   the   printing   press   it   is   impossible   to   conceive   that   the  
Reformation  would  have  ever  been  more  than  a  monkish  quarrel  or  that  the  rise  of  
a   new   science,   which   was   a   cooperative   effort   of   an   international   community,  
would  have  occurred  at  all.  In  short,  the  development  of  printing  amounted  to  a  
communications   revolution   of   the   order   of   the   invention   of   writing;;   and,   like   that  
prehistoric   discovery,   it   transformed   the   conditions   of   life.   The   communications  
revolution   immeasurably   enhanced   human   opportunities   for   enlightenment   and  
pleasure   on   one   hand   and   created   previously   undreamed-­of   possibilities   for  
manipulation   and   control   on   the   other.   The   consideration   of   such   contradictory  
effects  may  guard  us  against  a  ready  acceptance  of  triumphalist  conceptions  of  
the  Renaissance  or  of  historical  change  in  general.  
 
 
The  Enlightenment  Period  (1715  A.D.  to  1789  A.D.)  
 
The   Enlightenment   Period   or   the   Age   of   Reason   was   characterized   by  
radical  reorientation  in  science,  which  emphasized  reason  over  superstition  and  
science   over   blind   faith.   This   period   produced   numerous   books,   essays,  
inventions,  scientific  discoveries,  laws,  wars  and  revolutions.  The  American  and  
French   Revolutions   were   directly   inspired   by   Enlightenment   ideals   and  
respectively  marked  the  peak  of  its  influence  and  the  beginning  of  its  decline.  The  
Enlightenment  ultimately  gave  way  to  19th-­century  Romanticism.  
 
The   Enlightenment’s   important   17th-­century   precursors   included   the   key  
natural   philosophers   of   the   Scientific   Revolution,   including   Galileo   Galilei,  
Johannes   Kepler   and   Gottfried   Wilhelm   Leibniz.   Its   roots   are   usually   traced   to  
1680s   England,   where   in   the   span   of   three   years   Isaac   Newton   published   his  
“Principia   Mathematica”   (1686)   and   John   Locke   his   “Essay   Concerning   Human  
Understanding”  (1689)—two  works  that  provided  the  scientific,  mathematical  and  
philosophical  toolkit  for  the  Enlightenment’s  major  advances.  
 
In  this  era  dedicated  to  human  progress,  the  advancement  of  the  natural  
sciences  is  regarded  as  the  main  exemplification  of,  and  fuel  for,  such  progress.  
Isaac  Newton’s  epochal  accomplishment  in  his  Principia  Mathematica  consists  in  
the  comprehension  of  a  diversity  of  physical  phenomena  –  in  particular  the  motions  
of   heavenly   bodies,   together   with   the   motions   of   sublunary   bodies   –   in   few  
relatively  simple,  universally  applicable,  mathematical  laws,  was  a  great  stimulus  
to   the   intellectual   activity   of   the   eighteenth   century   and   served   as   a   model   and  
inspiration   for   the   researches   of   a   number   of   Enlightenment   thinkers.   Newton’s  

9
 system  strongly  encourages  the  Enlightenment  conception  of  nature  as  an  orderly  
domain   governed   by   strict   mathematical-­dynamical   laws   and   the   conception   of  
ourselves  as  capable  of  knowing  those  laws  and  of  plumbing  the  secrets  of  nature  
through  the  exercise  of  our  unaided  faculties.  –  The  conception  of  nature,  and  of  
how  we  know  it,  changes  significantly  with  the  rise  of  modern  science.  It  belongs  
centrally   to   the   agenda   of   Enlightenment   philosophy   to   contribute   to   the   new  
knowledge   of   nature,   and   to   provide   a   metaphysical   framework   within   which   to  
place  and  interpret  this  new  knowledge.  
 
  Industrial  Revolution  (1760  -­  1840)  
 
The   rise   of   modern   science   and   the   Industrial   Revolution   were   closely  
connected.  It  is  difficult  to  show  any  direct  effect  of  scientific  discoveries  upon  the  
rise  of  the  textile  or  even  the  metallurgical  industry  in  Great  Britain,  the  home  of  
the  Industrial  Revolution,  but  there  certainly  was  a  similarity  in  attitude  to  be  found  
in   science   and   nascent   industry.   Close   observation   and   careful   generalization  
leading   to   practical   utilization   were   characteristic   of   both   industrialists   and  
experimentalists  alike  in  the  18th  century.    
 
What   science   offered   in   the   18th   century   was   the   hope   that   careful  
observation   and   experimentation   might   improve   industrial   production  
significantly.   The   science   of   metallurgy   permitted   the   tailoring   of   alloy   steels   to  
industrial   specifications,   the   science   of   chemistry   permitted   the   creation   of   new  
substances,  like  the  aniline  dyes,  of  fundamental  industrial  importance,  and  that  
electricity  and  magnetism  were  harnessed  in  the  electric  dynamo  and  motor.  Until  
that   period   science   probably   profited   more   from   industry   than   the   other   way  
around.   It   was   the   steam   engine   that   posed   the   problems   that   led,   by   way   of   a  
search   for   a   theory   of   steam   power,   to   the   creation   of   thermodynamics.   Most  
importantly,  as  industry  required  ever  more  complicated  and  intricate  machinery,  
the   machine   tool   industry   developed   to   provide   it   and,   in   the   process,   made  
possible  the  construction  of  ever  more  delicate  and  refined  instruments  for  science.  
As  science  turned  from  the  everyday  world  to  the  worlds  of  atoms  and  molecules,  
electric   currents   and   magnetic   fields,   microbes   and   viruses,   and   nebulae   and  
galaxies,  instruments  increasingly  provided  the  sole  contact  with  phenomena.  A  
large  refracting  telescope  driven  by  intricate  clockwork  to  observe  nebulae  was  as  
much  a  product  of  19th-­century  heavy  industry  as  were  the  steam  locomotive  and  
the  steamship.  
 
The   Industrial   Revolution   had   one   further   important   effect   on   the  
development  of  modern  science.  The  prospect  of  applying  science  to  the  problems  
of  industry  served  to  stimulate  public  support  for  science.  Governments,  in  varying  
degrees  and  at  different  rates,  began  supporting  science  even  more  directly,  by  
making   financial   grants   to   scientists,   by   founding   research   institutes,   and   by  
bestowing   honors   and   official   posts   on   great   scientists.   By   the   end   of   the   19th  
century  the  natural  philosopher  following  his  private  interests  had  given  way  to  the  
professional  scientist  with  a  public  role.  

10
  
The  main  features  involved  in  the  Industrial  Revolution  were  technological,  
socioeconomic,  and  cultural.  The  technological  changes  included  the  following:  (1)  
the   use   of   new   basic   materials,   chiefly   iron   and   steel,   (2)   the   use   of  
new   energy   sources,   including   both   fuels   and   motive   power,   such   as   coal,  
the  steam  engine,  electricity,  petroleum,  and  the  internal-­combustion  engine,  (3)  
the  invention  of  new  machines,  such  as  the  spinning  jenny  and  the  power  loom  that  
permitted  increased  production  with  a  smaller  expenditure  of  human  energy,  (4)  a  
new   organization   of   work   known   as   the   factory   system,   which   entailed  
increased   division   of   labor   and   specialization   of   function,   (5)   important  
developments   in   transportation   and   communication,   including   the  
steam  locomotive,  steamship,  automobile,  airplane,  telegraph,  and  radio,  and  (6)  
the   increasing   application   of   science   to   industry.   These   technological   changes  
made  possible  a  tremendously  increased  use  of  natural  resources  and  the  mass  
production  of  manufactured  goods.  
 
 
  20th  Century  Science:  Physics  and  Information  Age  
 
The  20th  century  was  an  important  century  in  the  history  of  the  sciences.  It  
generated   entirely   novel   insights   in   all   areas   of   research   –   often   thanks   to   the  
introduction  of  novel  research  methods  –  and  it  established  an  intimate  connection  
between  science  and  technology.  With  this  connection,  science  is  dealing  now  with  
the   complexity   of   the   real   world.   The   scientific   legacy   of   the   20th   Century   gave  
proof   of   the   revolutionary   changes   in   many   areas   of   the   sciences   –   in  
particular,  physics,  biology,  astronomy,  chemistry,  neurosciences  and  earth  and  
environmental  sciences  –  and  how  they  contributed  to  these  changes.  
 
The   epistemological   and   methodological   questions   as   well   as   the  
interdisciplinary  aspects  become  ever  more  important  in  scientific  research.  The  
common  denominator  of  the  sciences  is  the  notion  of  discovery,  and  discovery  is  
an   organised   mode   of   observing   nature.   Twentieth   century   cosmology   greatly  
improved   our   knowledge   of   the   place   that   man   and   his   planet   occupy   in   the  
universe.   The   “wonder”   that   Plato   and   Aristotle   put   at   the   origin   of   thought,  
today  extends  to  science  itself.  Questions  now  arise  on  the  origin  and  on  the  whole,  
its  history  and  its  laws.    
 
The  start  of  the  20th  century  was  strongly  marked  by  Einstein’s  formulation  
of  the  theory  of  relativity  (1905)  including  the  unifying  concept  of  energy  related  to  
mass  and  the  speed  of  light:  E  =  mc2  .  He  made  many  more  contributions,  notably  
to  statistical  mechanics,  and  he  provided  a  great  inspiring  influence  for  many  other  
physicists.    
 
In  the  second  half  of  the  20th  century  several  branches  of  science  continued  
to  make  great  progress  and  we  here  list  physics,  chemistry,  biology,  geology  and  
astronomy.   For   example,   there   was   the   development   of   the   semi-­conductor  

11
 (transistor),   followed   by   developments   in   nanotechnology   that   led   to   great  
advances  in  information  technology.  In  nuclear  physics  the  discovery  of  sub-­atomic  
particles  provided  a  great  leap  forward.    
 
Modern  physics  grew  in  the  20th  into  a  primary  discipline  contributing  to  all  
today’s  basic  natural  sciences,  astronomy,  chemistry  and  biology.  Although  it  took  
a  hundred  years  since  Clausius’s  time  for  it  to  be  fully  recognized  that  all  biological  
processes  have  also  to  obey  the  laws  of  thermodynamics,  the  border  between  the  
origin  of  the  living  and  the  non-­living  worlds  has  now  at  last  been  blurred.  The  year  
1953   was   an   important   landmark   for   biology   with   the   description   by   Crick   and  
Watson  of  the  structure  of  DNA,  the  carrier  of  genetic  information  (Rosch,  2014).  
 
Physics  has  enabled  us  to  understand  the  basic  components  of  matter  and  
we  are  well  on  the  way  to  an  ever  more  consistent  and  unitary  understanding  of  
the  entire  structure  of  natural  reality,  which  we  discover  as  being  made  up  not  only  
of  matter  and  energy  but  also  of  information  and  forms.  The  latest  developments  
in  astrophysics  are  also  particularly  surprising:  they  further  confirm  the  great  unity  
of  physics  that  manifests  itself  clearly  at  each  new  stage  of  the  understanding  of  
reality.    
 
Biology  too,  with  the  discovery  of  DNA  and  the  development  of  genetics,  
allows  us  to  penetrate  the  fundamental  processes  of  life  and  to  intervene  in  the  
gene  pool  of  certain  organisms  by  imitating  some  of  these  natural  mechanisms.  
Information  technology  and  the  digital  processing  of  information  have  transformed  
our  lifestyle  and  our  way  of  communicating  in  the  space  of  very  few  decades.  The  
20th  century  has  seen  medicine  find  a  cure  for  many  life-­threatening  diseases  and  
the  beginning  of  organ  transplants.    
 
It   is   impossible   to   list   the   many   other   discoveries   and   results   that  
have  broadened  our  knowledge  and  influenced  our  world  outlook:  from  progress  
in   computational   logic   to   the   chemistry   of   materials,   from   the   neurosciences   to  
robotics.  Scientific  research  not  only  gives  expression  to  the  strength  of  rationality  
in   explaining   the   world   and   the   way   in   which   this   is   done.   The   application   of  
scientific   knowledge   can   induce   changes   of   environmental   and   thus   living  
conditions.  It  is  these  aspects,  the  interrelations  between  scientific  progress  and  
social  development,  which  together  with  insights  into  the  epistemological  structure  
and   the   ethical   implications   of   science   play   an   important   role   in   the   life   and   the  
work  of  scientists.    
 
  Science  and  Technology  in  the  Fourth  Industrial  Revolution  
 
The   Fourth   Industrial   Revolution   is   a   way   of   describing   the   blurring   of  
boundaries   between   the   physical,   digital,   and   biological   worlds.   It’s   a   fusion   of  
advances   in   artificial   intelligence   (AI),   robotics,   the   Internet   of   Things   (IoT),   3D  
printing,  genetic  engineering,  quantum  computing,  and  other  technologies.  It’s  the  
collective   force   behind   many   products   and   services   that   are   fast   becoming  

12
indispensable  to  modern  life.  Think  GPS  systems  that  suggest  the  fastest  route  to  
a  destination,  voice-­activated  virtual  assistants  such  as  Apple’s  Siri,  personalized  
Netflix  recommendations,  and  Facebook’s  ability  to  recognize  your  face  and  tag  
you   in   a   friend’s   photo   (https://www.salesforce.com/blog/2018/12/what-­is-­the-­
fourth-­industrial-­revolution-­4IR.html).  
 
