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Zirconium Alloys: Properties and Characteristics: Abbreviations 2.07.1
Zirconium Alloys: Properties and Characteristics: Abbreviations 2.07.1
2.07.1 Introduction
Abbreviations
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
Zirconium (Zr) exhibits a physical property of
BWR Boiling water reactor
uppermost importance with respect to the design
CANDU Canada Deuterium Uranium (heavy water
of in-core components of thermal neutron power
pressurized reactor)
reactors: it has a very low thermal neutron capture
DHC Delayed hydride cracking
cross-section, and its alloys exhibit good engineering
DSA Dynamic Strain Aging
properties. For an improvement in neutron efficiency
hcp Hexagonal closed packed
of the water-cooled reactors, the development of
HPUF Hydrogen pick-up fraction
industrial-type Zr-based alloys started as early as
LOCA Loss of coolant accident
the beginning of the nuclear reactor design, and is
MIBK Methyl-isobutyl-ketone
still continuing. The engineering properties of Zr
PWR Pressurized water reactor
and Zr alloys are therefore widely studied. Infor-
RBMK Reaktor Bolshoy Moshchnosti Kanalniy
mation exchanges and reviews are available in various
(pressure tube power reactor)
sources; for example, the International Atomic
RIA Reactivity induced accident
Energy Agency issued reviews on Zr alloys for
SPP Second phase particle
nuclear applications. For more detailed, up-to-date
TEM Transmission Electron Microscope
information, the reader is referred to a recent one,1 or
TM Transition metal
to the proceedings of the symposia on ‘Zr in the
VVER Voda-Voda Energy Reactor (PWR of
nuclear industry,’ organized at 2–3 year intervals
Russian design)
by ASTM.2
217
218 Zirconium Alloys: Properties and Characteristics
It was found early that Zr is naturally mixed in its the two-phase coolant. Their geometrical stability is
ore with its lower companion of the periodic table, a mandatory requirement for the neutron physics
hafnium, the latter being a strong neutron absorber. design of the core.
Purification of Zr from Hf contamination is therefore In the case of CANDUs and RBMKs, the moder-
mandatory for nuclear applications. The develop- ator is separated from the coolant water. The coolant
ment of the industrial alloys has been performed water in contact with the fuel rods is contained in
following the classical route: searching for elements pressure tubes, usually made of Zr–Nb alloys. They
of significant solubility that would improve the engi- are large components (L 10 m, [ 30 cm, and
neering properties, without too much impact on e 5 mm), with a design life expected to match the
the nuclear ones. Tin, niobium, and oxygen are the reactor life, that is, tens of years, with only minor
main alloying elements, with minor additions of corrosion and creep deformation.
transition metals (TMs) (Fe, Cr, and Ni). Heat treat-
ments aiming at homogeneous solid solutions, phase
transformations, and precipitation control allow opti- 2.07.2 Physical Properties
mizing the structure of the alloys. In addition, the
thermomechanical history of the components strongly Natural zirconium has an atomic mass of 91.22 amu,
impacts their behavior, via the formation of a crystallo- with five stable isotopes (90Zr : 51.46%, 91Zr: 11.23%,
92
graphic texture, because of the anisotropy linked to the Zr: 17.11%, 94Zr: 17.4%, and 96Zr: 2.8%). The
hexagonal crystallography of Zr at low temperature. depletion of the most absorbing isotope (91Zr, with
A few Zr alloys are commonly used for structural sa 1.25 1028 m2) would increase further the inter-
components and fuel cladding in thermal neutron est of using Zr alloys in reactors, but would clearly be
reactors. Zircaloy (Zry)-4 is used in pressurized economically inefficient. The cross-section for elastic
water reactors (PWRs) and Zircaloy-2 in boiling interaction with neutrons is normal, with respect to
water reactors (BWRs). The heavy water-moderated its atomic number (sdiff 6.5 barn). Despite its high
CANDU reactors, as well as the Russian VVER or atomic mass, the large interatomic distance in the hcp
RBMK reactors, use Zr–Nb alloys. New alloys are crystals lead to a limited specific mass of 6.5 kg dm3.
designed based on variants of the Zr–1% Nb, with The thermophysical properties correspond to stan-
small additions of Fe and sharp control of minor dard metals: thermal conductivity 22 W m1 K1
additions (M5®), or variants of the quaternary alloys, and heat capacity 280 J kg1 K1, that is, close to
such as Zirlo® and E635. More complex alloys with 3R per mole.
