Influence of Under Sleeper Pads on Ballast Behavior Under

Cyclic Loading: Experimental and Numerical Studies

Sinniah K. Navaratnarajah, Ph.D. 1; Buddhima Indraratna, Ph.D., F.ASCE 2; and Ngoc Trung Ngo, Ph.D. 3
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Abstract: Railway industries are placing greater emphasis on implementing fast and heavy haul corridors for bulk freight and commuter
transport in order to deliver more efficient and cost-effective services. However, increasing dynamic stresses from the passage of trains
progressively degrades and fouls the primary load-bearing ballast layer, which inevitably leads to excessive settlement and instability, damage
to track elements, and more frequent maintenance. Ballasted tracks are subjected to even greater stresses and faster deterioration in sections
where a reduced ballast thickness is used (e.g., bridge decks) or at locations where heavier concrete sleepers are used instead of lightweight
timber sleepers. The inclusion of under sleeper pads (USPs) at the base of a concrete sleeper is one measure used to minimize dynamic
stresses and subsequent track deterioration. In this study, cyclic loads from fast and heavy haul trains were simulated using a large-scale
process simulation prismoidal triaxial apparatus (PSPTA) to investigate the performance of ballast improved by USPs. The laboratory results
indicate that the inclusion of an elastic element at the harder interface of the concrete sleeper–ballast reduces the stresses transmitted to the
ballast and the underlying layers and minimizes the amount of deformation and degradation of the ballast. A three-dimensional finite-element
model was used to predict the behavior of ballast, and the influence of USPs on the stress–strain responses of ballast generally agree with the
experimental findings. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001954. © 2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Under sleeper pads; Railroad ballast; Cyclic load; Deformation; Degradation; Numerical model.

Introduction Rail tracks are subjected to faster deterioration in sections where

Rail networks in many countries play a prominent role in the con-
veyance of bulk freight and commuter transport. The Australian
Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport, and Regional Economics
(BITRE) forecast to the year 2030 suggests that road and rail freight
volumes will more than double, with domestic demand for manu-
factured goods underpinning much of road freight’s future growth
and an expected expansion in mineral exports supporting the
growth in rail freight (BITRE 2008). Therefore, conventional bal-
lasted rail tracks must be improved in order to cope with increasing
demand for commuter transport and heavy haul freight networks
for minerals and agricultural goods. However, cyclic and impact
loads generated by fast-moving heavy haul cause breakage, high
lateral spread, and settlement of ballast, leading to rail–sleeper (tie)
misalignment and loss of load-bearing capacity, and hence, compro-
mised safety and frequent track maintenance. Therefore, improving
railroad stability to operate high-speed passenger and heavy haul
freight services has become a key challenge not only in Australia
but also in Europe, America, and Asia.
1
Senior Lecturer, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Univ. of Peradeniya, Peradeniya 20400, Sri Lanka. Email: navask@eng
.pdn.ac.lk
2
Distinguished Professor of Civil Engineering and Research Director,
Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering, Univ. of Wollongong,
Wollongong City, NSW 2522, Australia; Director, ARC Training Centre for
Advanced Technologies in Rail Track Infrastructure, Univ. of Wollongong,
NSW 2522, Australia (corresponding author). Email: indra@uow.edu.au
3
Research Fellow, Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering,
Univ. of Wollongong, Wollongong City, NSW 2522, Australia. Email:
trung@uow.edu.au
Note. This manuscript was submitted on November 7, 2017; approved
on April 25, 2018; published online on July 14, 2018. Discussion period
open until December 14, 2018; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241.
a reduced ballast thickness is used and at locations where heavier
concrete sleepers (ties) are used in conjunction with increased axle
loads (e.g., iron ore networks in Australian mining hubs). From a
structural viewpoint, the damping capacity of the track at these lo-
cations is inadequate (Li et al. 2015). In recent years, the use of soft
synthetic rubber elements in track foundations to restore track resil-
ience and alleviate track damage has become increasingly popular
(Zhai et al. 2004; Martins et al. 2009; Marschnig and Veit 2011;
Alves Costa et al. 2012; Nimbalkar et al. 2012; Indraratna et al.
2014a; Sol-Sanchez et al. 2015; Navaratnarajah and Indraratna
2017). Among a wide range of mitigation techniques, one option is
to modify the vertical stiffness of track by attaching resilient rubber
pads (known as under sleeper pads, or USPs) under sleepers, espe-
cially under heavy-duty concrete sleepers (Loy 2008; Marschnig
and Veit 2011; Indraratna et al. 2012; Nimbalkar et al. 2012; Sol-
Sanchez et al. 2015). In addition to reducing track stiffness, USPs
increase the contact area between sleeper and ballast, which helps to
distribute the wheel load to more adjacent sleepers and leads to a
reduction in stress transmitted from the sleepers to the substructure
layer (Witt 2008; Indraratna et al. 2014a; Sol-Sanchez et al. 2014;
Abadi et al. 2015). Sleeper pads also even out the differences in
stiffness along transition zones and turnouts (Loy 2009). When soft
USPs were installed under hard concrete sleepers, ballast degrada-
tion decreased, the intervals at which it was necessary to tamp the
ballast were extended by 2–2.5 times, and the service life of ballast
increased by at least 100%, resulting in enormous savings in main-
tenance expenditures (Lakuši et al. 2010; Marschnig and Veit 2011).
Ngo et al. (2017b) studied the use of geo-inclusions for improved
performance of ballasted track substructure in the laboratory; field
observation and computational modeling showed that a substantial
reduction in shear strains and particle breakage could be gained by
using geo-inclusions in the track substructure. Danesh et al. (2017)
investigated the effect of ballast degradation on its shear strength
behavior and indicated that by increasing the degradation, i.e., the
breakage ratio, up to 21%, shear strength decreases up to 48%.