As   a   result   of   this   perfect   storm   of   technologies,   the   Fourth   Industrial  
Revolution  is  paving  the  way  for  transformative  changes  in  the  way  we  live  and  
radically   disrupting   almost   every   business   sector.   It’s   all   happening   at   an  
unprecedented,  whirlwind  pace.    
 
The easiest way to understand the Fourth Industrial Revolution is to focus on
the technologies driving it. Artificial intelligence (AI) describes computers that can
“think” like humans — recognizing complex patterns, processing information, drawing
conclusions, and making recommendations. AI is used in many ways, from spotting
patterns in huge piles of unstructured data to powering the autocorrect on your phone.
New computational technologies are making computers smarter. They enable
computers to process vast amounts of data faster than ever before, while the advent
of the “cloud” has allowed businesses to safely store and access their information from
anywhere with internet access, at any time. Quantum computing technologies now in
development will eventually make computers millions of times more powerful. These
computers will have the potential to supercharge AI, create highly complex data
models in seconds, and speed up the discovery of new materials.
Virtual reality (VR) offers immersive digital experiences (using a VR headset)
that simulate the real world, while augmented reality merges the digital and physical
worlds. Examples include L’Oréal’s makeup app, which allows users to digitally
experiment with makeup products before buying them, and the Google Translate
phone app, which allows users to scan and instantly translate street signs, menus,
and other text.
Biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop new
technologies and products for a range of uses, including developing new
pharmaceuticals and materials, more efficient industrial manufacturing processes, and
cleaner, more efficient energy sources. Researchers in Stockholm, for example, are
working on what is being touted as the strongest biomaterial ever produced.
Robotics refers to the design, manufacture, and use of robots for personal and
commercial use. While we’re yet to see robot assistants in every home, technological
advances have made robots increasingly complex and sophisticated. They are used
in fields as wide-ranging as manufacturing, health and safety, and human assistance.
3D printing allows manufacturing businesses to print their own parts, with less
tooling, at a lower cost, and faster than via traditional processes. Plus, designs can be
customized to ensure a perfect fit.

13
 Innovative materials, including plastics, metal alloys, and biomaterials, promise
to shake up sectors including manufacturing, renewable energy, construction, and
healthcare.
The IoT describes the idea of everyday items — from medical wearables that
monitor users’ physical condition to cars and tracking devices inserted into parcels —
being connected to the internet and identifiable by other devices. A big plus for
businesses is that they can collect customer data from constantly connected products,
allowing them to better gauge how customers use products and tailor marketing
campaigns accordingly. There are also many industrial applications, such as farmers
putting IoT sensors into fields to monitor soil attributes and inform decisions such as
when to fertilize.
Energy capture, storage, and transmission represent a growing market sector,
spurred by the falling cost of renewable energy technologies and improvements in
battery storage capacity.
 
   
Activity:    
   
1.   List   down   the   scientific   discoveries   and   technological   breakthroughs   in   each  
period.  You  may  conduct  additional  researches  and  share  what  you  have  found  in  
the  class.  
 
a.   Ancient  Times  to  600  BC  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
b.   Advent  of  Science  (600  BC  to  500  AD)  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
c.   Islamic  Golden  Age  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
d.   Ancient  China  and  the  Far  East  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
 
 

14
  
e.   Renaissance  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
f.   Enlightenment  Period  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
g.   Industrial  Revolution  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
h.   20th  century  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
i.   Fourth  Industrial  Revolution  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
 
 
2.   If  given  a  chance  to  live  back  in  time  and  considering  the  influence  of  science  and  
technology   in   the   society   and   the   environment,   which   period   would   you   choose  
and  why?  Would  you  prefer  a  less  technologically  driven  society  or  you  wouldn’t  
trade  the  comforts  of  modern  life?    
 
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________  
 

15
  
Assignment:    
 
Film  Viewing.    
 
1.   Watch   the   World’s   Greatest   Invention  
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYYyfAl9Usc)   and   then   answer   the   following  
guide  questions.  
a.   Among  the  mentioned  greatest  invention  in  the  video,  which  do  you  think  created  
the  most  impact  in  your  life  now?  Why?  
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________  
 
b.   Name  one  invention  and  discuss  how  it  transformed  the  society.  
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________  
 
2.   Watch   Stephen   Colbert’s   interview   with   Neil   Tyson   on   YouTube  
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXh9RQCvxmg&noredirect=1)   and   then  
answer  the  following  guide  questions.  
 
Guide  Questions:  
 
1.   Stephen  Colbert  starts  the  interview  by  asking  Dr.  Neil  de  Grasse  Tyson,  “Is  it  
better  to  know  or  not  to  know?”  Ponder  on  this  question  and  decide  which  one  
is  better.  Give  as  many  reasons  as  to  why.  
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________  

16
  
2.   Enumerate  the  various  statements  that  Dr.  Neil  de  Grasse  Tyson  said  about  
the  importance  of  science  literacy  and  its  relationship  to  society.  
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

17
 C.   Historical  Development  of  Science  and  Technology  in  the  Philippines  
 
The  current  state  of  science  and  technology  in  the  country  can  be  traced  back  to  its  
historical  development  and  the  latent  events  that  helped  shape  it  since  the  pre-­colonial  
period   to   contemporary   time.   What   we   have   or   lack   today   in   terms   of   science   and  
technology  is  very  much  an  effect  of  the  government  policies  that  had  been  enacted  by  
past  public  officials  in  trying  to  develop  a  technological  society  that  is  responsive  to  the  
needs  of  time.  
 
 
Pre-­Spanish  Era.    
 
There  is  not  much  written  about  the  Philippines  during  pre-­colonial  time  but  analysis  
from   archeological   artifacts   revealed   that   the   first   inhabitants   in   the   archipelago   who  
settled  in  Palawan  and  Batangas  around  40  000  years  ago  have  made  simple  tools  or  
weapons   of   stone   which   eventually   developed   techniques   for   sawing,   drilling   and  
polishing   hard   stones.   This   very   primitive   technology   was   brought   by   primal   needs   of  
survival  by  hunting  wild  animals  and  gathering  fruits  and  vegetables  in  the  forest.  They  
learned  that  by  polishing  hard  stones,  they  can  develop  sharp  objects  that  are  useful  in  
their  day  to  day  activities.  From  this  early,  we  can  see  that  technology  was  developed  
because  of  a  great  necessity.    
 
Still  on  its  primitive  state,  the  first  inhabitants  in  the  country  are  learning  what  can  
be  harnessed  from  the  environment.  They  have  come  to  understand  that  when  clay  is  
mixed  with  2  water  and  then  shaped  into  something  before  sun  drying,  it  hardens  to  an  
object  that  can  also  be  useful  to  them.  And  because  clay  is  moldable,  it  can  be  shaped  
into  various  objects.    
 
As  the  early  Filipinos  flourished,  they  have  learned  how  to  extract,  smelt  and  refine  
metals  like  copper,  gold,  bronze  and  iron  from  nature  and  consequently  fashion  them  into  
tools  and  implements.  At  this  point,  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  are  showing  a  deeper  
understanding  of  their  nature  because  they  were  able  to  obtain  valuable  resources  from  
nature.    
As  the  inhabitants  shifted  from  wandering  from  one  place  to  another  and  learned  to  
settle  in  areas  near  the  water  source,  they  also  learned  how  to  weave  cotton,  engaged  
themselves  in  agriculture  and  are  knowledgeable  on  building  boats  for  coastal  trade.    
 
From   the   above   mentioned   facts,   it   can   be   concluded   that   primitive   Filipinos   are  
practicing   science   and   technology   in   their   everyday   lives.   The   ancient   crafts   of   stone  
carving,  pottery  and  smelting  of  metals  involves  a  lot  of  science,  which  is  understanding  
the  nature  of  matter  involved.  The  ingenuity  of  the  Ifugaos  in  building  the  Banaue  Rice  
Terraces   The   smelting   of   metals   exhibited   the   primitive   Filipino’s   knowledge   on   the  
composition   of   alloy   and   the   optimum   temperature   that   will   produce   the   metal   with  
acceptable  tensile  strength.  All  in  all,  the  primitive  Filipinos  were  living  in  perfect  harmony  
with  nature  and  they  obtain  from  it  what  is  just  needed  in  their  everyday  life  through  a  very  
simple  science  of  understanding  how  mother  nature  operates  

18
  
Spanish  Colonial  Era.    
 
As  claimed  by  Caoili  (1983),  the  beginnings  of  modern  science  and  technology  in  
the  country  can  be  traced  back  to  the  Spanish  regime  because  they  established  schools,  
hospitals   and   started   scientific   research   that   had   important   consequences   in   the  
development   of   the   country.   These   schools,   which   are   mostly   run   by   Spanish   friars,  
formed  the  first  Filipino  professionals.  The  The  3  highest  institution  of  learning  during  this  
time  was  the  Royal  and  Pontifical  University  of  Santo  Tomas.  
 
But   the   very   strict   hold   of   the   church   among   citizens   and   its   intervention   and  
meddling  to  the  government  propelled  by  fear  of  intellectual  awakening  among  Filipinos  
have   greatly   hindered   the   progress   of   these   professionals   to   further   enhance   their  
knowledge,   conduct   scientific   investigations   and   contribute   to   the   advancement   of  
society.   But   a   few   of   persistent   Filipino   scientists   succeeded   by   educating   themselves  
abroad.  One  notable  example  of  course  is  our  national  hero,  the  great  Dr.  Jose  P.  Rizal.  
Dr.  Jose  Rizal  is  the  epitome  of  the  Renaissance  man  in  the  Philippine  context.  He  is  a  
scientist,   a   doctor,   an   engineer   (he   designed   and   built   a   water   system   in   Dapitan),   a  
journalist,  a  novelist,  an  urban  planner  and  a  hero.  Being  a  doctor  and  scientist,  he  had  
extensive   knowledge   on   medicine   and   was   able   to   operate   his   mother’s   blinding   eye.  
When   he   was   deported   in   Dapitan,   his   knowledge   on   science   and   engineering   was  
translated   into   technology   by   creating   a   water   system   that   improved   the   sanitation   of  
households  in  the  area.  Dr.  Jose    
 
Dr.  Jose  Rizal  was  a  brilliant  man  and  his  life  stood  out  among  his  contemporaries.  
But  it  cannot  be  said  that  there  is  no  contribution  to  science  and  technology  among  the  
Filipino   men   and   women   during   the   Spanish   era.   The   charity   hospitals   became   the  
breeding  ground  for  scientific  researches  on  pharmacy  and  medicine,  with  great  focus  on  
problems  of  infectious  diseases,  their  causes  and  possible  remedies.  And  in  1887,  the  
Laboratorio   Municipal   de   Ciudad   de   Manila   was   created   and   whose   functions   were   to  
conduct  biochemical  analyses  for  public  health  and  to  undertake  specimen  examinations  
for  clinical  and  medico-­legal  cases.  Its  publication,  probably  the  first  scientific  journal  in  
the   country   was   titled   Cronica   de   Ciencias   Medicas   de   Filipinas   showed   the   studies  
undertaken  during  that  time.  
 
As  the  colonization  of  the  Spaniards  lengthened,  they  began  to  exploit  the  natural  
resources   of   the   country   through   agriculture,   mining   of   metals   and   minerals   and  
establishing   various   kinds   of   industries   to   further   promote   economic   growth.   As   such,  
scientific  research  on  these  fields  were  encouraged  by  the  government.  By  the  nineteenth  
century,   Manila   has   become   a   cosmopolitan   center   and   modern   amenities   were  
introduced  to  the  city.  However,  little  is  known  about  the  accomplishments  of  scientific  
bodies   commissioned   by   the   Spanish   government   during   this   time.   Because   of   limited  
scientific   research   and   its   consequent   translation   to   technology   during   the   Spanish  
regime,   none   of   the   industries   prosper.   The   Philippines   had   evolved   into   a   primary  
agricultural  exporting  economy,  and  this  is  not  because  of  the  researches  undertaken  on  

19
this  field,  but  was  largely  because  of  the  influx  of  foreign  capital  and  technology  which  
brought  modernization  of  some  sectors,  notably  sugar  and  hemp  production.    
 
American  Period  
 
If   the   development   in   science   and   technology   was   very   slow   during   the   Spanish  
regime,   the   Philippines   saw   a   rapid   growth   during   the   American   occupation   and   was  
made  possible  by  the  government’s  extensive  public  education  system  from  elementary  
to  tertiary  schools.  The  establishment  of  various  public  tertiary  schools  like  the  Philippine  
Normal   School   and   University   of   the   Philippines   provided   the   needs   for   professionally  
trained  Filipinos  in  building  the  government’s  organization  and  programs.  The  growth  and  
application   of   science   were   still   concentrated   on   the   health   sector   in   the   form   of  
biochemical  analyses  in  hospitals.  The  government  supported  basic  and  applied  research  
in   the   medical,   agricultural   and   related   sciences.  The   University   of   the   Philippines   Los  
Baños  opened  the  College  of  Agriculture  in  1909  while  the  University  of  the  Philippines  –  
Diliman  opened  the  Colleges  of  Arts,  Engineering  and  Veterinary  Medicine  in  1910.  The  
College  of  Medicine  was  opened  four  years  later.  
 
