VISVESVARAYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

NAGPUR

AUTOMATION IN PRODUCTION

ASSIGNMENT-2: SENSORS in

INDUSTRIES

ARCHIT DAS
BT18MEC100

Professor Y.M. Puri

 SENSOR
A sensor (also known as a detector) is a converter that measures a physical quantity and
converts it into a signal that can be read by an observer or a (mostly electronic) instrument, in
other words, a sensor (also known as a detector) is a converter that measures a physical
quantity and converts it into a signal that can be read by an observer or a (mostly electronic)
instrument. A mercury-in-glass thermometer, for example, turns observed temperature into
liquid expansion and contraction, which may be viewed on a calibrated glass tube. A
thermocouple transforms temperature into an output voltage that a voltmeter can read.
Most sensors are calibrated against known standards for accuracy. Touch-sensitive elevator
buttons (tactile sensor) and lamps that dim or brighten by touching the base are examples of
ordinary products that use sensors. Sensors can also be used in a variety of ways that most
people are unaware of. Automobiles, machineries, aerospace, medical, manufacturing, and
robotics are some of the applications. Commercially available sensors for monitoring and
managing industrial processes come in a variety of configurations. Sensors of microscopic
precision have been developed thanks to technological advancements. They're termed Micro
sensors since they use MEMS technology.
TYPES OF SENSORS USED IN INDUSTRY
1. Temperature sensor.
2. Pressure sensor
3. Touch sensor.
4. Image sensor.
5. Motion sensor
6. Light sensor
7. Vibration sensor.
8. Humidity sensor
9. Proximity sensor
10. Color sensor
11. Radiation sensor
12. Level sensor.
13. Position sensor
14. Gas, or smoke sensor
15. Flame sensor
16. Leak sensor
17. Accelerometer
18. Tilt sensor
19. Mark sensor
20. Flow sensor
Out of these sensors, description about few of the above sensors are given below

TEMPERATURE SENSOR

A temperature sensor is an instrument designed to detect the level of coolness or

hotness of an object. This sensor’s basic operation is based on the voltage in its diode.
The temperature variation is proportional to the diode’s resistance.
The resistance in the diode detects and sends the signal into readable values such as
Fahrenheit, Kelvin, or Centigrade. Temperature sensors are designed to sense or detect
the internal temperature of various structures, such as industries, power plants, refineries,
and so on, and to provide an electrical signal as a result.

Types of Temperature Sensors

The temperature sensors are mainly classified into two. They are
• Contact Type Temperature Sensors
• Non-Contact Type Temperature Sensors
Contact Type Temperature Sensors
There are some temperature sensors that can only measure the hotness or coldness of an
object by being in contact with the object.
Such temperature sensors are classified as contact-type. They can detect solids, liquids, or
gasses at a variety of temperatures.
Non-Contact Type Temperature Sensors
Non-Contact Sensors can measure the temperature without being in contact with the
object. This can be done by utilizing the radiation of the heat source. The common non-
contact sensor is an infrared sensor (IR). IRs detect an object’s energy remotely and send
a signal to an electrical circuit, which uses a calibration diagram to determine the object’s
temperature.
The contact and non-contact temperature sensor are further classified into the following
types.
● Thermocouples
 ● Thermistors
● Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)
● IR Temperature sensor
● Optical Pyrometer.

Advantages
Low cost
Can be used for both embedded and surface mount applications
Faster response
Temperature probes have precise linearity and low hysteresis.

Application areas with example

Used in electric motors for measuring the temperature of the motor winding, bearing,
brushes, etc.
Used in mechanical engines for measuring the internal temperature
It is also used in an HVAC system
Used in humidity and air control conditioning equipment

Specifications
Important specifications for industrial thermometers include display options,
dimensions, stem material, stem adjustments and operating environment.
Display Characteristics
Thermometers display options include:
● Fahrenheit display, display range, and scale divisions
● Celsius or Centigrade display, display range, and scale divisions
 ● Both Fahrenheit and Celsius options
● Max/min readings
● Glass or plastic viewing windows
Display range is the minimum and maximum values of temperature that can be
displayed. Scale division is the smallest division of degrees that can be displayed. It is
sometimes referred to as resolution in digital instruments.

PRESSURE SENSOR
Working principle with schematic diagram
There are a variety of different technologies used within pressure sensors to provide
accurate results. The following section will highlight some of these.