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 In addition, the dilation angle of degraded ballast assemblies de-
creases both with an increase in breakage ratio and with an increase
in normal stress; this is in agreement with the study conducted by
Indraratna et al. (2011a). Currently, there is a lack of a comprehen-
sive assessment of the most relevant geotechnical characteristics and
the associated response of ballast under cyclic loading when resil-
ient elements are used in track substructure. Therefore, this research
was carried out to study the behavior of ballast under repeated cyclic
loading and to verify the effectiveness of USPs in attenuating the
adverse effects of cyclic stress–strain behavior and the correspond-
ing ballast degradation.
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Laboratory experiments were carried out to simulate a proto-
type track substructure using a novel process simulation prismoidal
triaxial apparatus (PSPTA) to investigate the behavior of ballast
with and without USPs under a large number of cyclic loadings
(N ¼ 500,000 cycles), simulating axle loads of 25 and 35 t at
frequencies of 15 and 20 Hz (representing train speeds of 110 and
145 km=h, respectively). Numerical simulations using the com-
mercially available finite-element program ABAQUS (2012) in
three dimensions were also carried out to model the behavior of
ballast. The large-scale laboratory findings were used to calibrate
and validate the numerical model. The findings of this study will
assist railway engineers in more effectively designing and con-
structing new tracks or in upgrading existing tracks adopting USPs
for concrete sleepers.
Experimental Study
Laboratory Test Materials
The fresh ballast and subballast materials commonly used in
New South Wales (NSW) rail tracks were used for laboratory
testing. These materials were obtained from Bombo quarry near
Wollongong. The ballast aggregates used in this study were pre-
dominantly latite (volcanic) basalt, a common igneous rock that
can be found along the south coast of NSW, Australia. These dark
basalt aggregates are fine-grained, very dense, and have sharp an-
gular corners when blasted and quarried. The fresh ballast obtained
Fig. 1. Particle size distribution and a sample under sleeper pad.
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from the quarry was cleaned with water to remove any dust and
clay adhering to the aggregates, dried before screening through
selected sieve sizes, and then mixed in the desired proportions
to obtain the required particle size distribution (PSD) in accor-
dance with current Australian practice (AS 2015). Fig. 1 shows
the PSD and grain size characteristics of the ballast. The maximum
dry density γ d;max and corresponding optimum moisture content
womc of the subballast were 2,115 kg=m3 and 10%, respectively.
Prior to testing, the raw granular subballast was sieved to meet
Australian standards (AS 2015). Fig. 1 shows its PSD and grain
size characteristics. The USP used in this study (see inset in Fig. 1)
was a 10-mm-thick elastoplastic synthetic material made from
polyurethane elastomers. The USP was glued tightly to the base
(790 × 220 mm) of the concrete sleeper (at the sleeper–ballast in-
terface) when testing with the pad. Fig. 1 shows the mechanical
properties of the USP. The USP material is predominantly elastic,
with some plastic (irrecoverable) deformations observed on the pads
after several years of use in tracks. The USP material does not have
any significant viscous (creep) behavior in the initial stages of its
life, but viscous effects may develop after many years of use. The
aspect of potential viscous behavior over the long term was not
within the scope of the current study.
Large-Scale Test Apparatus
The large-scale process simulation prismoidal triaxial apparatus
at the University of Wollongong, Australia was used to carry out
the cyclic loading tests. By exploiting the double symmetry of a
straight track section (Australian standard gauge), the plan dimen-
sions of the PSPTA (600 × 800 mm) represented a simplified unit
cell in which the side slope of the track prism and the role of
shoulder ballast have not been considered. The depth of the PSPTA
was 600 mm. Also, unlike traditional test rigs with a fixed rigid
boundary (steel or Perspex), the PSPTA with movable vertical
steel walls allowed lateral displacements to occur against the lat-
eral confining pressure applied at the boundaries of the unit cell
(Navaratnarajah and Indraratna 2017). The use of a Teflon spray
on the sides of the steel wall surface eliminated undue shear stresses
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.
 on the boundary, ensuring that the load was fully transmitted to
the material being tested rather than to the boundary. Therefore,
the influence of the boundary can be considered minimal. A stan-
dard concrete sleeper of 220 mm wide and 200 mm thick
(Kaewunruen 2007) was cut to 780 mm long (i.e., slightly less
than the chamber length of 800 mm) to fit inside the test chamber.
Figs. 2(a and b) show a schematic representation of the PSPTA, the
rail–sleeper assembly, and the substructure layers and dimensions.
Fig. 2(c) shows the PSPTA cubical chamber. In this study, a plane
strain condition was simulated by ensuring a near-zero lateral strain
in the longitudinal direction (the train passage direction, which was
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constant at 15 kPa by a hydraulic jack connected to the vertical
walls in the transverse direction. The accompanying lateral move-
ment ε3 was measured during testing [Figs. 2(b and c)]. The lateral
confining pressure provided by the shallow granular foundation of
a track is relatively small; therefore, the constant homogenous con-
fining pressure of 15 kPa applied was well within the acceptable
range or variation measured in typical Australian tracks. Typically,
for NSW ballast gradations, the initial stresses were kept constant at
around 10–15 kPa in the transverse direction (parallel to the
sleeper) and at about 15–30 kPa along the longitudinal direction,
for which the lateral strains had to be kept as small as possible