other types of alloying elements are also being tested Below 865 C, pure Zr has an hcp structure, with
in power plants, but the actual experience accumu- a c/a ratio of 1.593 (slightly lower than the ideal
lated on these alloys is too low to consider them as 1.633). The lattice parameters are a ¼ 0.323 nm and
commonly accepted, from an industrial point of view. c ¼ 0.515 nm.3 The thermal expansion coefficients
Fuel claddings are made out of Zry-2 or Zry-4. show a strong anisotropy, with almost a twofold differ-
Those tubes have different geometries, depending on ence between the aa and ac coefficients (respectively
reactor design. In PWR’s, the fuel cladding rods are 5.2 and 10.4 106 K1).4 This anisotropic behavior of
4–5 m long and have a diameter of 9–12 mm for a the thermal expansion induces internal stresses due to
thickness of 0.6–0.8 mm. BWR fuel rods are usually strain incompatibilities: After a standard heat treat-
slightly larger. The design is similar for the Russian ment of 500 C, where the residual stresses will relax,
VVER, with Zr–1%Nb. In CANDUs, the fuel bundles cooling down to room temperature will result in inter-
are shorter (0.5 m) and the cladding is thinner (0.4 mm) nal stresses in the range of 100 MPa, depending on
in order to collapse very fast on the UO2 pellets. grain-to-grain orientations. The modulus of elasticity
Structural components of zirconium alloys are the is also anisotropic, but with lower differences than for
guide tubes, the grids, and the end plates that main- thermal expansion (Ea ¼ 99 GPa, and Ec ¼ 125 GPa).5
tain the components of the fuel assemblies. They For industrial parts, the values recommended are
have to maintain the structural integrity at the stress close to a 6.5 106 K1 and E 96 GPa. The tem-
levels corresponding to normal or accidental opera- perature evolution of the elasticity constants is
tions. In addition, they should have very low corro- unusual: the elasticity is strongly reduced as the tem-
sion rates in the hot, oxidizing coolant water. In perature increases (5% per 100 K).6,7 This abnormal
BWRs, each assembly is surrounded by a Zircaloy-2 behavior is specific to the hcp metals of the IV-B row
channel box that avoids cross-flow instabilities of of the periodic table.8
Zirconium Alloys: Properties and Characteristics 219
At 865 C, Zr undergoes an allotropic transforma- ZrSiO4 þ 4NaOH ! Na2 ZrO3 þ Na2 SiO3 þ 2H2 O
tion from the low temperature hcp a-phase to the bcc Water or acid leaching allows the precipitation of
b-phase. On cooling, the transformation is usually bai- ZrO2.
nitic, but martensitic transformation is obtained for The fluo-silicate fusion:
very high cooling rates (above 500 K s1). The bainitic
transformation occurs according to the epitaxy of ZrSiO4 þ K2 SiF6 ! K2 ZrF6 þ 2SiO2
the a-platelets on the old b-grains, as proposed by It produces a potassium hexafluorozirconate which,
Burgers9,10: (0001)a // {110}b and h1120ia // h111ib. reacting with ammonia, leads to Zr hydroxide.
Among the 12 different possible variant orientations The carbo-chlorination process is performed in a
of the new a-grains, only a few are nucleated out of a fluidized bed furnace at 1200 C. The reaction
given former b-grain during this transformation to scheme is the following:
minimize the internal elastic strain energy. This pro-
cess leads to a typical ‘basket-weave’ microstructure ZrO2 ðþSiO2 þ HfO2 Þ þ 2C þ 2Cl2
(Figure 1). As a result, a b-quenching does not ! ZrCl4 ðþSiCl4 þ HfCl4 Þ þ 2C
completely clear out the initial crystallographic texture
The controlled condensation of the gaseous tetra-
that had been induced by the former thermomechani-
chloride allows the separation of Zr and Si, but not
cal processing.11,12 Although the alloying elements
of Hf from Zr.
present in the Zr alloys change the transformation
temperatures, with a 150 C temperature domain in
2.07.3.1.2 Hf purification and removal
which the a- and b-phases coexist, the crystallographic The processes described above separate Si from
nature of the a-b transformation is equivalent to that of
Zr, but the Zr compounds remain contaminated
pure Zr. Specific chemical considerations (segregations
with the initial Hf concentration. The high neutron
and precipitations) will be described later.
capture cross-section of Hf (sa 105 barn, compared
The melting of pure Zr occurs at 1860 C, sig- to 0.185 barn for Zr) requires its suppression in
nificantly above the melting temperature of other
Zr alloys for nuclear application. Two major pro-
structural alloys, such as the structural or stainless
cesses are used for this step: the MIBK-thiocyanate
steels. At high pressures, (P > 2.2 GPa) a low-density
solvent extraction and the extractive distillation of
hexagonal structure is observed, known as the o-phase. tetrachlorides.
In the first case, after reaction of zirconyl chloride
2.07.3 Alloy Processing (ZrOCl2), obtained by hydrolysis of ZrCl4, with
ammonium thiocyanate (SCN-NH4), a solution
2.07.3.1 Nuclear Grade Zr Base Metal
of hafnyl-zirconyl-thiocyanate (Zr/Hf )O(SCN)2
The most frequently used ore is zircon (ZrSiO4), with is obtained. A liquid–liquid extraction is per-
a worldwide production of about 1 million metric formed with methyl-isobutyl-ketone (MIBK,
220 Zirconium Alloys: Properties and Characteristics
name of the process). Hf is extracted into the process for the melting of the alloys (typically 30%
organic phase, while Zr remains in the aqueous ‘iodide Zr’ in the first electrode to be melted).
one. Hf-free ZrO2 is obtained after several other
chemical steps: hydrochlorination, sulphation, neu-
2.07.3.2 Alloy Melting
tralization with NH3, and calcination.
In the dry route, after the transformation of Whatever the processing route followed for the pro-
zircon into its chloride ZrCl4, through the carbo- duction of Zr metal, the sponge or the chips obtained
chlorination process, Zr and Hf are separated using by scrapping out the electrodes are the base products
a vapor phase distillation, at 350 C, within a for alloy ingot preparation. The melting of the alloys
mixture of KCl-AlCl3, where the liquid phase is is performed using the vacuum arc remelting (VAR)
enriched in Zr, and the vapor in Hf. process. This process is specific to highly reactive
metals such as Zr, Ti, or advanced superalloys.