Piezo-resistive pressure sensors consist of a diaphragm – mostly made of silicon – with

integrated strain gauges to detect strain as a result of applied pressure. These strain
gauges are typically configured in a Wheatstone bridge circuit to reduce sensitivity and
increase the output. Due to the material being used the pressure limitation is at around
1,000 bars.

ADVANTAGES
Simple to construct
Low cost and higher durability
Good resistance to shock, vibration, and dynamic pressure changes.
Circuits are very simple and enable high-resolution measurement
Linear output and millisecond response time
Operate at higher temperatures
DISADVANTAGES
The sensor has to be powered.
Unsuitable for low power or battery-operated systems.
Limitations on scaling down since it can reduce the sensitivity and increase the power
consumption.
Problems with the adhesives at high temperatures and overpressure.
 Capacitive pressure sensors use a pressure cavity and diaphragm to produce a variable
capacitor. The diaphragm is deformed when pressure is applied and capacitance decreases
accordingly. This change in capacity can be measured electrically and is then set in
relation to the applied pressure. These sensors are limited to low pressures of roughly 40
bar.

ADVANTAGES
Mechanically simple and robust.
Suitable to operate in a wide temperature range from 2.5 mbar or 250 Pa to 10,000 psi
(70 MPa)
Very tolerant of short-term overpressure conditions
Ideal for lower-pressure applications and reasonably harsh environments.
Inherently low power because no DC current flows through the capacitor.
Exhibit low hysteresis and a good repeatability of measurements.
Have low-temperature sensitivity.
DISADVANTAGES
Non-linearity because the output is inversely proportional to the gap between the
parallel electrodes.
Sensitive to vibration.
Material constraints can restrict applications.

Application areas with example

In addition to general instrumentation requiring static measurements, pressure
sensors play an increasing role in applications such as: bottle and equipment leak
detection, Variable Air Volume (VAV) systems, air blades, compressed air pressure
monitoring, industrial flow monitoring, filter pressure monitoring, duct air flow, gas
detection, pneumatic controls, mine safety instrumentation, industrial degassers, and
suction check in pick and place applications such as the printed circuit boards and
semiconductor process equipment.
 Specifications
The major sensor characteristics that influence accuracy are temperature coefficients,
temperature hysteresis, pressure hysteresis, and non-linearity.
Applicable temperature coefficients include temperature-related changes to zero offset,
sensitivity, and measurement span.

TOUCH SENSOR
Working principle with schematic diagram
A touch sensor is an electronic sensor used in detecting and recording physical touch.
Also known as tactile sensors, it’s a small, simple, low-cost sensor made to replace old
mechanical switches we saw in the past.
A touch sensor works like a switch, where when there’s contact, touch, or pressure on the
surface of a touch sensor, it opens up an electrical circuit and allows currents to flow
through it.

Types of touch sensor

The above explanations of how a touch sensor works and its applications apply to a
generic sensor, where there are still different types of touch sensor that work uniquely
and are more applicable for certain applications.

How does a capacitive touch sensor

work: The user applies touch on the
glass panel
The printed circuit panel around the outer viewing area of the glass panel creates an
electrical charge across the surface
It results in a decrease in capacitance and allows the system to determine the touchpoint Multiple
touchpoints can be detected as well, allowing for touch pinch and spread
Capacitive touch sensor applications:
• Portable devices such as smartphones and tablets (iPhones, iPad, etc.) Home applications such as
touch lamps
• Automotive
• Industrial
 Advantages of a capacitive touch sensor:
• Doesn’t require pressure to be applied since
• it’s built on the glass itself, hence making force insignificant to sensing requirements
• Support for multi-touch
• High responsiveness

Disadvantages of a capacitive touch sensor:

• Vulnerable to abrasion
• Reliability concerns when used in harsh environments
• Doesn’t work with gloves or stylus

Resistive touch sensor

Resistive touch sensors measure touch through responding to the pressure applied to their
surface. It consists of two conductive layers and a non-conductive separator. Unlike the
capacitive touch sensors, it’s not multi-touch compatible.