perpendicular to the sleepers). For a long, straight section of track,
longitudinal strain ε2 is negligible; thus, the assumption of a plane
strain condition (i.e., ε2 ¼ 0) is often reasonable. While the longi-
tudinal side walls were kept restrained by a hydraulic jack con-
nected to the wall, the confining pressure σ2 exerted by the walls
in the longitudinal direction varied during the tests, and it was mea-
sured by the load cell attached in line with the hydraulic jack
[Figs. 2(b and c)]. The lateral pressure σ3 provided by the weight
of the crib and shoulder ballast in a real rail track was simulated by
the lateral vertical walls (parallel to the sleeper) and was held
(i.e., plane strain) as measured by Indraratna et al. (2011b). This
confinement was also validated by field measurements from Single-
ton and Bulli tracks in NSW and was also in agreement with large-
scale laboratory tests conducted by Le Pen (2008). Under a typical
confining pressure of 15 kPa, the PSPTA can allow a maximum
lateral movement of 50 mm (i.e., 25 mm on each side). Unlike tra-
ditional test rigs with a fixed rigid (steel or Perspex) boundary, the
PSPTA, with its movable vertical walls (i.e., facilitated by small
rolling castors), allows lateral displacements to occur against the
lateral confining pressure applied at the boundaries of the unit cell.

Fig. 2. (Color) PSPTA and the test setup: (a) front view; (b) plan view; and (c) triaxial cubical chamber of PSPTA.