For industrial alloy preparation, an electrode is
2.07.3.1.3 Reduction to the metal
prepared by compaction of pieces of base metal frag-
The final step to obtain metallic Zr of nuclear grade
ments (sponge or scraps) with inclusion of the alloy-
is to reduce the Hf-free Zr compounds that have been
ing elements. Typically, the elements to be added are
obtained by the previous steps. Two processes are to
the following: O (in the form of ZrO2 powder), Sn,
be considered at an industrial scale: the Kroll process
Nb, Fe, Cr, and Ni to the desired composition. In
and the electrolysis.
addition, a strict control of minor elements, such as C,
In the Kroll process, the Zr metal is obtained by N, S, and Si, is ensured by the producers, at concen-
the reduction of ZrCl4 in gaseous form by liquid trations in the range of 30–300 ppm, according to their
magnesium, at about 850 C in an oxygen-free requirements to fulfill the engineering properties.
environment. The following reaction occurs: A few specific impurities are strictly controlled for
neutron physics reasons: Cd and Hf due to their
ZrCl4 ðgÞ þ 2MgðlÞ ! MgCl2 ðlÞ þ ZrðsÞ
impact on neutron capture cross-section, U for
After distillation of the remaining Mg and MgCl2, the contamination of the coolant by recoil fission
under vacuum at 950 C, sintering of the Zr agglom- fragments escaping from the free surface of the clad-
erate at 1150 C gives the metallic sponge cake. ding, and Co for in-core activation, dissolution trans-
After wet chemical chemistry, the reduction of the port, contamination, and g-irradiation.
ZrO2 obtained by the MIBK process is often per- The compact stack is melted in a consumable
formed by electrolysis. It is realized with the mixed electrode electric vacuum furnace with water chilled
salt K2ZrF6 dissolved in NaCl or KCl at 850 C under Cu crucible. Electromagnetic fields are often used for
inert gas, with stainless steel cathode on which Zr is efficient stirring of the liquid pool and reduced seg-
deposited, and chlorine evolution at the graphite regations. After three to four melts, the typical
anode. This route is mainly used in the Russian dimensions of the final ingots are 0.6–0.8 m diameter
Federation, the names of the Russian alloys starting and 2–3 m length, that is, a mass of 4–8 tons.
with an ‘E,’ referring to electrolytic processing.
High purity Zr can be obtained by the Van Arkel 2.07.3.3 Forging
process. It consists of reaction of Zr with iodine at
Industrial use of Zr alloys requires either tube- or
moderate temperature, gaseous phase transport as
plate-shaped material. The first step in mechanical
ZrI4, and decomposition of the iodide at high temper-
processing is forging or hot rolling in the b-phase, at a
ature on an electrically heated filament. The iodine
temperature near 1050 C, or at lower temperatures
released at the high temperature side is used for the
in the a þ b range or even in the upper a range. The
low temperature reaction in a closed loop transport
high oxidation kinetics of Zr alloys in air at high
process, according to the following scheme:
temperatures restricts the high temperature forging
Zr + 2 I2 => ZrI4 => Zr + 2 I2 process to thick components, that is, with minimum
dimensions larger than 10 cm, at least. Final dimen-
250–300 ⬚C 1300–1400 ⬚C
sions after forging correspond to 10–25 cm diameter
for billets and 10 cm for slabs.
This source of metallic Zr (called ‘iodide Zr’) is used A b-quenching is usually performed at the end of
in Russia in addition to Zr obtained by the electrolytic the forging step. This heat treatment allows complete
Zirconium Alloys: Properties and Characteristics 221
AD AD
90⬚ 90⬚
80⬚
80⬚
60⬚
60⬚
30⬚
30⬚
5 5
1
4⬚
1 2 4 5 6 3 0⬚ TD 2 35 TD
3 6 54 3 2 3 4 0⬚ 3 4
fR = 0.64 fR = 0.55
(a) (b)
Figure 3 h0001i Pole figure of two cladding tubes with slightly different mechanical processing routes.
grains have their c-axis tilted 30–40 away from the of the isotopes having high interaction cross-sections,
normal of the foil or of the tube surface toward the or isotopes that would transmute to isotopes of high
tangential direction, as can be seen in the h0001i pole capture cross-section or having high irradiation
figure of a cladding tube (Figure 3). impact (Co). Elements such as Hf, Cd, W, and Co
During tube rolling, the spread of the texture can have therefore not been considered for alloy devel-
be reduced by action on the ratio of the thickness to opments. With low nuclear impact, O, Sn, and Nb
diameter reductions (Q factor): a reduction in thick- have been selected (Al and Si having also low nuclear
ness higher than the reduction in diameter gives a impacts were not retained because of degradation in
more radial texture, that is, a texture with the c poles corrosion resistance), while other TMs (Fe, Cr, Ni,
closer to the radial direction.16 etc.) can be accepted up to limited concentrations
After cold processing, the h1010i direction is paral- (below 0.5% total).
lel to the rolling direction, and during a recrystalliza- The additions have to improve the engineering
tion heat treatment a 30 rotation occurs around the properties. The main properties to be improved are
c-direction and the rolling direction is then aligned the corrosion behavior in hot water and the mechan-
with the h1120i direction for most of the grains. ical strength (yield stress, ductility, and creep). As
described below, Sn and Nb are added for corrosion
resistance, and elements forming secondary phases
2.07.4 Alloys (Nb and Fe, Cr, and Ni) or solid solutions are also
used for increasing the mechanical properties.