During  this  time,  there  were  already  quite  a  number  of  qualified  Filipino  physicians  
who   held   teaching   positions   in   the   College   of   Medicine,   whereas   most   of   the   early  
instructors  and  professors  in  other  colleges  such  as  in  the  sciences  and  engineering  were  
Americans   and   foreigners.   Capacity   building   programs   that   include   sending   qualified  
Filipinos  abroad  for  advanced  training  were  conducted  to  eventually  fill  up  the  teaching  
positions   in   Philippine   universities.   Moreover,   the   American   colonial   government   sent  
Filipino   youths   to   be   educated   as   teachers,   engineers,   physicians   and   lawyers   in  
American  colleges  to  further  capacitate  the  Filipinos  in  various  fields.    
 
However,   there   was   difficulty   in   recruiting   students   for   science   and   technology  
courses   like   veterinary   medicine,   engineering,   agriculture,   applied   sciences   and  
industrial-­vocational   courses.   The   enrollment   in   these   courses   were   dismal   that   the  
government   had   to   offer   scholarships   to   attract   students.   The   unpopularity   of   these  
courses  stemmed  from  the  Filipinos’  disdain  toward  manual  work  that  developed  from  the  
400  years  under  Spanish  colonization.  The  Filipinos  then  prefer  prestigious  professions  
at  that  time  like  priesthood,  law  and  medicine.    
 
The  government  provided  more  support  for  the  development  of  science  and  created  
the  Bureau  of  Government  Laboratories  in  and  was  later  changed  to  Bureau  of  Science.  
It  was  composed  of  a  biological  laboratory,  chemical  laboratory,  serum  laboratory  for  the  
production   of   virus   vaccine,   serums   and   prophylactics,   and   a   library.   The   bureau   was  
initially  managed  by  American  senior  scientists  but  as  more  Filipinos  were  trained  and  
acquire  the  necessary  knowledge  and  skills,  they  eventually  took  over  their  positions.  The  
Bureau  of  Science  served  as  the  primary  training  ground  for  Filipino  scientists  and  paved  
the  way  for  pioneering  scientific  research,  most  especially  on  the  study  of  various  tropical  
diseases   that   were   prevalent   during   those   times   like   leprosy,   tuberculosis,   cholera,  
dengue  fever,  malaria  and  beri-­beri.  Another  great  contribution  of  the  Bureau  of  Science  
to  the  development  of  science  and  technology  in  the  country  was  the  publication  of  the  

20
Philippine  Journal  of  Science.  This  scientific  journal  published  researches  done  in  local  
laboratories   and   reported   global   scientific   developments   that   had   relevance   to   the  
Philippine   society.   The   Bureau   of   Science   became   the   primary   research   center   of   the  
Philippines   until   World   War   II.   Lastly,   on   December   8,   1933,   the   National   Research  
Council  of  the  Philippines  was  established.    
 
 
Commonwealth  Period  
 
When  the  Americans  granted  independence  and  the  Commonwealth  government  
was   established,   the   Filipinos   were   busy   in   working   towards   economic   reliance   but  
acknowledge  the  importance  and  vital  role  of  science  and  technology  for  the  economic  
development  of  the  country  by  declaring  that  “The  State  shall  promote  scientific  research  
and   invention…”   The   short-­lived   Commonwealth   Government   was   succeeded   by   the  
Japanese  occupation  when  the  Pacific  war  broke  out  in  1941.  The  prevailing  situations  
during   the   time   of   Commonwealth   period   to   the   Japanese   regime   had   made  
developments  in  science  and  technology  practically  impossible.  This  is  also  true  when  
World  War  II  ended  and  left  Manila,  the  country’s  capital,  in  ruins.  The  government  had  
to  rebuild  again  and  normalize  the  operations  in  the  whole  country.  
 
 
Science  and  Technology  since  Independence  
 
In  1946  the  Bureau  of  Science  was  replaced  by  the  Institute  of  Science  and  was  
placed  under  the  Office  of  the  President  of  the  Philippines.  However,  the  agency  faced  
lack  of  financial  support  from  the  government  and  experienced  planning  and  coordination  
problems.  In  a  report  by  the  US  Economic  Survey  to  the  Philippines  in  1950,  there  is  a  
lack  of  basic  information  which  were  necessities  to  the  country's  industries,  lack  of  support  
of   experimental   work   and   minimal   budget   for   scientific   research   and   low   salaries   of  
scientists  employed  by  the  government.  In  1958,  during  the  regime  of  President  Carlos  
P.  Garcia,  the  Philippine  Congress  passed  the  Science  Act  of  1958  which  established  the  
National  Science  Development  Board  (NSDB).    
 
 
The   Philippine   government   focused   on   science   and   technology   institutional  
capacity-­building  which  were  undertaken  by  establishing  infrastructure-­support  facilities  
such  as  new  research  agencies  and  development  trainings.  However  good  these  projects  
were,   it   produced   insignificant   effects   because   of   lack   of   coordination   and   planning,  
specifically  technology  planning,  between  concerned  agencies  which  hindered  them  from  
performing  their  assigned  functions  effectively.  This  was  aptly  illustrated  in  the  unplanned  
activities  of  the  researchers  within  the  agencies.  Most  areas  of  research  were  naively  left  
to  the  discretion  of  the  researchers  under  the  assumption  that  they  were  working  for  the  
interests   of   the   country.   They   were   instructed   to   look   for   technologies   and   scientific  
studies  with  good  commercialization  potential.  Without  clear  research  policy  guidelines,  
researches  were  done  for  their  own  sake,  leaving  to  chance  the  commercialization  of  the  
results.  

21
  
Likewise,  during  this  time,  rebuilding  the  country  involved  establishing  more  state  
funded   manual   and   trading   schools   which   would   eventually   become   the   current   state  
universities   and   colleges.   The   trade   schools   produced   craftsmen,   tradesmen   and  
technicians  that  helped  in  shaping  a  more  technological  Philippines  while  still  being  an  
agricultural  based  nation.  Eventually,  when  these  trade  schools  were  elevated  to  college  
and  university  status,  they  produced  much  of  the  country’s  professionals,  although  there  
was  a  great  disparity  on  the  low  proportion  of  those  in  agriculture,  medical  and  natural  
sciences  with  those  from  teacher  training  and  commerce/business  administration  courses  
which  had  higher  number  of  graduates.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  graduates  led  to  
the   rise   of   professional   organizations   of   scientists   and   engineers.   These   organizations  
were  formed  to  promote  professional  interests  and  create  and  monitor  the  standards  of  
practice.    
 
As   summarized   by   Caoili,   “There   has   been   little   innovation   in   the   education   and  
training  of  scientists  and  engineers  since  independence  in  1946.  This  is  in  part  due  to  the  
conservative   nature   of   self-­regulation   by   the   professional   associations.   Because   of  
specialized   training,   vertical   organizations   by   disciplines   and   lack   of   liaison   between  
professions,   professional   associations   have   been   unable   to   perceive   the   dynamic  
relationship   between   science,   technology   and   society   and   the   relevance   of   their  
training  to  Philippine  conditions.  
 
 
Science  and  Technology  in  the  1960s  to  1990s  
 
During   these   years,   the   government   gave   greater   importance   to   science   and  
technology.  The  government  declared  in  Section  9(1)  of  the  1973  Philippine  Constitution  
that   the   “advancement   of   science   and   technology   shall   have   priority   in   the   national  
development.”      
 
On  April  6,  1968,  Pres.  Ferdinand  Marcos  proclaimed  the  35-­hectare  land  in  Bicutan,  
Taguig  as  the  site  of  the  Philippine  Science  Community.  Then  in  1969,  the  government  
provided  funds  to  private  universities  to  encourage  them  to  conduct  research  and  create  
courses  in  science  and  technology.  The  government  also  conducted  seminars  for  public  
and  private  high  school  and  college  science  teachers,  training  programs  and  scholarships  
for   graduate   and   undergraduate   science   scholars,   and   workshops   on   fisheries   and  
oceanography.    
 
In  the  1970s,  focus  on  science  and  technology  was  given  to  applied  research  and  
the  main  objective  was  to  generate  products  and  processes  that  were  supposed  to  have  
a  greater  beneficial  impact  to  the  society.  Relative  to  this,  several  research  institutes  were  
established  under  the  National  Science  Development  Board  (NSDB)  which  includes  the  
Philippine   Coconut   Research   Institute   and   Philippine   Textile   Research   Institute.  
Moreover,   the   Philippine   Atomic   Energy   Commission,   another   agency   under   NSDB,  
explored  the  uses  of  atomic  energy  for  economic  development.  To  prepare  the  pool  of  
scientists   who   will   work   on   Philippine   Atomic   Commission,   Pres.   Marcos   assisted   107  

22
institutions   in   undertaking   nuclear   energy   work   by   sending   scientists   abroad   to   study  
nuclear  science  and  technology,  and  providing  basic  training  to  482  scientists,  doctors,  
engineers   and   technicians.   Then   in   1972,   by   virtue   of   Presidential   Decree   No.   4,   the  
National   Grains   Authority   was   created   and   it   was   tasked   to   improve   the   rice   and   corn  
industry  and  thereby  help  in  the  economic  development  of  the  country.  This  was  followed  
by  the  creation  of  Philippine  Council  for  Agricultural  Research  to  support  the  progressive  
development   of   agriculture,   forestry,   and   fisheries   in   the   country.   The   Marcos  
administration   also   established   the   Philippine   Atmospheric   Geophysical   and  
Astronomical   Service   Administration   (PAGASA)   under   the   Department   of   National  
Defense  to  provide  environmental  protection  and  to  utilize  scientific  knowledge  to  ensure  
the  safety  of  the  people  through  Presidential  Decree  No.  78,  s.  1972.  On  the  following  
year,  the  Philippine  National  Oil  Company  was  created  by  virtue  of  Presidential  Decree  
No.  334,  s.  1973,  to  promote  industrial  and  economic  development  through  effective  and  
efficient   use   of   energy   sources.   To   strengthen   the   scientific   culture   in   the   country,   the  
National  Academy  of  Science  and  Technology  was  established  under  Presidential  Decree  
No.  1003-­A,  s.  1976.  The  National  Academy  of  Science  and  Technology  was  composed  
of   scientists   with   “innovative   achievement   in   the   basic   and   applied   sciences”   who   will  
serve  as  the  reservoir  of  scientific  and  technological  expertise  for  the  country.  
 
In  the  1980s,  science  and  technology  was  still  focused  on  applied  research.  In  1982,  
NSDB  was  further  reorganized  into  a  National  Science  and  Technology  Authority  (NSTA)  
composed  of  four  research  and  development  Councils;;  Philippine  Council  for  Agriculture  
and  Resources  Research  and  Development  (PCARRD);;  Philippine  Council  for  Industry  
and  Energy  Research  Development  (PCIERD);;  Philippine  Council  for  Health  Research  
and   Development   (PCHRD)   and   the   National   Research   Council   of   the   Philippines  
(NRCP).  NSTA  has  also  eight  research  and  development  institutes  and  support  agencies  
under  it.  These  are  actually  the  former  organic  and  attached  agencies  of  NSDB  which  
have  themselves  been  reorganized.  
 
The   expanding   number   of   science   agencies   has   given   rise   to   a   demand   for   high  
calibre  scientists  and  engineers  to  undertake  research  and  staff  universities  and  colleges.  
Hence,   measures   have   also   been   taken   towards   the   improvement   of   the   country’s  
science   and   manpower.   In   March   1983,   Executive   Order   No.   889   was   issued   by   the  
President   which   provided   for   the   establishment   of   a   national   network   of   centers   of  
excellence   in   basic   sciences.   As   a   consequence,   six   new   institutes   were   created:   The  
National   Institutes   of   Physics,   Geological   Sciences,   Natural   Sciences   Research,  
Chemistry,   Biology   and   Mathematical   Sciences.   Related   to   this   efforts   was   the  
establishment  of  a  Scientific  Career  System  in  the  Civil  Service  by  Presidential  Decree  
No.  901  on  19  July  1983.  This  is  designed  to  attract  more  qualified  scientists  to  work  in  
government  and  encourage  young  people  to  pursue  science  degrees  and  careers.  
 
In   1986,   under   the   Aquino   administration,   the   National   Science   and   Technology  
Authority   was   replaced   by   the   Department   of   Science   and   Technology,   giving   science  
and   technology   a   representation   in   the   cabinet.   Under   the   Medium   Term   Philippine  
Development  Plan  for  the  years  1987-­1992,  science  and  technology's  role  in  economic  
recovery   and   sustained   economic   growth   was   highlighted.   In   this   period,   science   and  

23
technology   was   one   of   the   top   three   priorities   of   the   government   towards   economic  
recovery.  
 