How does a resistive touch sensor work:

• The user applies pressure against the surface
• The outside conductive layer is then pressed against the inner layer, resulting in voltage
changes
• The voltage changes are then compared to the starting voltage, allowing for the point at
which the touch took place to be calculated

Resistive touch sensor applications:

Musical instruments, touchpads, etc.
Older music players, game consoles, etc.
Office equipment

Advantages of a resistive touch sensor:

• Cost-effective and durable to be used in harsh environments
• Able to be used with stylus and gloves
• Less complex
• Low power consumption

Disadvantages of a resistive touch sensor:

The inability for multi-touch technology unlike the capacitive touch sensors
Dependent on pressure, require more pressure to be applied for sensing to take place
MOTION SENSOR
Motion sensors are popular when it comes to security and energy efficiency. They
can be used for burglary alarms or security cameras, activating these devices when it
senses motion in the vicinity. It can be an energy saver by shutting off lights in a building
when it senses no motion anymore, which is used regularly in office buildings or restrooms.
There are three types of motion sensors that are used frequently: Passive Infrared (PIR),
Microwave, and Dual Tech/Hybrid.
Working principle with schematic diagram
The PIR is a motion sensor that you might have seen when you enter a restroom or an
office space, usually having a white cover. They are small, low power, easy to use, and
inexpensive. The way it senses movement is by sensing the change in temperature between
the background and a warm body.
PIRs have a pyroelectric sensor that detects levels of infrared radiation – everything emits
some low-level radiation, but a human body emits a good amount of heat. The PIR has
two slots made of a special material that is sensitive to infrared. When the sensor senses a
differential change between the two slots, this causes a pulse, which is what it detects as
“movement”.

Application areas with example

Phones, paper towel dispensers,
game consoles, Commercial toilets
 and virtual reality systems

LIGHT SENSOR
The light sensor is a passive device that converts the light energy into an electrical signal
output. Light sensors are more commonly known as Photoelectric Devices or Photo Sensors
because they convert light energy (photons) into electronic signals (electrons).
Phototransistors, photoresistors, and photodiodes are some of the more common types of
light intensity sensors.
The light sensor is a passive device that converts the light energy into an electrical signal
output. Light sensors are more commonly known as Photoelectric Devices or Photo Sensors
because they convert light energy (photons) into electronic signals (electrons).
Phototransistors, photoresistors, and photodiodes are some of the more common types of
light intensity sensors.

Working principle with schematic diagram

The working principle of the light sensor is based on the internal photoelectric effect,
which states that when light energy or photons are bombarded on a metal surface then it
can cause the free electrons from the metal to excite and jump out resulting in electron
flow or electric current. The amount of current produced depends on the energy of the
photon (i.e., wavelength of light). The emission of electrons from the metal surface
occurs only after the light reaches a certain threshold frequency that corresponds with the
minimum energy required by the electrons to break the metal bonds.

Advantages of Light sensor

Following are the advantages of Light sensor:
• It is easy to integrate with lighting systems such as automatic lighting systems.
• It is used for energy consumption or energy management by automatic control of
brightness level in mobile phones and auto ON/OFF of street lights based on ambient
light intensity.
• LDR (i.e., photoresistor) based light sensors are available in different shapes and
sizes. Light sensors need small voltage and power for its operation.
• Photoresistors are lower in cost, bi-directional and offer moderate response time.
 • Photodiodes offer quick response time, lower in cost and provide digital output.
• Phototransistors are very fast and provide immediate output compared to photoresistors.
• Phototransistors generate high current compared to photodiodes.
Disadvantages of Light sensor
Following are the disadvantages of Light sensor:
• LDRs are highly inaccurate with high response time (about 10s or 100s of milliseconds).
• Resistance varies continuously (analog) in photoresistor and are rugged in nature.
• Photodiodes are temperature sensitive and are unidirectional unlike photoresistors.
• Phototransistors cannot withstand voltages above 1000 volts.
• Phototransistors are vulnerable to surges, spikes and EM energy.

Application areas with example

Turning on streetlights manually every night is very inefficient. Also, the sun rises
and sets at different times every day.
Using light sensors allows them to turn on and off at the right time every day. This
also helps save electricity

VIBRATION SENSOR
Working principle with schematic diagram
Vibration sensors are sensors used to measure, display and analyze frequency,
displacement, velocity or acceleration. Vibration sensors respond to repetitive mechanical
motion.
Its contacts are normally open and close when it is subjected to vibration in its
designed frequency range.
• Mechanical sensors or switches which respond to displacement are best suited for low
frequency vibrations. Piezoelectric sensors are sensitive to acceleration and hence are
best suited for high frequency vibrations.
• Accelerometers measure acceleration to determine vibration. Proximity sensors are
non-contacting sensors which measure distance from a target. It is used in rotating
machinery to measure the vibration of the shaft.