2.07.4.1 Alloying Elements and
Last, the microstructure obtained after the ther-
Phase Diagrams
momechanical processing should not change without
Like any metal, pure Zr exhibits rather poor engi- control under irradiation. Therefore, hardening
neering properties. To improve the properties of a obtained by precipitation or strain hardening can be
given metal, the metallurgical engineering proce- considered only if the irradiation-induced evolution
dures are always the same: It consists in finding addi- of the initial microstructure will be compensated by
tions, any species of the periodic table could be the development of irradiation-induced microstruc-
considered, with significant solubility, or heat treat- tural defects. In this respect, the evolution of preci-
ments producing new phases that could improve the pitates in Zircaloys is of high importance for
properties. The relative solubility of the various alloy- corrosion behavior and geometrical integrity. These
ing elements in the a- and b-phases is therefore one points are discussed in Chapter 5.03, Corrosion of
basis for the choice of additions, as well as for devel- Zirconium Alloys and Chapter 4.01, Radiation
oping the heat treatments, for microstructure control. Effects in Zirconium Alloys.
For the nuclear applications, neutron physics Most of the binary phase diagrams with Zr are
requirements restrict the possibilities, by rejection already known and many ternary or higher-level
Zirconium Alloys: Properties and Characteristics 223
diagrams of industrial interest are now known.17 The leading to age-strengthening phenomena in temper-
need for a better control of the processing of the ature ranges depending on strain rate.20 The oxygen
current alloys and the aim of finding new alloys and in solid solution in a-zirconium is an interstitial in
structures without too much experimental work have the octahedral sites. In the Zr–O system, the only
been a driving force for the modern trend in numeri- available stable oxide is ZrO2. A monoclinic phase
cal simulation for material science. It is now also is stable at temperatures up to about 1200 C,
possible to extrapolate the binary data to multicom- above which it transforms to a tetragonal structure.
ponent systems. In that respect, a thermodynamic The impact on corrosion of the different phases of
database for Zr alloys, called ZIRCOBASE, has ZrO2, according to temperature and pressure is dis-
been developed under the Calphad methodology.18 cussed in Chapter 5.03, Corrosion of Zirconium
This database contains 15 elements and is frequently Alloys.
updated. The most complex ternary or quaternary Tin tends to extend the a-domain, and has a
phase diagrams available are optimized or computed maximal solubility in the hcp Zr of 9 wt% at 940 C
using this database, and, in the case of missing basic (Figure 5). It was originally added at concentrations
thermodynamic data, with the contribution of ‘ab- of 1.2–1.7% to increase the corrosion resistance,
initio’ computations.19 The phase diagrams presented especially by mitigating the deleterious effects of
in this review were obtained according to this nitrogen. The amount of Sn needed to compensate
procedure. the effect of 300 ppm of N is about 1% of Sn. How-
Oxygen is highly soluble in the a-phase, and stabi- ever, in N-free Zr, Sn has been observed to deterio-
lizes at high temperature (Figure 4). Oxygen has rate the corrosion resistance. Therefore, the modern
to be considered as an alloying element. This use of trend is to reduce it, but only slightly, in order to
oxygen for strengthening is rare in metallurgy, com- maintain good creep properties.21
pared to the use of nitrogen. However, the use of Iron, chromium, and nickel, at their usual concentra-
nitrogen for strengthening would severely deteriorate tions, are fully soluble in the b-phase (Figure 6).
the corrosion resistance, and nitrogen is removed as However, in the a-phase, their solubilities are very
much as possible. The purpose of oxygen additions low: in the region of 120 ppm for Fe and 200 ppm for
is to increase the yield strength by solution strength- Cr at the maximum solubility temperature.22 In the
ening, without degradation of the corrosion resis- pure binary systems, various phases are obtained:
tance. The O content is not specified in the ASTM ZrFe2 and ZrCr2 are Laves phases with cubic or
standards, but usually it is added to concentrations in hexagonal structure, while Zr2Ni is a Zintl phase
the range of 600–1200 ppm, and this has to be agreed with a body-centered tetragonal C16 structure.
between producer and consumers. High O concen- These precipitates are called the Second Phase Par-
trations (O > 2000 ppm) reduce the ductility of the ticles (SPPs).
alloys; therefore, O additions above 1500 ppm are In the Zircaloys, the Fe substitutes for the
not recommended. In addition, O atoms interact corresponding TM and the intermetallic compounds
with the dislocations at moderate temperatures, found in Zircaloy are Zr2(Ni,Fe) and Zr(Cr,Fe)2.
2000
L
2500 L 1800
g-ZrO2
1600
b-Zr + Zr5Sn3
2000 1400 b-Zr
Temperature (⬚C)
Temperature ( ⬚C)
b-ZrO2
b-Zr
1200
1500
1000
a-Zr
800 a-Zr
1000
Zr4Sn
a-ZrO2
600
a⬘ 400
500
a⬘⬘® a2⬘⬘ 3 ¬ a⬘⬘
¬ a⬘⬘ 4
1 200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Atomic percent oxygen Atomic percent tin
Figure 4 Zr–O binary phase diagram. Figure 5 Zr–Sn binary phase diagram.
224 Zirconium Alloys: Properties and Characteristics
2000
1800
1600 L
Temperature (⬚C)
1400
b-Zr
1200
1000
800
¬
600 ¬ a-Zr
FeZr2
FeZr3
400
200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
(a)
Atomic percent iron
2000 2000
1800 L 1800
g-Cr2Zr
¬
1600 ¬ 1600
L
a-Cr2Zr
Temperature (⬚C)
1400
Temperature (⬚C)
¬
1400 ¬ b-Zr
b-Zr
1200 1200
1000 1000
800 800
¬ a-Zr
600 ¬ a-Zr
NiZr2
600
400 400
200 200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
(b) Atomic percent chromium (c) Atomic percent nickel
Figure 6 Zr-rich site of the Zr-transition metal binary phase diagram: (a) Zr–Fe, (b) Zr–Cr, (c) Zr–Ni.