With  the  agency's  elevation  to  full  cabinet  stature  by  virtue  of  Executive  Order  128  
signed   on   30   January   1987,   the   functions   and   responsibilities   of   DOST   expanded  
correspondingly  to  include  the  following:  (1)  Pursue  the  declared  state  policy  of  supporting  
local   scientific   and   technological   effort;;   (2)   Develop   local   capability   to   achieve  
technological  self-­reliance;;  (3)  Encourage  greater  private  sector  participation  in  research  
and  development.  moreover,  funding  for  the  science  and  technology  sector  was  tripled  
from  464  million  in  1986  to  1.7  billion  in  1992.  
   
The  Department  of  Science  and  Technology  (DOST)  is  the  premiere  science  and  
technology   body   in   the   country   charged   with   the   twin   mandate   of   providing   central  
direction,  leadership  and  coordination  of  all  scientific  and  technological  activities,  and  of  
formulating  policies,  programs  and  projects  to  support  national  development.  The  Science  
and   Technology   Master   Plan   was   formulated   which   aimed   at   the   modernization   of   the  
production   sector,   upgrading   research   activities,   and   development   of   infrastructure   for  
science   and   technological   purposes.   A   Research   and   Development   Plan   was   also  
formulated  to  examine  and  determine  which  areas  of  research  needed  attention  and  must  
be  given  priority.  The  criteria  for  identifying  the  program  to  be  pursued  were,  development  
of  local  materials,  probability  of  success,  potential  of  product  in  the  export  market,  and  
the   its   strategic   nature.   The   grants   for   the   research   and   development   programs   was  
included  in  the  Omnibus  Investment  Law.  
 
During  President  Fidel  Ramos’s  term,  there  was  a  significant  increase  in  personnel  
specializing  in  the  science  and  technology  field.  In  1998,  there  was  an  estimated  3,000  
competent  scientists  and  engineers  in  the  Philippines.  Adding  to  the  increase  of  scientists  
would  be  the  result  of  the  two  newly  built  Philippine  Science  High  Schools  in  Visayas  and  
Mindanao   which   promotes   further   development   of   young   kids   through   advance   S&T  
curriculum.  The  government  provided  3,500  scholarships  for  students  who  were  taking  
up  professions  related  to  S&T.  Priority  for  S&T  personnel  increased  when  Magna  Carta  
for   Science   and   Technology   Personnel   (Republic   Act   No.   8439)   was   established.   The  
award  was  published  in  order  to  give  incentives  and  rewards  for  people  who  have  been  
influential  in  the  field  of  S&T.    
 
Still   under   the   Ramos   administration,   DOST   established   the   “Science   and  
Technology  Agenda  for  National  Development  (STAND)”,  a  program  that  was  significant  
to  the  field  of  S&T.  It  identified  seven  export  products,  11  domestic  needs,  three  other  
supporting  industries,  and  the  coconut  industry  as  priority  investment  areas.  The  seven  
identified  export  products  were  computer  software;;  fashion  accessories;;  gifts,  toys,  and  
houseware;;  marine  products;;  metal  fabrications;;  furniture;;  and  dried  fruits.  The  domestic  
needs   identified   were   food,   housing,   health,   clothing,   transportation,   communication,  
disaster   mitigation,   defense,   environment,   manpower   development,   and   energy.   Three  
additional   support   industries   were   included   in   the   list   of   priority   sectors,   namely,  
packaging,  chemicals,  and  metals  because  of  their  linkages  with  the  above  sectors.    
 

24
 In  the  Gloria  Macapagal-­Arroyo  administration,  numerous  laws  and  projects  were  
implemented  which  concerns  both  the  environment  and  science  to  push  technology  as  a  
tool  to  increase  the  country’s  economic  level.  This  is  to  help  increase  the  productivity  from  
Science,  Technology  and  Innovations  (STI)  and  help  benefit  the  poor  people.  Moreover,  
the  term  “Filipinnovation”  was  the  coined  term  used  in  helping  the  Philippines  to  be  an  
innovation  hub  in  Asia.  
 
The  STI  was  developed  further  by  strengthening  the  schools  and  education  system  
such   as   the   Philippine   Science   High   School   (PSHS),   which   focuses   in   science,  
technology   and   mathematics   in   their   curriculum.   This   helps   schools   produce   get   more  
involve  in  this  sector.  Private  sectors  were  also  encouraged  to  participate  in  developing  
the  schools  through  organizing  events  and  sponsorships.  Future  Filipino  scientists  and  
innovators  can  be  produced  through  this  system.  
 
Recently,  the  Philippines  ranked  73rd  out  of  128  economies  in  terms  of  Science  and  
Technology   and   Innovation   (STI)   index,   citing   the   country’s   strength   in   research   and  
commercialization  of  STI  ideas  (DOST,  2018).  However,  a  study  by  the  Philippine  Institute  
for  Development  Studies  highlighted  the  weak  ties  between  innovation-­driven  firms  and  
the   government,   and   it   also   identified   the   country’s   low   expenditure   in   research   and  
development  (R&D).  This  is  the  reason  the  government  is  now  extending  all  its  efforts  to  
reach  out  with  the  private  sector,  explaining  that  STI  plays  an  important  role  in  economic  
and  social  progress  and  is  a  key  driver  for  a  long-­term  growth  of  an  economy.  Technology  
adoption  allows  a  country’s  firms  and  citizens  to  benefit  from  innovations  created  in  other  
countries,  and  allows  it  to  catch  up  and  even  leap-­frog  obsolete  technologies.  Technology  
adoption,  the  official  said,  allows  a  country’s  firms  and  citizens  to  benefit  from  innovations  
created   in   other   countries,   and   allows   it   to   catch   up   and   even   leap-­frog   obsolete  
technologies.  

Hopes  in  Philippine  Science  and  Technology  

 
Despite  the  many  inadequacies,  from  funding  to  human  capital,  there  are  some  
science  and  technology-­intensive  research  and  capacity-­building  projects  which  resulted  
in  products  which  are  currently  being  used  successfully  and  benefits  the  society.  

One  of  these  is  the  micro-­satellite.  In  April  2016,  the  country  launched  into  space  
its   first   micro-­satellite   called   Diwata-­1.   It   was   designed,   developed   and   assembled   by  
Filipino  researchers  and  engineers  under  the  guidance  of  Japanese  experts.  The  Diwata  
(deity   in   English)   satellite   provides   real-­time,   high-­resolution   and   multi-­color   infrared  
images   for   various   applications,   including   meteorological   imaging,   crop   and   ocean  
productivity   measurement   and   high-­resolution   imaging   of   natural   and   man-­made  
features.   It   enables   a   more   precise   estimate   of   the   country’s   agricultural   production,  
provides   images   of   watersheds   and   floodplains   for   a   better   understanding   of   water  
available   for   irrigation,   power   and   domestic   consumption.   The   satellite   also   provides  
accurate  information  on  any  disturbance  and  degradation  of  forest  and  upland  areas.  

25
 The  country  also  has  the  Nationwide  Operational  Assessment  of  Hazards  (NOAH),  
which  uses  the  Lidar  (light  detection  and  ranging)  technology.  Project  NOAH  was  initiated  
in  June  2012  to  help  manage  risks  associated  with  natural  hazards  and  disasters.  The  
project  developed  hydromet  sensors  and  high-­resolution  geo-­hazard  maps,  which  were  
generated  by  light  detection  and  ranging  technology  for  flood  modeling.  Noah  helps  the  
government  in  providing  timely  warning  with  a  lead  time  of  at  least  six  hours  in  the  wake  
of  impending  floods.  The  country  is  now  training  the  Cambodians  on  this  technology,  as  
part   of   the   partnerships   among   ASEAN   countries,   just   like   in   the   case   of   Japan   which  
assisted  the  country’s  scientists  and  engineers  in  building  its  first  micro-­satellite.  

Another   hope   lies   in   the   so-­called   Intelligent   Operation   Center   Platform.  

Established  through  a  collaboration  between  the  local  government  of  Davao  City  and  IBM  
Philippines  Inc.,  the  center  resulted  in  the  creation  of  a  dashboard  that  allows  authorized  
government  agencies,  such  as  police,  fire  and  anti-­terrorism  task  force,  to  use  analytics  
software  for  monitoring  events  and  operations  in  real  time.  

Current  Initiatives  in  Science  and  Technology  in  the  Country  

DOST,  in  cooperation  with  HEIs  and  research  institutions,  established  advanced  
facilities  that  seek  to  spur  R&D  activities  and  provide  MSMEs  access  to  testing  services  
needed  to  increase  their  productivity  and  competitive  advantage.  

One   is   the   Advanced   Device   and   Materials   Testing   Laboratories.   The   center  
houses  advanced  equipment  for  failure  analysis  and  materials  characterization  to  address  
advanced  analytical  needs  for  quality  control,  materials  identification  and  R&D.  Closely  
related  to  this  facility  is  the  Electronics  Products  Development  Center,  used  to  design,  
develop  and  test  hardware  and  software  for  electronic  products.  

There  are  also  high-­performance  computing  facilities  that  perform  tests  and  run  
computationally   intensive   applications   for   numerical   weather   prediction,   climate  
modeling,  as  well  as  analytics  and  data  modeling  and  archiving.  

The   Philippines   could   also   boast   of   its   Genome   Center,   a   core   facility   that  
combines   basic   and   applied   research   for   the   development   of   health   diagnostics,  
therapeutics,  DNA  forensics  and  preventive  products,  and  improved  crop  varieties.  

The  country  also  has  drug-­discovery  facilities,  which  address  the  requirements  for  
producing  high-­quality  and  globally  acceptable  drug  candidates.  She  said  the  Philippines  
also   has   nanotechnology   centers,   which   provide   technical   services   and   enabling  
environment   for   interdisciplinary   and   collaborative   R&D   in   various   nanotechnology  
applications.  

There   are   also   radiation   processing   facilities   that   are   used   to   degrade,   graft,   or  
crosslink   polymers,   monomers,   or   chemical   compounds   for   industrial,   agricultural,  
environmental  and  medical  applications.  The  Philippines  could  also  boast  of  its  Die  and  

26
Mold   Solutions   Center,   which   enhances   the   competitiveness   of   the   local   tool   and   die  
sector  through  the  localization  of  currently  imported  dies  and  molds.  

These   are   reflections   that   we   are   advancing,   albeit   slowly,   to   a   culture   that  
embraces  STI  as  a  sure  path  to  growth.  

 
Activity:  
 
Identify  a  contemporary  Filipino  invention  and  discuss  how  it  improved  the  lives  of  our  
countrymen.  (Example:  SALt  lamp  or  “sustainable  alternative  lighting”  lamp  powered  by  
galvanic  reaction  of  an  anode  with  saline  water  invented  by  Aisa  Mijeno)  
 
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________  
 
 
 
 

27
 D.   Paradigm  Shift  
 
What  is  a  paradigm?  
 
A  scientific  paradigm  is  a  framework  containing  all  the  commonly  accepted  views  
about  a  subject,  conventions  about  what  direction  research  should  take  and  how  it  should  
be  performed.  
 
The  philosopher  Thomas  Kuhn  suggested  that  a  paradigm  includes  “the  practices  
that   define   a   scientific   discipline   at   a   certain   point   in   time."   Paradigms   contain   all   the  
distinct,  established  patterns,  theories,  common  methods  and  standards  that  allow  us  to  
recognize  an  experimental  result  as  belonging  to  a  field  or  not.  
 
Science  proceeds  by  accumulating  support  for  hypotheses  which  in  time  become  
models   and   theories.   But   those   models   and   theories   themselves   exist   within   a   larger  
theoretical  framework.  The  vocabulary  and  concepts  in  Newton’s  three  laws  or  the  central  
dogma  in  biology  are  examples  of  scientific  “open  resources"  that  scientists  have  adopted  
and  which  now  form  part  of  the  scientific  paradigm.  
 
Paradigms  are  historically  and  culturally  bound.  For  example,  a  modern  Chinese  
medical  researcher  with  a  background  in  eastern  medicine,  will  operate  within  a  different  
paradigm  than  a  western  doctor  from  the  1800s.  
 
A  paradigm  dictates:  
 
what  is  observed  and  measured  
the  questions  we  ask  about  those  observations  
how  the  questions  are  formulated  
how  the  results  are  interpreted  
how  research  is  carried  out  
what  equipment  is  appropriate  
 
Many   students   who   opt   to   study   science   do   so   with   the   belief   that   they   are  
undertaking  the  most  rational  path  to  learning  about  objective  reality.  But  science,  much  
like   any   other   discipline,   is   subject   to   ideological   idiosyncrasies,   preconceptions   and  
hidden  assumptions.  
 
In  fact,  Kuhn  strongly  suggested  that  research  in  a  deeply  entrenched  paradigm  
invariably  ends  up  reinforcing  that  paradigm,  since  anything  that  contradicts  it  is  ignored  
or   else   pressed   through   the   preset   methods   until   it   conforms   to   already   established  
dogma.  
 
The  body  of  pre-­existing  evidence  in  a  field  conditions  and  shapes  the  collection  
and  interpretation  of  all  subsequent  evidence.  The  certainty  that  the  current  paradigm  is  
reality  itself  is  precisely  what  makes  it  so  difficult  to  accept  alternatives.  
 