Advantages
Following are the benefits or advantages of Vibration sensor:
• Pin and Spring type: Low cost, ability to respond two out of three axes, no power supply
requirement, ability to switch DC or AC.
• Piezoelectric type: It has a resonant frequency of about 170 Hz when there is no weight
attached to its free end.
• Accelerometer: It stands high temperature and offers good response at higher frequencies.
It is smaller in size and easy to install.
• Velocity sensor: It offers good response at mid-range of frequencies, does not need
external power, withstands at higher temperatures, easy to install and lower in cost.

• Proximity sensor: It offers exact response at lower frequencies, no wear, smaller in size,
lower in cost, measures static and dynamic displacements etc.
Disadvantages
Following are the drawbacks or disadvantages of Vibration sensor:
• Pin and Spring type: It requires latching components such as flip flop or 555 timer as
internal contact is extremely brief.
• Piezoelectric type: It generates voltage during the process of deflection but the output
diminishes to zero when the strip is held in a curved position.
• Accelerometer: It is sensitive to higher frequency noise, and requires external power.
Velocity sensor: It has lower resonant frequency, bigger in size and higher in weight,
cross noise etc.
• Proximity sensor: Electrical and mechanical noise, not calibrated for unknown metals,
require external power, difficult to install, bounded by higher frequencies etc.

Application areas with example

Below is a list of the most common industrial sectors that employ vibration
sensors to monitor the vibrations:
• Aerospace
• Automotive & Transportation
• Pulp and Paper
• Food and Beverage
• Oil and Gas, Refining, Petrochemicals
• Power Generation (fossil fuel, nuclear, hydro, wind turbines)
Machine tools
• Metalworking
• Mining, Mineral Processing, and Cement
 Example: The water industry now monitors its many water processing pumps from
those situated in remote pumping stations to those in large scale sophisticated water
treatment and desalination sites.

Any other relevant information available online.

When choosing a vibration sensor for your application it is important to look at factors
such as;
– Range and accuracy
– Environment conditions
– The shape of the measuring surface
Out of the three sensors that we have discussed the accelerometer is the most common
because it has a good range of frequency, meaning it can sense slow and fast applications.
Along with the frequency, accelerometers are priced affordably and are durable. They do
have to be mounted directly to the machine which is common for vibration sensors.
Eddy current or capacitive sensors have medium accuracy and are not optimal for
high-resolution applications. They are very durable making them a good option for dirty
environments.
Just like the accelerometers, they have to be directly mounted to the machine being
monitored.
Lastly, strain gauges are both versatile and accurate while still suitable for hazardous
environments.
Unfortunately, they can be hard to install correctly and to get proper data your application
will need amplifiers which can drive up the price.

HUMIDITY SENSOR

1. Working principle with schematic diagram

Humidity Sensors are very important devices that help in measuring the environmental
humidity. Technically, the device used to measure the humidity of the atmosphere is
called a Hygrometer. Humidity Sensors or Hygrometers can be classified based on the
type of humidity it is used for measuring i.e., Absolute Humidity (AH) sensors or
Relative Humidity (RH) sensors. Humidity Sensors can also be classified based on the
parameter used for measuring Humidity i.e., Capacitive Humidity Sensors, Electrical
Conductivity (or Resistive) Humidity Sensors and Thermal Conductivity Humidity
Sensors. There are other types of Humidity Sensors or Hygrometers like Optical
Hygrometer, Oscillating Hygrometer and Gravimetric Hygrometer.

Working Principle of:

• Capacitive Humidity Sensors

 Humidity Sensors based on capacitive effect or simply Capacitive Humidity Sensors are
one of the basic types of Humidity Sensors available.
They are often used in applications where factors like cost, rigidity and size are s of concern.
In Capacitive Relative Humidity (RH) Sensors, the electrical permittivity of the dielectric
material changes with change in humidity.