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 Although in the field the lateral confinement provided by ballast
shoulders varies when ballast starts to displace under the axle load,
in this experimental procedure the lateral pressure was kept con-
stant at 15 kPa.
Experimental Setup and Test Procedures
The bottom layer of the test specimen consisted of a 150-mm-thick
subballast [compacted to around 95% of γ d;max using a rubber
padded vibratory hammer; see Fig. 3(a)] overlain by a 300-mm-
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not directly under the sleeper) were painted yellow [Figs. 3(b–d)].
The spray paint used in this study was a non-oil-based product that
provided a very thin coating (bright colors) on the particles; there-
fore, the surface texture of the ballast was not affected. Large-scale
direct shear tests (300 mm width × 300 mm length × 200 mm height)
were carried out on both original (i.e., not painted) ballast and
painted-ballast assemblies by Indraratna et al. (2017); the tests in-
dicated that the paint’s influence on interparticle friction was neg-
ligible (i.e., indicated almost the same shear strength envelope). The
rail–sleeper assembly was then placed at the center [Fig. 3(d)] and
the space around the sleeper was filled with white-color-coated

thick layer of ballast. Fresh ballast was placed as three 100 mm thick
layers and compacted to a typical field density of 1,560 kg=m3 (ini-
tial void ratio e0 ¼ 0.73, and specific gravity Gs ¼ 2.7) by using a
rubber padded vibratory compactor to minimize any ballast break-
age during tamping [Fig. 3(b)]. The representative ballast aggre-
gates directly under the sleeper in each of the three layers (bottom,
middle, and top layers) were color coded red, green, and blue to
differentiate them and better assess the degradation of ballast with
depth [Figs. 3(b–d)]. The aggregates below the sleeper (which were
[Fig. 3(e)] 150-mm-thick compacted ballast (crib ballast). When
testing with USPs, the pads were glued tightly to the base of the
concrete sleepers [Fig. 3(f)]. A total of 500,000 load cycles (N) were
applied for each test. The different types of instrumentation and
methods of data acquisition used in this study and the details of the
cyclic loads applied are explained in subsequent sections. Due to
the height limitation of the PSPTA (600 mm) the effect of subgrade
was not considered in this study. The depth of the test chamber was
sufficient to accommodate the typical depth of ballast in Australian

Fig. 3. (Color) (a) Compacted subballast layer; (b) compaction of ballast using a rubber padded vibratory hammer; (c) pressure cell placed at the
middle of the ballast layer; (d) rail–sleeper assembly placed on top of the ballast layer and pressure cell placed at the sleeper–ballast interface; (e) top
view of final test arrangements showing crib ballast around sleeper, settlement plates, potentiometer, and servohydraulic actuator; and (f) USP
attached to concrete sleeper.

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 track conditions (i.e., 250–300 mm) followed by the underlying sub-
ballast. No laboratory equipment is able to represent the actual depth
of the subgrade soil or rock below the track, and this limitation is
also stated in the revised paper, where the nondisplacement boun-
dary of the PSPTA was fixed at a depth of 600 mm. Given that the
bottom steel boundary was rigid and sitting on a strong laboratory
floor (steel and concrete), this equipment was sufficient to mimic
to some extent very stiff subgrade, but in situations where deep
soft clays exist as subgrade, measured settlements will be underes-
timated by PSPTA as explained elsewhere by Indraratna et al.
(2011b).
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cyclic loading applied was determined using the AREA method (Li
and Selig 1998a) and is explained elsewhere (Navaratnarajah and
Indraratna 2017). Initially, a strain-controlled loading at a rate of
1 mm=s was applied to bring the ballast–sleeper interface stress
0
up to the mean cyclic deviator stress σ1cyc;mean of 130 and 175 kPa
for 25 and 35 t, respectively, and then a stress-controlled loading
0
was applied by selecting loading amplitude A of ½1=2ðσ1cyc;max −
0
σ1cyc;min Þ 100 and 145 kPa, corresponding to axle loads of 25 and
35 t, respectively. The stress-controlled load was applied in two
stages: (1) a conditioning phase in which a reduced loading fre-
quency (f) of 5 Hz was used for 100 load cycles N to improve