28
 What  is  a  Paradigm  Shift?  
 
"The  successive  transition  from  one  paradigm  to  another  via  revolution  is  the  usual  
developmental  pattern  of  mature  science"  -­  Kuhn,  The  Structure  of  Scientific  Revolutions.  

Figure 1 Paradigm shift. Source: https://thesaurus.plus/

 
The   shift   from   one   paradigm   to   another   occurs   when   enough   anomalies   to   the  
current  paradigm  build  up,  causing  scientists  to  question  the  foundational  principles  upon  
which   their   worldview   rests.   During   “normal   science,”   when   the   current   paradigm   is   in  
place,   these   anomalies   are   discounted   as   acceptable   levels   of   error.   However,   during  
“revolutionary   science”   or   a   paradigm   shift,   these   anomalies   become   the   center   of  
attention   as   scientists   attempt   to   construct   a   new   world   view   that   incorporates   and  
explains  them.  This  period  of  intense  focus  on  explaining  anomalies  and  developing  a  
new   paradigm   is   considered   “revolutionary   science,”   and   it   is   sparked   by   a   “crisis”  
where  the  old  paradigm  fails  explain  key  anomalies  or  outliers.  Once  a  new  paradigm  is  
developed,  however,  there  is  a  return  to  “normal  science”  under  the  new  worldview.  
 

Figure 2 Paradigm Shift

Source: https://edtosavetheworld.com

29
 An  Example  of  a  Paradigm  Shift  
 
Many  physicists  in  the  19th  century  were  convinced  that  the  Newtonian  paradigm  
that  had  reigned  for  200  years  was  the  pinnacle  of  discovery  and  that  scientific  progress  
was   more   or   less   a   question   of   refinement.   When   Einstein   published   his   theories   on  
General  Relativity,  it  was  not  just  another  idea  that  could  fit  comfortably  into  the  existing  
paradigm.  Instead,  Newtonian  Physics  itself  was  relegated  to  being  a  special  subclass  of  
the   greater   paradigm   ushered   in   by   General   Relativity.   Newton’s   three   laws   are   still  
faithfully  taught  in  schools,  however  we  now  operate  within  a  paradigm  that  puts  those  
laws  into  a  much  broader  context.  
 
 
Interestingly,  Kuhn’s  theory  itself  was  something  of  a  game  changer  at  the  time,  
since   scientists   were   not   accustomed   to   thinking   of   what   they   were   doing   in   such  
metaphysical   terms.   Kuhn’s   theories   are   today   understood   to   be   part   of   a   greater  
paradigm   shift   in   the   social   sciences,   and   have   also   been   modified   since   their   original  
publication.  
 
Kuhn   later   conceded   that   the   process   of   scientific   advancement   might   be   more  
gradual.   For   example,   Relativity   did   not   completely   prove   Newton   wrong,   but   merely  
reframed  his  theory.  Even  the  Copernican  revolution  was  a  little  more  gradual  in  replacing  
Ptolemy's  beliefs.  
 
The  concept  of  paradigm  is  closely  related  to  the  Platonic  and  Aristotelian  views  
of  knowledge.  Aristotle  believed  that  knowledge  could  only  be  based  upon  what  is  already  
known,  the  basis  of  the  scientific  method.  Plato  believed  that  knowledge  should  be  judged  
by  what  something  could  become,  the  end  result,  or  final  purpose.  Plato's  philosophy  is  
more   like   the   intuitive   leaps   that   cause   scientific   revolution;;   Aristotle's   the   patient  
gathering  of  data.  
 
 
 
Activity:  
 
  Create  a  poster  or  caricature  that  depicts  a  paradigm  shift  in  science  history.  Share  
and  explain  your  work  in  the  class.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

30
 Chapter  2  
Intellectual  Revolutions  that  Defined  Society  
 
Introduction  
   
  This  section  provides  students  with  background  on  the  different  intellectuals  who  
made  great  contributions  to  science  that  propelled  scientific  and  technological  revolutions.  
Emphasis  is  given  on  how  these  intellectual  revolutions  shape  and  transform  society.    
 
Intended  Learning  Outcomes:  
 
1.   Articulate  ways  by  which  society  is  transformed  by  science  and  technology.    
 
 
What  is  an  Intellectual  Revolution?  
 
  An  intellectual  revolution  is  a  period  where  paradigm  shifts  occurred  and  where  
scientific   beliefs   that   have   been   widely   embraced   and   accepted   by   the   people   were  
challenged  and  opposed.  Historically,  this  intellectual  revolution  can  be  summed  up  as  
the  “replacement  of  Aristotelian  ethics  and  Christian  morality  by  a  new  type  of  decision  
making  which  may  be  termed  instrumental  reasoning  or  cost-­benefit  analysis”  (Wootton  
as  cited  by  McCarthy,  2019).    
 
 
The  Birth  of  Modern  Science  
 
Western  science,  like  so  many  other  aspects  of  Western  Civilization,  was  born  with  
the  ancient  Greeks.  They  were  the  first  to  explain  the  world  in  terms  of  natural  laws  rather  
than  myths  about  gods  and  heroes.  They  also  passed  on  the  idea  of  the  value  of  math  
and   experiment   in   science,   although   they   usually   thought   only   in   terms   of   one   to   the  
exclusion  of  the  other.    
 
The   most   influential   figure   in   Western   science   until   the   1600's,   was   the  
philosopher,  Aristotle,  who  created  a  body  of  scientific  theory  that  towered  like  a  colossus  
over   Western   Civilization   for   some   2000   years.   Given   the   limitations   under   which   the  
Greeks  were  working  compared  to  now,  Aristotle's  theories  made  sense  when  taken  in  a  
logical  order.  
 
However,   there   were   several   factors   that   worked   both   to   overthrow   Aristotle's  
theories  and  to  preserve  it.  First  of  all,  Aristotle's  theories  relied  very  little  on  experiment,  
which   left   them   vulnerable   to   anyone   who   chose   to   perform   such   experiments.   But  
attacking  one  part  of  Aristotle's  system  involved  attacking  the  whole  thing,  which  made  it  
a   daunting   task   for   even   the   greatest   thinkers   of   the   day.   Secondly,   the   Church   had  
grafted  Aristotle's  theories  onto  its  theology,  thus  making  any  attack  on  Aristotle  an  attack  
on  the  tradition  and  the  Church  itself.  
 

31
 Finally,  there  were  the  Renaissance  scholars  who  were  uncovering  other  Greek  
authors   who   contradicted   Aristotle.   This   was   unsettling,   since   these   scholars   had   a  
reverence   for   all   ancient   knowledge   as   being   nearly   infallible.   However,   finding  
contradicting  authorities  forced  the  Renaissance  scholars  to  try  to  figure  out  which  ones  
were  right.  When  their  findings  showed  that  neither  theory  was  right,  they  had  to  think  for  
themselves  and  find  a  new  theory  that  worked.  This  encouraged  skepticism,  freethinking,  
and  experimentation,  all  of  which  are  essential  parts  of  modern  science.  

Pattern  of  development  

The  combination  of  these  factors  generated  a  cycle  that  undermined  Aristotle,  but  
also  slowed  down  the  creation  of  a  new  set  of  theories.  New  observations  would  be  made  
that  seemed  to  contradict  Aristotle's  theories.  This  would  lead  to  new  explanations,  but  
always  framed  in  the  context  of  the  old  beliefs,  thus  patching  up  the  Aristotelian  system.  
However,   more   observations   would   take   place,   leading   to   more   patching   of   the   old  
system,   and   so   on.   The   first   person   who   started   this   slow   process   of   dismantling  
Aristotle's  cosmology  was  Copernicus.  His  findings  would  reinforce  the  process  of  finding  
new  explanations,  which  would  lead  to  the  work  of  Kepler  and  Galileo.  The  work  of  these  
three  men  would  lead  to  many  new  questions  and  theories  about  the  universe  until  Isaac  
Newton  would  take  the  new  data  and  synthesize  it  into  a  new  set  of  theories  that  more  
accurately  explained  the  universe.  

A.   Copernican  Revolution  

Nicolas  Copernicus  was  a  Polish  scholar  working  at  the  University  of  Padua  in  
northern   Italy.   The   problem   he   wrestled   with   was   the   paths   of   planetary   orbits.  
Through  the  centuries  close  observations  had  shown  that  the  heavens  do  not  always  
appear   to   move   in   perfect,   uninterrupted   circles.   Rather,   they   sometimes   seem   to  
move  backwards  in  what  are  known  as  retrogradations.  In  order  to  account  for  these  
irregularities,  astronomers  did  not  do  away  with  Aristotle's  theory  of  perfectly  circular  
orbits  around  the  earth.  Instead,  they  expanded  upon  it,  adding  smaller  circular  orbits  
(epicycles)   that   spun   off   the   main   orbits.   These   more   or   less   accounted   for   the  
retrogradations   seen   in   orbits.   Each   time   a   new   irregularity   was   observed,   a   new  
epicycle  was  added.  By  the  1500's,  the  model  of  the  universe  had  some  80  epicycles  
attached  to  ten  crystalline  spheres  (one  for  the  moon,  sun,  each  of  the  five  known  
planets,  the  totality  of  the  stars,  a  sphere  to  move  the  other  spheres,  and  heaven).  
The  second  century  Greek  astronomer,  Ptolemy  was  the  main  authority  who  put  order  
to  and  passed  this  cumbersome  system  of  epicycles  to  posterity.  

Copernicus'  solution  was  basically  geometric.  By  placing  the  sun  at  the  center  
of   the   universe   and   having   the   earth   orbit   it,   he   reduced   the   unwieldy   number   of  
epicycles  from  80  to  34.  His  book,  Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Worlds,  
published  in  1543,  laid  the  foundations  for  a  revolution  in  how  Europeans  would  view  
the  world  and  its  place  in  the  universe.  However,  Copernicus'  intention  was  not  to  
create  a  radically  new  theory,  but  to  get  back  to  even  older  ideas  by  such  Greeks  as  

32
Plato  and  Pythagoras  who  believed  in  a  heliocentric  (sun  centered)  universe.  Once  
again,   ancient   authorities   were   set   against   one   another,   leaving   it   for   others   to  
develop  their  own  theories.  

It  took  some  150  years  after  Copernicus'  death  in  1543  to  achieve  a  new  model  
of  the  universe  that  worked.  The  first  step  was  compiling  more  data  that  tarnished  the  
perfection  of  the  Ptolemaic  universe  and  forced  men  to  re-­evaluate  their  beliefs.  

Johannes  Kepler  

At  this  time,  Tycho  Brahe,  using  only  the  naked  eye,  tracked  the  entire  orbits  
of  various  stars  and  planets.  Previously,  astronomers  would  only  track  part  of  an  orbit  
at  a  time  and  assume  that  orbit  was  in  a  perfect  circle.  Brahe  kept  extensive  records  
of  his  observations,  but  did  not  really  know  what  to  do  with  them.  That  task  was  left  
to  his  successor,  Johannes  Kepler.  

Kepler   was   a   brilliant   mathematician   who   had   a   mystical   vision   of   the  

mathematical  perfection  of  the  universe  that  owed  a  great  deal  to  the  ancient  Greek  
mathematician  Pythagoras.  Despite  these  preoccupations,  Kepler  was  open  minded  
enough   to   realize   that   Brahe's   data   showed   the   planetary   orbits   were   not   circular.  
Finally,  his  calculations  showed  that  those  orbits  were  elliptical.  

Galileo  

As  important  as  Kepler's  conclusions  was  his  method  of  arriving  at  it.  He  was  
the  first  to  successfully  use  math  to  define  the  workings  of  the  cosmos.  Although  such  
a  conclusion  as  elliptical  orbits  inevitably  met  with  fierce  opposition,  the  combination  
of   Brahe's   observations   and   Kepler's   math   helped   break   the   perfection   of   the  
Aristotelian   universe.   However,   it   was   the   work   of   an   Italian   astronomer,   Galileo  
Galilei  (1564-­1642),  armed  with  a  new  invention,  the  telescope,  which  would  further  
shatter  the  old  theory  and  lead  the  way  to  a  new  one.  

Using  his  telescope,  Galileo  saw  the  sun's  perfection  marred  by  sunspots  and  
the  moon's  perfection  marred  by  craters.  He  also  saw  four  moons  orbiting  Jupiter.  In  
his   book,   The Starry Messenger   (1611),   he   reported   these   disturbing   findings   and  
spread  the  news  across  Europe.  Most  people  could  not  understand  Kepler's  math,  
but  anyone  could  look  through  a  telescope  and  see  for  himself  the  moon's  craters  
and  Jupiter's  moons.  