• Capacitive RH Sensors
A simple Capacitive RH Sensor can be made from an air-filled capacitor as the moisture
in the atmosphere changes its permittivity. But for practical applications, air as a
dielectric is not feasible.
Hence, the space between the capacitor plates is usually filled with an appropriate
dielectric material (isolator), whose dielectric constant varies when it is subjected to
change in humidity.
The common method of constructing a capacitive RH sensor is to use a hygroscopic
polymer film as dielectric and depositing two layers of electrodes on the either side.

Another way to use the capacitive RH sensors is to observe the changes in the frequency
of the oscillator constructed using a capacitor with RH sensitive test subject as dielectric.
This setup is often employed in pharmaceutical products.
The test samples like medical tablets are placed between two plates (which form the
capacitor electrodes) to form a capacitor in the LC Oscillator circuit. The frequency of
the oscillator changes with humidity surrounding the test sample.
 Let us see the construction of a thin thermostat polymer film based capacitive RH Sensor.
It is fabricated on a silicon substrate. On this substrate, two metal electrodes made of
either aluminium, platinum or chromium are deposited. The shape of these electrodes is
carved out such that the electrodes form an interdigitated pattern.
On top of this layer, a dielectric layer is deposited. The following image shows a top and
cross section view of the capacitive humidity sensor. Note that two temperature sensitive
resistors are deposited on the same substrate to provide temperature compensation.

• Resistive Humidity Sensors

The Resistive Humidity Sensor is usually made up of materials with relatively low
resistivity and this resistivity changes significantly with changes in humidity. The
relationship between resistance and humidity is inverse exponential. The low resistivity
material is deposited on top of two electrodes.
The electrodes are placed in an interdigitated pattern to increase the contact area. The
resistivity between the electrodes changes when the top layer absorbs water and this
change can be measured with the help of a simple electric circuit.

Some of the commonly used materials are salt, specially treated substrates, solid
polyelectrolytes and conductive polymers. Modern Resistive Humidity Sensors are
coated with ceramic substance to provide extra protection. The electrodes in the sensor
are usually made of noble metals like gold, silver or platinum.
 Advantages of Capacitive Humidity Sensors
• The output voltage is near linear.
• They provide stable results over long usage.
Can detect a wide range of RH.

Advantages of Resistive Humidity Sensors

• Low cost
• Small Size
• The distance between the sensor and signal circuit can be large (suitable for remote
operations).
• Highly interchangeable as there are no calibration standards.

Disadvantages of Capacitive Humidity Sensors

• The distance from the sensor and signaling circuit is very limited.

Disadvantages of Resistive Humidity Sensors

• Resistive Humidity Sensors are sensitive to chemical vapors and other contaminants
• The output readings may shift if used with water soluble products.

Application areas with example

The applications of humidity sensors range far and wide. People with illnesses
affected by humidity, monitoring and preventive measures in homes employ humidity
sensors. A humidity sensor is also found as part of home heating, ventilating and air
conditioning systems (HVAC systems). These are also used in offices, cars, humidors,
museums, industrial spaces and greenhouses and are also used in meteorology stations to
report and predict the weather.

Commercially available information of sensors viz. specifications, pics, etc.

All commercially available Humidity sensors are given in the below hyperlink
Part Search - Humidity Sensors - Environmental Sensors | TTI, Inc.

COLOUR SENSOR
A color sensor detects the color of the material. This sensor usually detects color in RGB scale.
This sensor can categorize the color as red, blue or green. These sensors are also equipped with
filters to reject the unwanted IR light and UV light.

Working principle with schematic diagram

To detect the color of material three main types of equipment are required. A light source to
illuminate the material surface, a surface whose color has to be detected and the receivers which
can measure the reflected wavelengths. Colour sensors contain a white light emitter to illuminate
the surface. Three filters with wavelength sensitivities at 580 nm, 540nm, 450nm to measure the
wavelengths of red, green and blue colors respectively. Based on the activation of these filters,
the color of the material is categorized. A light to voltage converter is also present in the sensor.
The sensor responds to color by generating a voltage proportional to the detected color. Another
way of detecting color is by illuminating the material surface by Red, Blue and Green LEDs one
at a time. Here the sensor contains no filters but a light to voltage converter. The highest amount
of light reflected back by the material surface while illuminated with the red, blue and green light
is
calculated to detect the color.