The formation of these precipitates, and more low rates, during the intermediate annealing heat
complex ones in industrial alloys, is analyzed in treatments, following each step of the rolling process.
detail for the control of the corrosion behavior of Therefore, the precipitate growth integrates the ther-
the Zircaloys. Indeed, a strong correlation has been mal activation times of each recovery, and their tem-
observed between precipitate size distributions and peratures and durations can be used to control the
corrosion kinetics, the behavior being opposite for size of SPPs. This integrated coarsening activation
BWRs and PWRs. A better uniform corrosion resis- time is referred as the ‘A ’ or ‘SA ’ parameter.
tance is obtained for Zircaloys used in PWRs if they The A-parameter calculates the integral of the
contain large precipitates, while better resistance to activation processes for the different anneal durations
the localized forms of corrosion is seen in BWRs in and temperatures. The annealing parameter is
materials that have finely distributed small precipi- defined as A ¼ Si (ti exp (Q/RTi), where ti is the
tates.23,24 With an increase in the particle diameters time (in hours) of the ith annealing step, at tempera-
from 0.05 to 0.1 mm or higher, the in-pile corrosion of ture Ti (in K); Q/T is the activation temperature of
Zircaloy cladding diminishes appreciably. However, the process involved. The activation energy for the
nodular corrosion may occur in BWR cladding with a process should have been taken as the one controlling
further increase in the particle diameters above about the coarsening, that is, the diffusion. However, as the
0.15 mm25 (Figure 7). early studies were undertaken with the aim of
Due to the low solubility of the transition metals improving the corrosion resistance, an unfortunate
(Fe, Cr and Ni) in the Zr matrix, coarsening of the practice has been induced to take 40 000 K as the
precipitates, after the last b-quench, occurs at very value of Q/T. A more correct value would be
Zirconium Alloys: Properties and Characteristics 225
10 2000
L
In-reactor 1800
1600
5
Temperature (⬚C)
1400
(b-Zr, b-Nb)
3 1200
BWR
1000
2
PWR 800
Relative corrosion rate
600
¬ a-Zr
1
400
10
500 ⬚C/16 h Water b-quenching of small pieces leads to the
precipitation of a0 martensite supersaturated in Nb.
3
Tempering at intermediate temperature results
in b-Nb precipitation within the a0 needles and
subsequent transformation of a0 into a. When
1 350 ⬚C/ 1a
quenching is performed from an a þ b region,
0.02 0.1 0.8 a uniform distribution of a- and b-grains is
Average diameter of precipitates (mm) obtained, and the Nb-rich b-phase does not trans-
form. By aging at temperatures in the range of 500 C,
Figure 7 Effect of precipitate size on the corrosion
kinetics of Zircaloys. Reproduced from Garzarolli, F.; the metastable Nb-rich b-phase can be decomposed
Stehle, H. Behavior of structural materials for fuel and into an hcp o-phase. This gives a sharp increase
control elements in light water cooled power reactors, IAEA in mechanical strength because of the fine micro-
STI/PUB/721; International Atomic Energy Agency: Vienna, structure obtained by the b-o transformation.26
1987; p 387. In the usual form of the Zr–2.5% Nb, the cold work
condition after a þ b extrusion and air-cooling, the
microstructure consists of Zr grains with layers of
32 000 K, which fits very well with the recrystalliza- b-Nb rich phase (close to eutectoid composition).
tion kinetics. The influence of the A-parameter Owing to the affinity of Fe for the b-phase, most of
on the corrosion of Zircaloy is discussed in more this element is found in the minor b-grains. These
detail in Chapter 5.03, Corrosion of Zirconium b-grains are metastable and decompose, upon aging,
Alloys. High resistance to uniform corrosion in to a mixture of a-Zr and pure b-Nb. The Nb dis-
PWR is obtained for the A-parameter close to solved in the a-hcp Zr phase is itself metastable and
(1.5–6.0) 1019 h. In BWR, the A-parameter value the irradiation-induced precipitation of the supersat-
for the Zircaloy-2 cladding in BWR has to be in urated Nb solid solution is believed to be the origin
the range (0.5–1.5) 1018 h (Figure 7).25 This of the improvement in corrosion resistance under
corresponds to precipitates larger than 0.18 mm. irradiation of these alloys.27
The SA approach has been developed for the In the case of Zr–1% Nb used for VVER and
Zircaloys and is clearly not applicable for other RBMK, or M5® in PWRs, the concentration of Nb
alloys, such as the Zr–Nb alloys. in the Zr matrix after processing corresponds to the
Niobium (columbium) is a b-stabilizer that can maximum solubility near the monotectoid tempera-
extend the bcc domain to a complete solid solution ture, which is higher than the solubility at the service
between pure Zr and pure Nb at high temperatures temperature. Owing to the slow diffusion of Nb, the
(Figure 8). A monotectoid transformation occurs at equilibrium microstructure cannot be obtained ther-
about 620 C and around 18.5 at.% Nb. The solubil- mally. However, the irradiation-enhanced diffusion
ity of Nb in the a-phase is maximal at the monotectic allows precipitation of fine b-Nb needles in the
temperature, and reaches 0.65%. grains after a few years in reactors.28
226 Zirconium Alloys: Properties and Characteristics
Sulfur has recently been observed to be extremely Two examples will be given of the complex structure
efficient in improving the creep resistance, even at and behavior of these intermetallics.