The   Church   tried   to   preserve   the   Aristotelian   and   Ptolemaic   view   of   the  
universe   by   clamping   down   on   Galileo   and   his   book   and   made   him   promise   not  
to  preach  his  views.  However,  in  1632,  Galileo  published  his  next  book,  Dialogue on
the Great World Systems,  which  technically  did  not  preach  the  Copernican  theory  (which  
Galileo  believed  in),  but  was  only  a  dialogue  presenting  both  views  "equally".  Galileo  
got   his   point   across   by   having   the   advocate   of   the   Church   and   Aristotelian   view  

33
named   Simplicius   (Simpleton).   He   was   quickly   faced   with   the   Inquisition   and   the  
threat  of  torture.  Being  an  old  man  of  70,  he  recanted  his  views.  However,  it  was  too  
late.  Word  was  out,  and  the  heliocentric  heresy  was  gaining  new  followers  daily.  

Galileo's  work  was  the  first  comprehensive  attack  on  the  Aristotelian/Ptolemaic  
cosmic   model.   He   treated   celestial   objects   as   being   subject   to   the   same   laws   as  
terrestrial  objects.  However,  Galileo  was  still  enthralled  with  perfect  circular  motion  
and,  as  a  result,  did  not  come  up  with  the  synthesis  of  all  these  new  bits  of  information  
into   a   new   comprehensive   model   of   the   universe.   This   was   left   to   the   last,   and  
probably  greatest,  giant  of  the  age,  Isaac  Newton.  

Isaac  Newton  

The  story  of  Newton  being  hit  on  the  head  by  an  apple  may  very  well  be  true.  
However,  the  significance  of  this  popular  tale  is  usually  lost.  People  had  seen  apples  
fall  out  of  trees  for  thousands  of  years,  but  Newton  realized,  in  a  way  no  one  else  had  
realized,  that  the  same  force  pulling  the  apples  to  earth  was  keeping  the  moon  in  its  
orbit.  In  order  to  prove  this  mathematically,  Newton  had  to  invent  a  whole  new  branch  
of  math,  calculus,  for  figuring  out  rates  of  motion  and  change.  The  genius  of  Newton  
in  physics,  as  well  as  William  Harvey  in  medicine  and  Mendeleev  in  chemistry,  was  
not  so  much  in  his  new  discoveries,  as  in  his  ability  to  take  the  isolated  bits  and  pieces  
of  the  puzzle  collected  by  his  predecessors  and  fit  them  together.  In  retrospect,  his  
synthesis  seems  so  simple,  but  it  took  tremendous  imagination  and  creativity  to  break  
the  bonds  of  the  old  way  of  thinking  and  see  a  radically  different  picture.  

The  implications  of  Newton's  theory  of  gravity  can  easily  escape  us,  since  we  
now  take  it  for  granted  that  physical  laws  apply  the  same  throughout  the  universe.  To  
the  mentality  of  the  1600’s,  which  saw  a  clear  distinction  between  the  laws  governing  
the  terrestrial  and  celestial  elements,  it  was  a  staggering  revelation.  His  three  laws  of  
motion  were  simple,  could  be  applied  everywhere,  and  could  be  used  with  calculus  
to  solve  any  problems  of  motion  that  came  up.  

The  universe  that  emerged  was  radically  different  from  that  of  Aristotle.  Thanks  
to  Newton,  it  was  within  our  grasp  to  understand,  predict,  and  increasingly  manipulate  
the  laws  of  the  universe  in  ways  no  one  had  been  able  to  do  before.  Newton's  work  
also  completed  the  fusion  of  math  promoted  by  Renaissance  humanists,  Aristotelian  
logic  pushed  by  medieval  university  professors,  and  experiment  to  test  a  hypothesis  
pioneered   by   such   men   as   Leonardo   da   Vinci   and   Galileo   into   what   we   call   the  
scientific  method.  This  fusion  had  gradually  been  taking  place  since  the  Renaissance,  
but  the  invention  of  calculus  made  math  a  much  more  dynamic  tool  in  predicting  and  
manipulating  the  laws  of  nature.  

The  printing  of  Newton's  book,  Principia Mathematica,  in  1687  is  often  seen  as  
the  start  of  the  Enlightenment  (1687-­1789).  It  was  a  significant  turning  point  in  history,  
for,   armed   with   the   tools   of   Newton's   laws   and   calculus,   scientists   had   an  

34
unprecedented  faith  in  their  ability  to  understand,  predict,  and  manipulate  the  laws  of  
nature   for   their   own   purposes.   This   sense   of   power   popularized   science   for   other  
intellectuals   and   rulers   in   Europe,   turning   it   into   virtual   religion   for   some   in   the  
Enlightenment.   Even   the   geometrically   trimmed   shrubbery   of   Versailles   offers  
testimony  to  that  faith  in  our  power  over  nature.  Not  until  this  century  has  that  faith  
been  seriously  undermined  or  put  into  a  more  realistic  perspective.  

B.   The  Darwinian  Revolution  

The  publication  in  1859  of  The  Origin  of  Species  by  Charles  Darwin  ushered  
in  a  new  era  in  the  intellectual  history  of  humanity.  Darwin  is  deservedly  given  credit  
for   the   theory   of   biological   evolution:   he   accumulated   evidence   demonstrating   that  
organisms   evolve   and   discovered   the   process,   natural   selection,   by   which   they  
evolve.   But   the   importance   of   Darwin's   achievement   is   that   it   completed  
the   Copernican   revolution   initiated   three   centuries   earlier,   and   thereby   radically  
changed  our  conception  of  the  universe  and  the  place  of  humanity  in  it.  

The  discoveries  of  Copernicus,  Kepler,  Galileo,  and  Newton  in  the  sixteenth  
and  seventeenth  centuries,  had  gradually  ushered  in  the  notion  that  the  workings  of  
the  universe  could  be  explained  by  human  reason.  It  was  shown  that  the  earth  is  not  
the  center  of  the  universe,  but  a  small  planet  rotating  around  an  average  star;;  that  the  
universe  is  immense  in  space  and  in  time;;  and  that  the  motions  of  the  planets  around  
the   sun   can   be   explained   by   the   same   simple   laws   that   account   for   the   motion   of  
physical  objects  on  our  planet.  These  and  other  discoveries  greatly  expanded  human  
knowledge,   but   the   intellectual   revolution   these   scientists   brought   about   was   more  
fundamental:  a  commitment  to  the  postulate  that  the  universe  obeys  immanent  laws  
that  account  for  natural  phenomena.  The  workings  of  the  universe  were  brought  into  
the  realm  of  science:  explanation  through  natural  laws.  Physical  phenomena  could  
be  accounted  for  whenever  the  causes  were  adequately  known.  

Darwin   completed   the   Copernican   revolution   by   drawing   out   for   biology   the  
notion  of  nature  as  a  lawful  system  of  matter  in  motion.  The  adaptations  and  diversity  
of   organisms,   the   origin   of   novel   and   highly   organized   forms,   even   the   origin   of  
humanity  itself  could  now  be  explained  by  an  orderly  process  of  change  governed  by  
natural  laws.  

The  origin  of  organisms  and  their  marvelous  adaptations  were,  however,  either  
left  unexplained  or  attributed  to  the  design  of  an  omniscient  Creator.  God  had  created  
the  birds  and  bees,  the  fish  and  corals,  the  trees  in  the  forest,  and  best  of  all,  man.  
God  had  given  us  eyes  so  that  we  might  see,  and  He  had  provided  fish  with  gills  to  
breathe  in  water.  Philosophers  and  theologians  argued  that  the  functional  design  of  
organisms  manifests  the  existence  of  an  all-­wise  Creator.  Wherever  there  is  design,  
there  is  a  designer;;  the  existence  of  a  watch  evinces  the  existence  of  a  watchmaker.  

35
 The   English   theologian   William   Paley   in   his   Natural   Theology   (1802)  
elaborated  the  argument-­from-­design  as  forceful  demonstration  of  the  existence  of  
the   Creator.   The   functional   design   of   the   human   eye,   argued   Paley,   provided  
conclusive  evidence  of  an  all-­wise  Creator.  It  would  be  absurd  to  suppose,  he  wrote,  
that   the   human   eye   by   mere   chance   "should   have   consisted,   first,   of   a   series   of  
transparent  lenses  ...  secondly  of  a  black  cloth  or  canvas  spread  out  behind  these  
lenses  so  as  to  receive  the  image  formed  by  pencils  of  light  transmitted  through  them,  
and  placed  at  the  precise  geometrical  distance  at  which,  and  at  which  alone,  a  distinct  
image   could   be   formed   ...   thirdly   of   a   large   nerve   communicating   between   this  
membrane  and  the  brain."  The  Bridgewater  Treatises,  published  between  1833  and  
1840,  were  written  by  eminent  scientists  and  philosophers  to  set  forth  "the  Power,  
Wisdom,   and   Goodness   of   God   as   manifested   in   the   Creation."   The   structure   and  
mechanisms  of  man's  hand  were,  for  example,  cited  as  incontrovertible  evidence  that  
the   hand   had   been   designed   by   the   same   omniscient   Power   that   had   created   the  
world.  

The  advances  of  physical  science  had  thus  driven  humanity's  conception  of  
the  universe  to  a  split-­personality  state  of  affairs,  which  persisted  well  into  the  mid-­
nineteenth  century.  Scientific  explanations,  derived  from  natural  laws,  dominated  the  
world   of   nonliving   matter,   on   the   earth   as   well   as   in   the   heavens.   Supernatural  
explanations,  depending  on  the  unfathomable  deeds  of  the  Creator,  accounted  for  
the  origin  and  configuration  of  living  creatures—the  most  diversified,  complex,  and  
interesting   realities   of   the   world.   It   was   Darwin's   genius   to   resolve   this   conceptual  
schizophrenia  (Ayala,  no  date).  

C.   Freudian  Revolution  

Sigmund  Freud  was  born  in  1856,  before  the  advent  of  telephones,  radios,  
automobiles,  airplanes,  and  a  host  of  other  material  and  cultural  changes  that  had  
taken  place  by  the  time  of  his  death  in  1939.  Freud  saw  the  entirety  of  the  first  
World  War–a  war  that  destroyed  the  empire  whose  capital  city  was  his  home  for  
more  than  seventy  years–and  the  beginning  of  the  next.  He  began  his  career  as  
an  ambitious  but  isolated  neurologist;;  by  the  end  of  it,  he  described  himself,  not  
inaccurately,   as   someone   who   had   had   as   great   an   impact   on   humanity's  
conception  of  itself  as  had  Copernicus  and  Darwin.  
 
Freud's  most  obvious  impact  was  to  change  the  way  society  thought  about  
and  dealt  with  mental  illness.  Before  psychoanalysis,  which  Freud  invented,  mental  
illness  was  almost  universally  considered  'organic';;  that  is,  it  was  thought  to  come  
from   some   kind   of   deterioration   or   disease   of   the   brain.   Research   on   treating  
mental   illness   was   primarily   concerned–at   least   theoretically–with   discovering  
exactly  which  kinds  of  changes  in  the  brain  led  to  insanity.  Many  diseases  did  not  
manifest   obvious   signs   of   physical   difference   between   healthy   and   diseased  

36
brains,  but  it  was  assumed  that  this  was  simply  because  the  techniques  for  finding  
the  differences  were  not  yet  sufficient.  
 
The   conviction   that   physical   diseases   of   the   brain   caused   mental   illness  
meant  that  psychological  causes–the  kinds  that  Freud  would  insist  on  studying–
were   ignored.   It   also   meant   that   people   drew   a   sharp   dividing   line   between   the  
"insane"  and  the  "sane."  Insane  people  were  those  with  physical  diseases  of  the  
brain.  Sane  people  were  those  without  diseased  brains.  
 
Freud  changed  all  of  this.  Despite  his  background  in  physicalism  (learned  
during   his   stay   in   Ernst   Brücke's   laboratory),   his   theories   explicitly   rejected   the  
purely  organic  explanations  of  his  predecessors.  One  of  Freud's  biggest  influences  
during  his  early  days  as  a  neurologist  was  Jean-­Martin  Charcot,  the  famous  French  
psychiatrist.  Charcot  claimed  that  hysteria  had  primarily  organic  causes,  and  that  
it  had  a  regular,  comprehensible  pattern  of  symptoms.  Freud  agreed  with  Charcot  
on   the   latter   point,   but   he   disagreed   entirely   on   the   former.   In   essence,   Freud  
claimed   that   neurotic   people   had   working   hardware,   but   faulty   software.   Earlier  
psychiatrists  like  Charcot,  in  contrast,  had  claimed  that  the  problems  were  entirely  
in  the  hardware.  As  psychoanalysis  became  increasingly  popular,  psychology  and  
psychiatry  turned  away  from  the  search  for  organic  causes  and  toward  the  search  
for  inner  psychic  conflicts  and  early  childhood  traumas.  As  a  consequence,  the  line  
between   sane   and   insane   was   blurred:   everyone,   according   to   Freud,   had   an  
Oedipal  crisis,  and  everyone  could  potentially  become  mentally  ill.  
 