Advantages-
• It helps in sorting objects based on three color approach. It also helps in counting objects.
Automated systems can be built using color sensors which help in completion of work in
less time. Moreover, human intervention is not needed.
• Powerful and large memory color sensor ICs are available at low cost. This has driven its
use in many applications.
• It is easy to change or modify manufacturing setups without even reprogramming the
sensor device. This is beneficial in low volume manufacturing applications having frequent
color variations.
• With the advancement of technology and memory loaded with color intensity data, color
sensor controller can store and can make color matching decisions on an unlimited number
of colors virtually.
Limitations-
• The approach is costly for small scale industries.
• It does color matching or identification in applications requiring only pass/fail output.
Operating distance range of the color sensors are a matter of concern. This needs to be
chosen appropriately with rigorous testing in the setup.
 Application
• Colour sensors are applied to measure, detect the color of the surfaces. These sensors have a
wide range of applications in industrial, medical and security systems.

• Some of the applications are the light color temperature measurement, RGB LED consistency
control, medical diagnosis systems, health fitness systems, industrial process control, etc.

• Some of the examples of color sensors available in the market are AS73211, TCS3200,
TCS3400, TCS34715, TCS34727, colorPAL from parallax, SEN-11195, Lego Mindstorms
EV3, etc.

4. Commercially available information of sensors viz. specifications, pics, etc.

5. Any other relevant information available online.

RADIATION SENSOR
Radiation detectors, also called radiation sensors, are instruments that sense and measure
radiation emissions or levels of radiation produced by a source.

Working principle with schematic diagram

When radiation passes inside a detector, it causes ionization of gas atoms, separating atoms
into positive ions and electrons. Separated electrons and positive ions are attracted to the
electrodes, causing a current to flow. This is converted into electric signals, which
are then measured as the amount of radiation.

SCINTILLATION DETECTOR: The basic principle behind this instrument is the use of
a special material which glows or "scintillates'' when radiation interacts with it. The most
common type of material is a type of salt called sodium-iodide. The light produced from
the scintillation process is reflected through a clear window where it interacts with a device
called a photomultiplier tube. The first part of the photomultiplier tube is made of another
special material called a photocathode. The photocathode produces electrons when light
strikes its surface. These electrons are then pulled towards a series of plates called dynodes
through the application of a positive high voltage. When electrons from the photocathode
hit the first dynode, several electrons are produced for each initial electron hitting its
surface. This "bunch" of electrons is then pulled towards the next dynode, where more
electron "multiplication" occurs. The sequence continues until the last dynode is reached,
where the electron pulse is now millions of times larger than it was at the beginning of the
tube. At this point the electrons are collected by an anode at the end of the tube forming an
electronic pulse. The pulse is then detected and displayed by the instrument.
 GAS FILLED DETECTOR: This instrument works on the principle that as radiation passes
through air or a specific gas, ionization of the molecules in the air occurs. When a high
voltage is placed between two areas of the gas filled space, the positive ions will be
attracted to the negative side of the detector (the cathode) and the free electrons will travel
to the positive side (the anode). These charges are collected by the anode and cathode
which then form a very small current in the wires going to the detector. By placing a very
sensitive current measuring device between the wires from the cathode and anode, the
small current is measured and displayed as a signal. The more radiation which enters the
chamber, the more current is displayed by the instrument. Many types of gas-filled detectors
exist, but the two most common are the ion chamber used for measuring large amounts of
radiation and the Geiger-Muller or GM detector used to measure very small amounts of
radiation.

Advantages and limitations if any

Advantages-
- Cheap, robust
- large variety of sizes and applications
- Large output signal (avalanche effect) from tube with minimal electronic processing.
Limitations-
- No spectrographic information (don't know what incoming radiation is)
- can't measure high radiation rate due to system dead time
- high radiation will degrade fill gas
- Can't be used to measure H-3 radiation (weak source)
- Not recommended for measuring gamma contamination

3. Application areas with example

A device for detecting smoke, fire, or some other hazardous condition. a device for detecting
the presence of metal, contraband, or other items that might be hidden or concealed.
4. Commercially available information of sensors viz. specifications, pics, etc.
 5. Any other relevant information available online.