concentration as low as 30–50 ppm. This chemical
species, formerly not considered as important, is now For the Zr–Cr and Zr–Ni binary alloys, the stable
deliberately added during processing to reduce the forms of the second phase are Zr2Ni or ZrCr2.
scatter in behavior and to improve the high tempera- These phases are effectively the ones observed in
ture mechanical properties.29 The efficiency of such the Zircaloys, with Fe substituting for the
low concentrations on the creep properties has been corresponding TM. Therefore, the general formu-
explained by the segregation of the S atoms in the core lae of the intermetallic compounds in Zircaloys are
of the dislocations, changing their core configurations. Zr2(Ni,Fe) and Zr(Cr,Fe)2. The crystal structure of
It does not affect the corrosion properties.30 the Zr(Cr,Fe)2 precipitates is either fcc (C15) or
In the case of complex alloys, other thermody- hcp (C14), depending on composition and heat
namical interactions are expected and intermetallic treatment. Both structures are Laves phases, with
compounds including three or four chemical ele- characteristic stacking faults as seen in Figure 9.
ments are observed. The chemistry and the crystal- The equilibrium crystallographic structure is
lography of these phases may be rather complex. dependent upon the Fe/Cr ratio, cubic below 0.1
and above 0.9, and hexagonal in the middle. Under
irradiation, these precipitates transform to amor-
phous state and release their Fe in the matrix,
with strong impact on corrosion behavior under
irradiation.31
In the Zr–Nb–Fe ternary, other intermetallic com-
pounds can be observed (Figure 10): the hexago-
nal Zr(Nb,Fe)2 phase and the cubic (Zr,Nb)4Fe2.32
3 mm Although of apparent similar composition, the two
phases are indeed different: Nb can substitute Fe in
the hexagonal phase, while it will substitute Zr in
the cubic phase. In these alloys, due to the slow
200 nm
diffusion of Nb, metastable phases are often present
and the equilibrium microstructure after industrial
Figure 9 Microstructure of recrystallized Zry-4: Zr(Fe,Cr)2 heat treatments may be far from the stable one.
precipitates in the Zr(Sn–O) matrix (TEM at two different Therefore, the final microstructure is strongly
scales). dependent on the exact thermomechanical history.
0.1
α-Zr + cub α-Zr
+ cub α-Zr +
+ hex β-Zr + hex
0.08 hex
β-Nb + hex + cub
Hex + cub
α-Zr + Zr3Fe β-Zr phase boundary
+ cub Domain limit
0.06 Domain limit
Fe (wt%)
0.04
α-Zr + β-Nb α-Zr + β-Zr (metastable)
+ hex + β-Nb + hex
0.02
α-Zr + β-Nb
0 α-Zr
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Nb (wt%)
Figure 10 Zr-rich corner of the Zr–Nb–Fe ternary phase diagram at 580 C.
Zirconium Alloys: Properties and Characteristics 227
In addition, the low solubility of these elements at contamination of one melt by stainless scraps showed
operating temperatures drastically reduces the dif- the drastic improvement induced by small additions
fusion kinetics and requires more than a year to of Fe, Cr, and Ni, the constituents of the austenitic
reach equilibrium at 450 C, in the absence of stainless steels. Systematic composition variations to
irradiation.33 optimize the alloy introduced the Zircaloy-2. The
capture of a significant amount of hydrogen by the
Other minor constituents are often found in the
alloy during corrosion was attributed to the presence
form of precipitates. Among them are the carbide fcc-
of nickel. Its replacement by an equivalent amount
ZrC and silicides or phosphides of various stoichio-
of iron and chromium led to the Zircaloy-4.34
metries (Zr3Si, ZrSi2, ZrP, and Zr3P) that act as
Zr–Nb alloys were developed in Canada, Russia,
nucleation sites for the b ! a-phase transformation
and the United States, with initial high Nb concen-
during quenching and, therefore contribute to con-
trations (up to 4%). For the claddings of BWRs,
trol the a-platelets thickness and density.
they showed poor behavior and the Zr–Nb alloys
development was stopped soon in the United States.
Zr–2.5Nb was quite satisfactory for the pressure
2.07.4.2 Industrial Alloys
tubes, due to its low hydrogen pick-up during opera-
The zirconium alloys in use today for nuclear applica- tion, and the engineering optimization of this alloy
tions are limited in number: besides pure Zr, only four was continued in Canada and Russia. It remains the
alloys are currently listed in the ASTM standards for Zr reference alloy for pressure tubes, in CANDUs.
ingots for nuclear applications (ASTM-B350). Those Zr–1% Nb has been developed for cladding in these
are shown in Table 1. The first three are used for countries and behaved very satisfactorily in VVER.
cladding and structural materials, such as guide tubes A renewal of interest in such alloys in the western
and channel boxes in PWRs and BWRs and structural world in the 1990s led to the development of a
materials in CANDU reactors, while grade R 60904 is Zr–1% Nb alloy, with controlled additions of Fe and
used exclusively in pressure tubes for CANDU reac- S. The M5® alloy is now of regular use in PWRs, with
tors. For cladding tubes, only Zircaloy-2 and -4 are excellent corrosion resistance, compared to the
listed in the applicable standard (ASTM B-811). former Zry-4.35
Alloys of more recent use such as ZIRLO®, M5®, ‘Quaternary’ alloys were conceived as a mixture of
E110, or E635 are now of common use in light water the Zircaloys and the Zr–Nb alloys, hoping to con-
reactor cladding, but are not considered for ASTM serve the specificity of each of them in addition to the
designation in the near future. Due to the limited different alloying elements:
market of cladding tubes for nuclear reactors, and the Niobium for the resistance to hydrogenation
small number of tube producers or fuel vendors, the
during corrosion
exact chemistry, processing routes, or mechanical Tin for the corrosion resistance by reducing the
properties are usually agreed mutually between the
dependence on deleterious impurities
contracting parties. Iron also for corrosion resistance by mitigating the
Historically, the first Zircaloy was conceived in
dependence on the coolant temperature.