contact at the sleeper–ballast interface and avoid losing actuator

Instrumentation and Data Acquisition contact with the rail top surface, which ensures that the different
components are seated properly at their interfaces; and (2) a loading
The vertical and lateral loads were measured using in-built load phase in which an actual test frequency (15 and 20 Hz) was applied
cells attached to the main actuator and to the hydraulic jacks, re- for the remaining 500,000 cycles.
spectively [Fig. 2(c)]. Lateral deformation was measured by the to-
tal lateral displacements of the two side walls. Linear variable
differential transformers were connected between the vertical walls Experimental Results and Discussion
and the fixed external frames to measure the lateral movements of
the walls. A system of hinges and linear ball bearings that con-
Sleeper–Ballast Interface Contacts
nected to the two side walls was regularly lubricated to minimize
frictional resistance and enable the walls to displace laterally with The performance of USPs in the attenuation of stress–strain and
minimum friction. Rapid response hydraulic pressure cells (with a degradation responses was evaluated by eight large-scale cyclic
capacity of 1 MPa, a diameter of 230 mm, and a height of 25 mm) load tests. When a track transmits a more concentrated rail seat load
specifically made for granular soil types were placed at (1) the bal- to sleepers, the sleeper–ballast interface distributes the load over
last–subballast interface [Fig. 3(a)], (2) the middle of the ballast a larger area. However, the sleeper only transmits stresses through
layer [Fig. 3(c)], and (3) the sleeper–ballast interface [Fig. 3(d)] a finite number of small, discrete contacts at the ballast–sleeper
in order to measure variations in pressure with depth. The pressure interface (Le Pen 2008). In this study, to increase the interface
cells were placed with care to ensure they were in full contact with contact area, a resilient rubber pad (USP) was used with the con-
the subballast, the ballast layers, and the concrete sleeper to avoid crete sleeper. Visual observations showed that the ballast particles
any erroneous data being recorded during testing. The settlement bedded uniformly with the concrete sleeper when a USP was placed
plates (base of 100 × 100 × 6 mm attached to 10-mm-diameter on the base of the sleeper. Fig. 4(a) shows the USP attached to the
rods with lengths that matched the depth of the embedded layers) base of the concrete sleeper before the test, and Fig. 4(b) shows the
installed at the ballast–subballast interface and the potentiometers
(stroke 100 mm) placed at the top of the sleeper were used to
measure the vertical deformation of the ballast [Figs. 3(d and e)].
Every instrument was calibrated and the calibration factors were
inserted into the host computer, which is supported by LabVIEW
(version 10.0) software to record all associated load, stress, and
deformation data against time and the number of loading cycles
N during testing. The transducer casings and the cables of the in-
struments were encased in flexible rubber conduits to protect them
from damage caused by vibratory compaction during preparation
and during the cyclic loadings. All sensors (pressure plates and po-
tentiometers) were connected to an electronic data logger DT800
(HBM, West Leederville, Australia) and were controlled by a host
computer supported by LabVIEW software to record continuous
data at a frequency of every 1 s. A total of half a million load cycles
was applied in each test, but the tests were interrupted at specific
cycles (100, 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, 50,000, 100,000, 200,000,
300,000, 400,000, and 500,000) to take manual readings from set-
tlement pegs and to capture the resilience of ballast material at the
end of these cycles. The initial readings of all the instruments were
taken before starting the cyclic loading test phase. The final weights
of each of the three ballast layers (after screening through selected
sieves as per the PSD) were carefully measured for ballast breakage
calculations.

Applied Cyclic Loading

The cyclic load was applied to the rail–sleeper assembly and ballast
Fig. 4. (Color) USP (a) before test; and (b) after test (at the end of
layer by a servohydraulic actuator through a 100 mm diameter
500,000 load cycles).
cylindrical steel ram [Figs. 2(c) and 3(e)]. The harmonic sinusoidal