Psychoanalysis  has  had  an  enormous  impact  on  the  practice  of  psychiatry,  
particularly   within   the   United   States,   but   today   it   is   regarded   by   most   sources–
medical,   academic,   governmental,   and   others–as   almost   entirely   incorrect   in   its  
conception   of   the   mind.   This   judgment   is   based   on   the   crucial   test   of  
psychoanalysis:   whether   or   not   it   really   helps   patients   with   behavioral   or  
psychological  problems.  The  consensus  is  that  is  does  not.  Psychoanalysis  in  its  
many   varieties   appears   to   have   little   or   no   efficacy   in   treating   mental   illness.   In  
contrast,  psychopharmacology  and  cognitive-­  behavioral  therapies  (therapies  that  
simply  try  to  change  what  the  patient  thinks  and  does  rather  than  analyzing  the  
causes  of  the  behavior),  while  far  from  perfect,  do  appear  to  help.  
 
If  this  is  true–and  we  have  a  great  deal  of  evidence  that  it  is–why  is  Freud  
still  so  important?  Why  do  we  generally  speak  of  him  as  a  great  figure  in  Western  
thought,   instead   of   as   a   strange   and   misguided   figure   of   turn-­of-­the-­   century  
Europe?  
 
There  are  at  least  two  reasons.  The  first  is  purely  practical:  psychoanalysis  
has  enormous  historical  significance.  Mental  illness  affects  an  large  proportion  of  
the   population,   either   directly   or   indirectly,   so   any   curative   scheme   as   widely  
accepted  as  was  Freud's  is  important  to  our  history  in  general.  The  second,  more  
important,  reason  is  that  Freud  gave  people  a  new  way  of  thinking  about  why  they  
acted  the  way  they  did.  He  created  a  whole  new  way  of  interpreting  behaviors:  one  

37
 could  now  claim  that  a  person  had  motives,  desires,  and  beliefs–all  buried  in  the  
unconscious–which   they   knew   nothing   about   but   which   nonetheless   directly  
controlled  and  motivated  their  conscious  thought  and  behavior.  This  hypothesis,  
derived  from  but  independent  of  Freud's  psychiatric  work,  was  the  truly  radical  part  
of  his  system  of  thought.  
 
D.   Scientific  Revolution  in  Mesoamerica  
 
Meso-­America  is  the  region  from  Mexico  to  Guatemala,  Belize  and  parts  of  
Honduras  and  El  Salvador.  There  were  no  major  ancient  civilization  that  developed  
in   North   America.   The   Mesoamerican   civilization   were   isolated   from   the  
accumulated   scientific   knowledge   of   Africa,   Asia   and   Europe.   They   were  
confronted  with  much  harder  conditions  than  the  ancient  civilizations  of  the  Indus  
valley,  Mesopotamia,  and  Egypt  which  developed  in  parallel  with  each  other  and  
established  contacts  between  each  other  at  a  very  early  stage.  This  exchange  of  
knowledge  between  these  ancient  civilizations  was  critical  in  the  development  of  
their   scientific   knowledge.   Because   of   this   isolation,   Mesoamerican   civilization  
developed  on  their  own  and  became  much  more  self-­reliant.    
 
The  most  advanced  Mesoamerican  civilization  was  the  Maya  civilization  that  
was  well  on  its  way  to  develop  true  science.  They  knew  how  to  make  paper  and  
had   pictorial   script   called   Maya   hieroglyphs   that   allowed   them   to   record   all  
knowledge  on  long  strips  of  paper  folded  harmonica-­style  into  books.  One  of  the  
three   books   recovered   called   The   Dresden   Codex   contains   predictions   of   solar  
eclipses   for   centuries   and   a   table   of   predicted   positions   of   Venus.   Unlike   the  
European  scientists  who  used  astronomical  instruments  like  telescopes,  the  Maya  
made  predictions  by  aligning  stars  with  two  objects  that  were  separated  by  a  large  
distance,  a  technique  that  achieved  great  accuracy  of  angular  measurement.  As  a  
result,  the  Maya  developed  the  most  accurate  calendar  ever  designed.  
 
The  Aztec  followed  the  same  road.  They  kept  their  own  script  and  languages  
but  assimilated  all  they  could  learn  from  Maya  society.  Their  manuscripts  describe  
how  the  Maya  performed  their  astronomical  observations.    
 
Several  outstanding  achievements  can  be  reported  in  the  area  of  technology  
and   invention.   The   manufacture   of   rubber   was   one   of   the   earliest   inventions,  
documented  by  the  use  of  a  rubber  ball  in  the  ball  game  tlachtli,  a  game  played  by  
Meso-­American  civilizations  from  earliest  times.  In  architecture  the  Maya  were  the  
first   to   use   pitched   ceilings   in   their   buildings   after   the   invention   of   the   corbelled  
vault.   Aztec   city   builders   also   understood   the   need   for   public   sanitation;;   public  
latrines  were  found  along  all  highways,  and  to  prevent  pollution  of  Lake  Texcoco  
canoes  transported  the  sewage  from  Tenochtitlán  to  the  mainland  every  morning.  
(von  Hagen,  1957)  
 
American  people  were  gifted  horticulturalists  and  cultivated  crop  plants  from  
the   earliest   times.   Among   the   plants   that   originated   in   Meso-­America   are   corn  

38
 (maize),  papaya,  avocado  and  cocoa.  Maize  is  the  only  cultivated  plant  that  was  
developed  so  early  in  human  history  that  its  wild  ancestor  is  no  longer  known.  It  
can,   however,   still   be   crossed   with   two   other   plants   found   only   on   the   Yucatan  
Peninsula.  
 
Finally,  several  sculptures  found  at  Meso-­American  sites  in  1975,  1979  and  
1983  and  dating  back  to  2000  -­  1500  BC  have  clear  magnetic  properties.  In  some  
of  these  sculptures  the  north  and  south  poles  are  in  most  conspicuous  positions,  
for  example  at  the  snout  and  at  the  back  of  the  head  of  a  frog  or  turtle.  Another  
magnetic   object   found   in   1966   was   shaped   as   if   it   was   to   be   used   to   indicate  
direction.  These  finds  strongly  suggest  that  the  early  Meso-­American  civilizations  
knew  about  and  used  magnetism.  (Malmström,  1976,  1979)  
 
E.   Asian  Scientific  Revolution  
 
Aside   from   China,   there   were   other   Asian   countries   that   contributed   to   the  
development  of  science  and  technology  in  the  world,  although  it  varied  depending  
on  country  and  time,  specially  in  the  present  times.  Currently,  Japan  is  probably  
the   most   notable   country   in   Asia   in   terms   of   scientific   and   technological  
achievement,  particularly  in  terms  of  its  electronics  and  automobile  products.  Other  
countries  are  also  notable  in  other  scientific  fields  such  as  chemical  and  physical  
achievements.    
The   general   conception   is   that   many   of   the   cutting-­edge   technological  
developments,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  scientific  advancements,  emanate  from  Asia.  
For   instance,   Japan,   Taiwan,   South   Korea,   and   China   together   produce   a  
staggering  90%  of  the  world’s  digital  gadgets.  Aside  from  the  region’s  hardware  
dominance,  nations  across  Asia  are  becoming  increasingly  important  to  the  global  
supply  of  digital  content  and  services,  something  which  will  only  increase  as  the  
continent  develops  over  the  coming  decades.    
South  Korea’s  cultural  popularity  around  the  world  has  caused  a  number  of  
startup’s   to   emerge   working   within   the   digital   and   technology   sectors,   including  
website  viki.com.    
Taiwan   is   following   a   similar   path   to   Japan   meanwhile,   moving   away   from  
hardware  production,  instead  turning  to  software  and  content  development.  
Together,   the   points   raised   throughout   this   article   proves   Asia   is   truly   a  
crucible   of   innovative   technological   development;;   a   continent   that   will   play   an  
incredibly  important  role  in  the  evolution  of  our  digital  age.  
 
 
F.   Scientific  Revolution  in  Middle  East  
 
During  the  3,000  years  of  urbanized  life  in  Mesopotamia  and  Egypt  tremendous  
strides   were   made   in   various   branches   of   science   and   technology.   The   greatest  
advances  were  made  in  Mesopotamia—very  possibly  because  of  its  constant  shift  of  
population  and  openness  to  foreign  influence,  in  contrast  to  the  relative  isolation  of  
Egypt  and  the  consequent  stability  of  its  population.  The  Egyptians  excelled  in  such  

39
applied  sciences  as  medicine,  engineering,  and  surveying;;  in  Mesopotamia  greater  
progress  was  made  in  astronomy  and  mathematics.  The  development  of  astronomy  
seems   to   have   been   greatly   accelerated   by   that   of   astrology,   which   took   the   lead  
among  the  quasi-­sciences  involved  in  divination.  The  Egyptians  remained  far  behind  
the  Babylonians  in  developing  astronomy,  while  Babylonian  medicine,  because  of  its  
chiefly  magical  character,  was  less  advanced  than  that  of  Egypt.  In  engineering  and  
architecture  Egyptians  took  an  early  lead,  owing  largely  to  the  stress  they  laid  on  the  
construction  of  such  elaborate  monuments  as  vast  pyramids  and  temples  of  granite  
and  sandstone.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Babylonians  led  in  the  development  of  such  
practical  arts  as  irrigation  (Albright,  2014).    
 
Both   sciences   and   pseudosciences   spread   from   Egypt   and   Mesopotamia  
to   Phoenicia   and   Anatolia.   The   Phoenicians   in   particular   transmitted   much   of   this  
knowledge  to  the  various  lands  of  the  Mediterranean,  especially  to  the  Greeks.  The  
direction  taken  by  these  influences  can  be  followed  from  Egypt  to  Syria,  Phoenicia,  
and  Cyprus,  thanks  to  a  combination  of  excavated  art  forms  that  prove  the  direction  
of  movement,  as  well  as  to  Greek  tradition,  which  lays  great  stress  on  what  the  early  
Greek   philosophers   learned   from   Egypt.   Mesopotamian   influence   can   be   traced  
especially  through  the  partial  borrowing  of  Babylonian  science  and  divination  by  the  
Hittites  and  later  by  the  transmission  of  information  through  Phoenicia.  The  Egyptians  
and  Mesopotamians  wrote  no  theoretical  treatises;;  information  had  to  be  transmitted  
piecemeal  through  personal  contacts.  
 
Of   all   the   accomplishments   of   the   ancient   Middle   East,   the   invention   of   the  
alphabet  is  probably  the  greatest.  While  pre-­alphabetic  systems  of  writing  in  the  Old  
World  became  steadily  more  phonetic,  they  were  still  exceedingly  cumbersome,  and  
the  syllabic  systems  that  gradually  replaced  them  remained  complex  and  difficult.  In  
the  early  Hyksos  period  (17th  century  BC)  the  Northwestern  Semites  living  in  Egypt  
adapted  hieroglyphic  characters—in  at  least  two  slightly  differing  forms  of  letters—to  
their   own   purposes.   Thus   was   developed   the   earliest   known   purely   consonantal  
alphabet,   imitated   in   northern   Syria,   with   the   addition   of   two   letters   to   designate  
vowels  used  with  the  glottal  catch.  
 
This   alphabet   spread   rapidly   and   was   in   quite   common   use   among   the  
Northwestern   Semites   (Canaanites,   Hebrews,   Aramaeans,   and   especially   the  
Phoenicians)  soon  after  its  invention.  By  the  9th  century  BC  the  Phoenicians  were  
using  it  in  the  western  Mediterranean,  and  the  Greeks  and  Phrygians  adopted  it  in  
the  8th.  The  alphabet  contributed  vastly  to  the  Greek  cultural  and  literary  revolution  
in   the   immediately   following   period.   From   the   Greeks   it   was   transmitted   to   other  
Western   peoples.   Since   language   must   always   remain   the   chief   mode   of  
communication   for   people,   its   union   with   hearing   and   vision   in   a   uniquely   simple  
phonetic   structure   has   probably   revolutionized   civilization   more   than   any   other  
invention  in  history.  
 
 
 

40
G.   Scientific  Revolution  in  Africa  

The  history  of  the  sciences  in  Africa  is  rich  and  diverse.  The  applied  sciences  of  
agronomy,   metallurgy,   engineering   and   textile   production,   as   well   as   medicine,  
dominated  the  field  of  activity  across  Africa.  So  advanced  was  the  culture  of  farming  
within  West  Africa,  that  ‘New  World‘  agricultural  growth  was  spawned  by  the  use  of  
captives  from  these  African  societies  that  had  already  made  enormous  strides  in  the  
field  of  agronomy.  In  her  work  Black  Rice,  Judith  Carnoy  demonstrates  the  legacy  of  
enslaved  Africans  to  the  Americas  in  the  sphere  of  rice  cultivation.  We  know  also  that  
a  variety  of  African  plants  were  adopted  in  Asia,  including  coffee,  the  oil  palm,  fonio  
or   acha   (digitaria   exilis),   African   rice   (oryza   glabberima),   and   sorghum   (sorghum  
bicolor).  Plants,  whether  in  terms  of  legumes,  grain,  vegetables,  tubers,  or,  wild  or  
cultivated   fruits,   also   had   medicinal   implications   for   Africans   and   were   used   as  
anesthetics   or   pain   killers,   analgesics   for   the   control   of   fever,   antidotes   to   counter  
poisons,   and   anthelmints   aimed   at   deworming.   They   were   used   also   in  
cardiovascular,  gastro-­intestinal,  and  dermatological  contexts.  Some  of  these  such  
as  hoodia  gordonii  and  combrettum  caffrum  are  being  integrated  within  contemporary  
pharmaceutical  systems  (Emeagwali,  n.d.).  
 