the United States as a 2.5% Sn alloy. Owing to its
poor long-term corrosion behavior, the tin content The results appear to be in-line with the expectations
was reduced roughly by a factor of 2. A fortuitous for these alloys, which can be considered as variants
ASTM Sn Nb Fe Cr Ni O S
of the composition: Zr–1% Nb–1% Sn–TM alloys. By contrast, the addition of 1000 ppm of oxygen
The multicomponent alloys, namely, E635 and increases the yield strength to 300 MPa. As a result
Zirlo® are, respectively, used in the cores of VVER of this, Zircaloys have minimal yield strengths in the
and PWR.36,37 Both show low corrosion and very range of 250–300 MPa and the Zr–2.5% Nb alloy,
limited irradiation growth. Irradiation growth refers about 300 MPa. As in other metals, reduction in
to the dimensional changes at constant volume of an grain size is also used to obtain higher strength,
unstressed material under irradiation.38 The growth leading to the request of a grain index of 7 or finer
phenomenon is induced by the anisotropic clustering for standard products.
or disappearance of the point defects created by For all those materials, the ductility remains high,
irradiation. The stability under irradiation of the above 20%. Cleavage is never observed in Zr and Zr
precipitates present in these alloys appears to be the alloys, even at liquid nitrogen temperature. Addi-
origin of such good dimensional stability (Chapter tional strength is obtained by cold working, allowing
4.01, Radiation Effects in Zirconium Alloys).39 the increase of the yield strength above 400–500 MPa.
This is followed by a final stress-relief heat treatment
2.07.5 Mechanical Properties Before to restore ductility without drastic reduction in
Irradiation strength, by relaxing the internal stresses.
Finally, the texture itself can increase alloy
2.07.5.1 Strength and Ductility strength by changing the Schmid factor for slip or
The mechanical properties of the Zr alloys are twinning. This can be observed by the differences in
strongly dependent on several parameters such as strength between the axial and transverse directions.
composition, texture, and metallurgical state. For In addition, due to the distorted shape of the yield
practical purposes, the properties at 300–400 C are locus, and consequently of the orientation of the
most important and room temperature behavior is strain vector, strain is also anisotropic.
used mostly for comparison. Typical values of the strength of industrial alloys in
At room temperature, in the annealed state, pure, various metallurgical states are given in Table 2.
oxygen-free Zr has a low yield strength of about Due to the absence of cleavage, the toughness
150 MPa. However, the yield strength can be properties of Zr alloys are not a matter of concern
increased by solution strengthening, using oxygen, for unirradiated materials. Indeed, difficult measure-
tin, or niobium. Tin causes only a small increase in ments have obtained values of KIC well above
tensile strength, but is efficient for creep improve- 50 MPa m1/2. However, during irradiation, two pro-
ment; Nb increases both yield and creep strength.40 cesses deteriorate the ductility of the alloys:
The first one is the formation of numerous fine behavior of different alloys.43 For conditions leading
dislocation loops that harden the materials and to strain rates below 109 s1 (i.e., low temperatures
induce basal dislocation slip and localized strains. and/or stresses), a low stress coefficient is observed:
The macroscopic effect is a highly localized n 1–2. Grain boundary sliding may be the mecha-
strain and highly reduced engineering ductility at nism involved in these conditions. For high creep
fracture.41,42 The details of this ductility degradation rates, stress exponents larger than 4–6 have been
induced by the irradiation are described in Chapter reported. The mechanisms considered are complex,
4.01, Radiation Effects in Zirconium Alloys. with predominance of dislocation glide controlled by
The second mechanism of ductility degradation local climb.44 Similarly, the activation energy was
is linked to the impact of hydrogen trapped by measured to be as low a 40 kJ mol1 for the low
the alloys during operation. The corresponding temperature regime, and 2 or 3 times larger for the
mechanisms are described in Section 2.07.5.3. high strain rates.
Most of the metallurgical parameters affect the
creep rate. The effect of alloying elements on creep
2.07.5.2 Mechanical Properties in
properties is different from their effect on tensile
Temperature and Creep
strength. Oxygen improves creep resistance, espe-
The thermal properties of Zr alloys are given in cially at low temperatures, but its effect is small
Table 3. The heat capacity increases with tempera- compared to improvement in yield strength at room
ture, about 10% for 300 K. The anisotropy in any temperature. Despite its detrimental effect on cor-
property is indeed decreasing with temperature, as rosion, tin is maintained at significant levels in
the anisotropy in thermal expansion drives the hcp Zircaloys as an efficient alloying element to im-
cell of Zr toward the ideal c/a ratio. In addition to the prove creep resistance.45 For similar alloys with the
anisotropy of the thermal expansion coefficient, the same structure, creep behavior is similar; for exam-
elastic weakening in temperature has also to be ple, Zircaloy-2 and Zircaloy-4 have similar creep
considered. strengths for the same thermomechanical processing.