FLAME SENSOR
A flame-sensor is one kind of detector which is mainly designed for detecting as well as
responding to the occurrence of a fire or flame. The flame detection response can depend
on its fitting. It includes an alarm system, a natural gas line, propane & a fire suppression
system. This sensor is used in industrial boilers. The main function of this is to give
authentication whether the boiler is properly working or not. The response of these sensors
is faster as well as more accurate compared with a heat/smoke detector because of its
mechanism while detecting the flame.
Working principle with schematic diagram
This sensor/detector can be built with an electronic circuit using a receiver like
electromagnetic radiation. This sensor uses the infrared flame flash method, which allows
the sensor to work through a coating of oil, dust, water vapor, otherwise ice
Flame Sensor Module

The pin configuration of this sensor is shown below. It includes four pins which include the
following. When this module works with a microcontroller unit then the pins are

Pin1 (VCC pin): Voltage supply rages from 3.3V to 5.3V

Pin2 (GND): This is a ground pin
Pin3 (AOUT): This is an analog output pin (MCU.IO) Pin4 (DOUT): This is a digital output pin
(MCU.IO)
Application
• Hydrogen stations
Industrial heating
Fire detection
• Fire alarm
• Firefighting robot
Drying systems
Industrial gas turbines
• Domestic heating systems
• Gas-powered cooking devices

The features of this sensor include the following.

• Photosensitivity is high
Response time is fast
Simple to use
Sensitivity is adjustable
Detection angle is 600,
• It is responsive to the flame range.
Accuracy can be adjustable
• Operating voltage of this sensor is 3.3V to 5V
Analog voltage o/ps and digital switch o/ps
The PCB size is 3cm X 1.6cm
• Power indicator & digital switch o/p indicator
• If the flame intensity is lighter within 0.8m then the flame test can be activated, if the
flame intensity is high, then the detection of distance will be improved.

LEAK SENSOR
Leak sensors, also referred to as leak detectors, are devices that serve to provide an alarm
condition or visual indication of the presence of a leak condition from a pipe or other system
that contains liquids or gas.
Working principle with schematic diagram
The leaked helium gas is ionized by the electron beam from the filament within the
ion chamber of the analyzing tube. The ions are accelerated and move out through a slit and
then pass through the magnetic field generated by the analyzer. Since the circular
trajectories of the ions depend on their mass, the collector can catch only the helium ions
and detect helium.
 Application areas with example
• Water leak detection can be an area of concern for homeowners and businesses. Within a
typical home, for example, there are a large number of potential sources of water leaks.
Some of these include:
• Cold water service pipes that feed domestic water after the water meter to
different fixtures and appliances.
• Hot water heaters that heat and store domestic hot water for use.
• Hot water pipes that distribute heated water to fixtures and appliances.
• Boiler piping that distributes heated water to radiators or convectors in homes that
utilize hydronic heating systems.
• Safety and overpressure valves that deliberately discharge water from pressure
vessels when system pressures exceed safe operating systems levels.
• Drain and waste system piping that carries wastewater to sewer or septic systems.
Refrigerator connections for ice makers and cold-water dispensers.
• Piping for external water faucets, hose bibs, and other connection points.

FLOW SENSOR
A flow sensor is an electronic device that measures or regulates the flow rate of liquids and
gasses within pipes and tubes. Flow sensors are generally connected to gauges to render
their measurements, but they can also be connected to computers and digital
 interfaces. They are commonly used in HVAC systems, medical devices, chemical
factories, and septic systems. Flow sensors are able to detect leaks, blockages, pipe bursts,
and changes in liquid concentration due to contamination or pollution.
Working principle with schematic diagram
Vortex-shedding sensors detect flow from viscosity-related effects of a blunt object
in a flow stream. Basically, when fluid flows around an object, vortices are shed alternately
from one side of the object, and then the other, in a regular pattern. Sensing the rate of
vortex passage gives a measure of flow velocity. A number of methods have been
developed to detect vortex passage. One is a piezoelectric crystal element that senses
induced strain in the shedder bar; another is diaphragm pressure sensors located just
beyond the shedder bar. Both have good dynamic range (20:1) and excellent accuracy
(0.8%)

Application areas with example

Water flow sensors can measure the rate of flow of water either by measuring velocity or
displacement. These sensors can also measure the flow of water like fluids such as measuring
milk in a dairy industry etc.
There are various types of water flow sensors available based on their diameter and method of
measuring. A cost-effective and most commonly used water flow sensor is Paddlewheel sensor.
It can be used with water-like fluids.