Africa’s  areas  of  scientific  investigation  include  the  fields  of  astronomy,  physics,  
and  mathematics.  Laird  Scranton,  making  use  of  the  extensive  collections  of  Marcel  
Griaule,   has   deepened   our   understanding   of   Malian   cosmological   myths   and   their  
perceptions   of   the   structure   of   matter   and   the   physical   world.   Dogon   knowledge  
systems  have  also  been  explored  in  terms  of  their  perceptions  on  astronomy.  Dogon  
propositions   about   Sirius   B   have   been   discussed   by   Charles   Finch   in   The   Star   of  
Deep  Beginnings.  The  solar  calendar  that  we  use  today  evolved  from  the  Egyptian  
calendar  of  twelve  months,  calibrated  according  to  the  day  on  which  the  star  Sirius  
rose  on  the  horizon  with  the  Sun.  Scranton  suggests  major  interconnections  between  
the  thought  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  that  of  the  Malians  of  West  Africa.  
 
In  the  field  of  Mathematics,  Nubian  builders  calculated  the  volumes  of  masonry  
and  building  materials,  as  well  as  the  slopes  of  pyramids,  for  construction  purposes.  
Bianchi  points  to  a  Nubian  engraving  at  Meroe,  in  ancient  Sudan,  dated  to  the  first  
century   B.C.E.,   which   reflects   “a   sophisticated   understanding   of   mathematics.”  
Included  in  the  engraving  were  several  lines,  inclined  at  a  72-­degree  angle,  running  
diagonally   from   the   base   of   a   pyramid.   Bianchi   suggests   that   the   Nubian   King  
Amanikhabale  of  the  first  century  BCE  was  the  owner  of  that  pyramid.  Interestingly,  
the   Nubians   of   Meroe,   who   constructed   more   pyramids   than   the   Egyptians,   built  
steep,  flat-­topped  pyramids.  
 
In   the   field   of   medicine,   common   patterns   and   trends   emerged   across   the  
continent.  These  included  scientifically  proven  methods,  as  well  as  techniques  and  
strategies  which  were  culturally  specific  and  psychologically  significant.  Among  the  
common   principles   and   procedures   were   hydrotherapy,   heat   therapy,   spinal  
manipulation,   quarantine,   bone-­setting   and   surgery.   Incantations   and   other  
psychotherapeutic   devices   sometimes   accompanied   other   techniques.   The  

41
 knowledge   of   specific   medicinal   plants   was   quite   extensive   in   some   kingdoms,  
empires,   and   city   states   such   as   Aksum,   and   Borgu   (in   Hausaland).   The   latter  
continues  to  be  well  known  for  orthopedics  (bone-­setting),  as  is  the  case  of  Funtua  in  
Northern  Nigeria.  Many  traditional  techniques  are  still  utilized  in  some  areas.  Others  
have  undergone  change  over  time,  have  been  revived  in  more  recent  periods,  or  have  
fallen  into  oblivion.  

Various  types  of  metal  products  have  been  used  over  time  by  Africans,  ranging  
from   gold,   tin,   silver,   bronze,   brass,   and   iron/steel.   The   Sudanic   empires   of   West  
Africa  emerged  in  the  context  of  various  commercial  routes  and  activities  involving  
the  gold  trade.  In  the  North  and  East,  Ethiopia  and  Sudan  were  the  major  suppliers  
of  gold,  with  Egypt  a  major  importer.  In  Southern  Africa,  the  kingdom  of  Monomotapa  
(Munhumutapa)  reigned  supreme  as  a  major  gold  producer.  In  the  various  spheres  
of  metal  production,  specific  techniques  and  scientific  principles  included:  excavation  
and  ore  identification;;  separation  of  ore  from  non-­ore  bearing  rock;;  smelting  by  the  
use  of  bellows  and  heated  furnaces;;  and  smithing  and  further  refinement.  
The   use   of   multishaft   and   open-­shaft   systems   facilitated   circulation   of   air   in  
intense  heating  processes,  while  the  bellows  principle  produced  strong  currents  of  air  
in  a  chamber  expanded  to  draw  in  or  expel  air  through  a  valve.  The  various  metal  
products   served   a   wide   range   of   purposes,   including:   armor   (as   in   some   northern  
Nigerian  city-­states),  jewelry  (of  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper  and  brass),  cooking  utensils,  
cloth  dyeing,  sculpture,  and  agricultural  tools.  The  technical  know-­how  and  expertise  
of   blacksmiths   helped   to   enhance   their   status,   although   they   were   also   often  
associated  with  supernatural  and  psychic  powers,  as  well.  
 
In   various   parts   of   ancient,   medieval,   and   contemporary   Africa,   building  
constructions  of  various  dimensions,  shapes,  and  types  emerged,  reflecting  various  
concepts,  techniques,  raw  material  preferences,  and  decorative  principles.  Builders  
integrated   the   concepts   of   the   arch,   the   dome,   and   columns   and   aisles   in   their  
constructions.   The   underground   vaults   and   passages,   as   well   as   the   rock-­hewn  
churches,   of   Axum   are   matched   in   Nubia   and   Egypt   with   pyramids   of   various  
dimensions.  In  the  Sahelian  region,  adobe,  or  dried  clay,  was  preferred  in  the  context  
of  moulded  contours,  at  times  integrated  with  overall  moulded  sculpture.  Permanent  
scaffolding  made  of  protruding  planks  characterized  the  Malian  region.  The  principle  
of  evaporative  cooling  was  integrated  into  building  design.  Mats  were  used  as  part  of  
the   decor   and   also   to   be   saturated   repeatedly   in   order   to   cool   the   room.  
Derelict   ruins   from   walled   cities—such   as   Kano,   Zazzau,   and   other   city-­states   of  
Hausaland  in  the  central  Sudanic  region  of  West  Africa—complement  structures  such  
as   the   rock-­hewn   and   moulded   churches   of   Lalibela   in   Ethiopia   or   the   Zimbabwe  
enclosures.  The  structures  of  ancient  Nubia,  as  well  as  those  of  Egypt,  are  parallel  
structures  in  the  northeast.    
 
 
 
 
 

42
 H.   Information  Revolution  
 
Information   revolution   is   a   period   of   change   that   describes   current  
economic,  social  and  technological  trends  beyond  the  Industrial  Revolution.  The  
information   revolution   was   fueled   by   advances   in   semiconductor   technology,  
particularly   the   metal-­oxide-­semiconductor   field-­effect   transistor   (MOSFET)   and  
the   integrated   circuit   (IC)   chip,   leading   to   the   Information   Age   in   the   early   21st  
century  (Lukasiak,  2010;;  Orton,  2009).  
 
Information   revolution   might   prove   as   significant   to   the   lives   of   people.  
Computer  technology  is  at  the  root  of  this  change,  and  continuing  advancements  
in   that   technology   seem   to   ensure   that   this   revolution   would   touch   the   lives   of  
people.   Computers   are   unique   machines;;   they   help   to   extend   the   brain   power.  
Computerized  robots  have  been  replacing  blue-­collar  workers;;  they  might  soon  be  
replacing  white  collar  workers  as  well.  Computers  are  merely  devices  that  follow  
sets  of  instructions  called  computer  programs,  or  software,  that  have  been  written  
by  people  called  computer  programmers.  Computers  offer  many  benefits,  but  there  
are  also  many  dangers.  They  could  help  others  invade  one's  privacy  or  wage  war.  
They  might  turn  one  into  button  pusher  and  cause  massive  unemployment.  User-­
friendly   systems   can   be   easily   used   by   untrained   people.   The   key   development  
that  made  personal  computers  possible  was  the  invention  of  the  microprocessor  
chip  at  Intel  in  1971.  
 
The   information   revolution   led   us   to   the   age   of   the   internet,   where  
optical  communication  networks  play  a  key  role  in  delivering  massive  amounts  of  
data.   The   world   has   experienced   phenomenal   network   growth   during   the   last  
decade,  and  further  growth  is  imminent.  The  internet  will  continue  to  expand  due  
to   user   population   growth   and   internet   penetration:   previously  
inaccessible   geographical   regions   in   Africa   and   Asia   will   come   online.   Network  
growth   will   only   be   accelerated   by   improvements   in   integrated  
circuits.  Transistor  size  has  been  halved  every  two  years  since  the  middle  of  the  
last  century.  The  new  internet-­based  global  economy  requires  a  worldwide  network  
with   high   capacity   and   availability,   which   is   currently   limited  
by  submarine  optical  communication  cables.  
 
New  ideas  keep  coming  from  the  information  transport  community.  Since  
the   first   edition   of   Undersea   Fiber   Communication   Systems   in   2002,   the   optical  
fiber  communication  industry  moved  into  the  “coherent”  era.  We  transport  an  order  
of  magnitude  more  bits  than  just  five  years  ago.  We  encode  information  into  phase,  
polarization,  and  amplitude  of  electromagnetic  waves.  Michael  Faraday  would  be  
proud,  knowing  that  we  send  over  10,000,000,000,000  bits  every  second  across  
the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  a  single  strand  of  fiber.  We  would  leave  in  awe  Sir  William  
Thomson   (known   as   Lord   Kelvin),   who   was   the   scientific   leader   of   an   1858  
endeavor  that  built  the  first  submarine  cable  with  a  transmission  speed  of  one  word  
per   minute.   Sir   Thomson   and   Cyrus   Field,   an   American   businessman  
and  telecommunications  pioneer,  would  be  surprised  to  find  out  how  many  tools  

43
 developed   during   their   first   transatlantic   expedition   are   still   in   use   today.   At   first  
glance,  the  modern  cable  looks  similar  to  the  1858  cable,  which  was  copper  based  
with   a   gutta-­percha   (trans-­poly   isoprene)   isolator.   In   modern   day   cables,   gutta-­
percha   has   been   replaced   with   polyethylene.   We   still   use   copper   to   power  
submarine  repeaters,  and  have  added  optical  fibers  during  the  last  decade  of  the  
last  century.    
 
The  uniqueness  of  this  engineering  marvel  is  a  combination  of  information  
science,   nonlinear   optics,   electrical   engineering,   material   science,   engineering  
practices,   project   management,   marine   expertise,   and   high   reliability   standard.  
Undersea  fiber  communication  systems  will  continue  to  serve  society.  
 
  Impact  of  Information  Revolution  
 
The  truly  revolutionary  impact  of  the  Information  Revolution  is  just  beginning  
to   be   felt.   But   it   is   not   "information"   that   fuels   this   impact.   It   is   not   "artificial  
intelligence."   It   is   not   the   effect   of   computers   and   data   processing   on   decision-­
making,  policymaking,  or  strategy.  It  is  something  that  practically  no  one  foresaw  
or,  indeed,  even  talked  about  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago:  e-­commerce—that  is,  the  
explosive   emergence   of   the   Internet   as   a   major,   perhaps   eventually   the   major,  
worldwide   distribution   channel   for   goods,   for   services,   and,   surprisingly,   for  
managerial   and   professional   jobs.   This   is   profoundly   changing   economies,  
markets,  and  industry  structures;;  products  and  services  and  their  flow;;  consumer  
segmentation,  consumer  values,  and  consumer  behavior;;  jobs  and  labor  markets.  
But  the  impact  may  be  even  greater  on  societies  and  politics  and,  above  all,  on  the  
way  we  see  the  world  and  ourselves  in  it.  
At  the  same  time,  new  and  unexpected  industries  will  no  doubt  emerge,  and  
fast.  One  is  already  here:  biotechnology.  And  another:  fish  farming.  Within  the  next  
fifty  years  fish  farming  may  change  us  from  hunters  and  gatherers  on  the  seas  into  
"marine  pastoralists"—just  as  a  similar  innovation  some  10,000  years  ago  changed  
our   ancestors   from   hunters   and   gatherers   on   the   land   into   agriculturists   and  
pastoralists.  
It  is  likely  that  other  new  technologies  will  appear  suddenly,  leading  to  major  
new  industries.  What  they  may  be  is  impossible  even  to  guess  at.  But  it  is  highly  
probable—indeed,  nearly  certain—that  they  will  emerge,  and  fairly  soon.  And  it  is  
nearly  certain  that  few  of  them—and  few  industries  based  on  them—will  come  out  
of  computer  and  information  technology.  Like  biotechnology  and  fish  farming,  each  
will  emerge  from  its  own  unique  and  unexpected  technology.  
Of  course,  these  are  only  predictions.  But  they  are  made  on  the  assumption  
that   the   Information   Revolution   will   evolve   as   several   earlier   technology-­based  
"revolutions"   have   evolved   over   the   past   500   years,   since   Gutenberg's   printing  
revolution,   around   1455.   In   particular,   the   assumption   is   that   the   Information  
Revolution   will   be   like   the   Industrial   Revolution   of   the   late   eighteenth   and   early  
nineteenth   centuries.   And   that   is   indeed   exactly   how   the   Information   Revolution  
has  been  during  its  first  fifty  years.  
 

44