As for any alloy, an increase in temperature results However, the metallurgical state of the material also
in a decrease in strength, but the evolution is not influences the creep mechanisms; although SR mate-
uniform, and a plateau in strength is observed near rial has higher tensile strength, its high dislocation
200–400 C. Known as the dynamic strain aging density induces a two- to threefold increase in creep
(DSA), it corresponds to the interaction of oxygen rate, compared to the RX state. Completely dissolved
atoms with the dislocations. In this temperature hydrogen increases the creep rate, while precipitated
range, oxygen atoms diffuse at rates commensurable hydrides harden the alloys.46 For additions as low
with dislocation glide and hinder their motion. as 50 ppm, sulfur drastically increases the creep
At higher temperatures, they are too mobile to strength, and is now an alloying element for specific
affect the creep rates drastically. alloys.47
Typical creep deformation rates are expressed by
equations such as
2.07.5.3 Hydrogen Embrittlement and
Q Other H Effects
e_ ¼ Asn exp
RT
During oxidation of Zr alloy components in reactors
Due to the transition induced by the oxygen in DSA, or in autoclaves, the reduction of water by the Zr
large discrepancies are observed in the creep alloy follows the general reaction scheme:
2H2 O þ Zr ! ZrO2 þ 4H hydrides ductile and the mechanical behavior of
the claddings returns to normal above 200 C.52,53
The reduction of the water molecules at the Hydrogen increases the creep strength of SR
coolant-oxide interface releases four hydrogen Zry, whatever be the H content. However, for
atoms as radicals H . They are chemically adsorbed RX alloys, H that gets completely dissolved enhances
at the tips of the oxide pores and their evolution the creep rate, while precipitated hydrides harden
controls the behavior of this chemical species. Most the alloys.54 This difference in behavior is connected
of the H atoms recombine, creating hydrogen mole- to the effect of hydrides in inhibiting the thermal
cules that escape and dissolve into the coolant. recovery. As described earlier, sulfur at very low
A limited amount can ingress in the oxide and concentrations drastically increases the creep strength,
migrate to the metallic matrix, where H is soluble, and even the yield strength.47,55
or interact with Zr to form hydrides (see Chapter Hydrogen in the cladding is also claimed to
5.03, Corrosion of Zirconium Alloys). The frac- increase the corrosion rate due to the presence of an
tion of the hydrogen that is trapped in the Zr alloy is outer rim of hydrides,56 and to deteriorate the behav-
called the hydrogen pick-up fraction (HPUF). For ior of the cladding during accident sequences, such as
Zry-2, it is in the range of 30–60%, and for Zry-4 reactivity-induced accident (RIA), in which brittle
a lower HPUF is observed (15–25%), while the hydrides drastically reduce the strain to failure,57–60
Zr–Nb alloys show the lowest one (4–10%). In or loss of coolant accident (LOCA), where the clad-
order to reduce H pick-up, care should be taken to ding that is softened by hydrogen creeps faster and
avoid the alloys catalyzers of the hydrogen molecule fails at lower temperatures than it would with lower
dissociation, such as Ni and Pt. This is the main hydrogen contents,61 or mixtures of these effects.
reason for suppression of that element in Zircaloy-4:
on removing Ni, HPUF is generally below 15% for 2.07.5.4 Prospectives
standard PWR fuel cladding. Due to the strong
Although the use of Zr alloys has proven to be a good
variation of the solubility of H with temperature
engineering solution, several properties are still sub-
(200 ppm at 350 C, but near 1 ppm at RT), hydro-
ject to poor scientific understanding of their origins.
gen reacts with Zr to precipitate as hydrides as the
Among them, deformation mechanisms (critical shear
alloy is cooled down.
stresses on the different shear and twin systems),
One of the consequences of hydrogen ingress
irradiation behavior (point defects interactions with
into Zr is the delayed hydride cracking (DHC).48
This high temperature mechanism involves the alloying elements and mobilities), and corrosion
ingress of hydrogen into a Zr-alloy component, its mechanisms at atomic scales clearly need further
migration up the stress or thermal gradients, and basic scientific work.
its concentration in the regions of low temperature For industrial purposes, the lot-to-lot variations
or higher tensile stress. When the local concentration in properties observed in many instances require larger
exceeds the terminal solid solubility, the hydride margins in design and consequently reduce the effi-
phase precipitates.49 At operation temperatures, a ciency of the power plants. Detailed analysis of the
quasicontinuous crack growth is observed, whose origins of these variations could be highly cost effective.
rate depends on the hydrogen content, on the struc- Last, the current development of computational
ture of the alloy, and on its crystallographic texture.50 materials science is a major opportunity for in-depth
The failure of CANDU pressure tubes by this mech- understanding and forecasting of the mechanisms of
anism added pressure to the R&D in this field.51 irradiation damage under irradiation. In that direc-
At lower temperatures, corresponding to fuel tion, multiscale modeling is particularly suited to
handling and transport, the dissolved hydrogen pre- nuclear materials. Zr alloys having no other sizable
cipitates as d hydrides that have very brittle behavior. application than in the nuclear industry would
The hydrides are brittle below 200 C and crack strongly benefit from these new R&D techniques.
when the stresses are high enough; failure of the
components at low temperatures occurs because of Acknowledgments
percolation of the broken hydride platelets. Depend-
ing on the geometry and spatial distribution of the Special thanks are given to P. Barberis, A. Motta, and
hydrides, very low ductilities can be observed. N. Dupin for their efficient support during the
A slight increase in temperature would make the writing process of this chapter.
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