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 imprints of ballast on the pad after the test (i.e., after 500,000 load
cycles). This clearly indicates that the contact area between the bal-
last and the sleeper was significantly increased, because the resil-
ient layer allowed the ballast aggregates to be partially pressed
(indented) at the surface of USP. This resulted in a more uniform
distribution of pressure than would have occurred without a USP on
the base of the concrete sleeper. Although polymeric materials such
as sleeper pads deteriorate when exposed to the environment (from
thermal exposure, oxidation, photolysis, and hydrolysis), they have
a service life of approximately 20 years (Ito and Nagai 2008;
Lakuši et al. 2010). A careful visual check of the sleeper pads after
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the tests showed that the pads still remained in contact with the
sleeper and were in good condition [Fig. 4(b)] other than some plas-
tic indentation marks on the surface of the pads. With trains passing
repeatedly, it is anticipated that the elastic behavior of sleeper pads
may deteriorate to some extent over time (after several years); the
long-term viscous considerations of sleeper pads have not been
studied, and this is a limitation of this study.
Vertical and Lateral Plastic Deformation and Strain
The stress–strain response of ballast under cyclic loading with and
without resilient rubber mats was evaluated in this study. The ac-
cumulated vertical Svp and lateral Shp plastic deformations and cor-
responding vertical (ε1 ¼ Svp =300) and lateral (ε3 ¼ Shp =800)
plastic strains of ballast (with and without USP) measured at axle
loads of 25 and 35 t at loading frequencies of 15 and 20 Hz are
Fig. 5. (Color) Variation of (a) vertical; and (b) lateral plastic deforma-
tion (and strain) with number of cycles N with and without USP.
© ASCE
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shown in Figs. 5(a and b), respectively. The residual plastic defor-
mation of ballast was measured at the end of each selected cycle N
by taking the average value of the difference between the readings
from the potentiometers placed on top of the sleepers and readings
from the settlement plates placed at the ballast–subballast interface,
to exclude any plastic deformation of the subballast layer.
The test results indicated that the ballast deformed rapidly up
to around 10,000 cycles due to its initial densification and further
packing after the corners of the sharp angular aggregates began to
break. However, once the ballast started to stabilize, the rate of de-
formation gradually decreased and then remained relatively constant
after 100,000 cycles. This showed that ballast aggregates underwent
considerable particle rearrangement and densification during the in-
itial cycles, but after reaching a threshold compression, resisted fur-
ther deformation during any subsequent load cycles (Indraratna
et al. 2013). It is evident that ballast deformation (vertical and lat-
eral) decreased significantly by using USPs. The increased contact
area of ballast by the USPs at the sleeper–ballast interface reduced
the induced stresses at the interface and at particle–particle contact,
allowing for a more uniform distribution of stress, which in turn
decreased overall deformation. For the limited loading frequencies
(15 and 20 Hz) tested in this study, the vertical strain decreased in
the range of 19%–29% for a 25-t axle load and about 21% for a 35-t
axle load when USPs were used with the concrete sleeper. Lateral
strain decreased in the range of 9%–14% for a 25-t axle load and
9%–11% for a 35-t axle load, as shown in Figs. 5(a and b). This
means that attaching USPs at the base of concrete sleepers—for
either new tracks or when wooden sleepers on an existing track
are being replaced by concrete sleepers—is an ideal solution for
reducing the long-term plastic settlement of a track subjected to
repetitive cyclic loading.
Influence of Axle Loads and Train Speed on Vertical
and Lateral Deformation of Ballast
The influence of axle loads and train speeds (loading frequency) on
the permanent vertical and lateral deformation of ballast can best be
presented by comparing those values at the end of testing (i.e., after
500,000 cycles). Figs. 6(a and b) show the variation of vertical and
lateral strains with train speed for 25- and 35-t axle loads with and
without USP. The results show that increasing train speed and axle
load significantly increased the vertical and lateral strains of ballast
and that the USPs played a major role in reducing these strains.
When train speed increased from 110 to 145 km=h, the resulting
vertical and lateral strains increased in the order of 51%–57% and
27%–33%, respectively, and when the axle load increased from 25
to 35 t, the resulting increases in vertical and lateral strains were in
the order of 37%–43% and 53%–60%, respectively, as shown in
Figs. 6(a and b) for the tests without USP. These comparisons
verify that train speed has more influence on vertical strains than
on lateral strains, because increasing train speed increases the
acceleration and vibratory compaction of ballast aggregates. How-
ever, axle load has more influence on lateral strain than on vertical
strain, because compacted ballast has an adequate bearing capacity
for higher loads but, because of lower confinement, the extent of
lateral spreading is comparatively greater. Nevertheless, vertical
and lateral strains decreased markedly when USPs were placed
under the concrete sleepers.
Influence of Loading Frequency f and
Axle Load on Ballast Breakage
Progressive particle degradation occurs when a repetitive cyclic
load is applied to the ballast mass. Initially, grinding and corner
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Fig. 6. (Color) Variation of (a) vertical; and (b) lateral plastic deforma-
tion (and strain) with train speeds for 25- and 35-t axle loads.
breakage of angular ballast at the sleeper–ballast and interparticle
contacts take place, followed by complete fracture across the body
of the particles, depending on the strength of the parent rock and the
level of stress increment (Indraratna et al. 2005; Lackenby et al.
2007). This breakage of ballast particles contributes to increased
axial and lateral strains and also causes differential track settlement.
In this study, the ballast breakage index (BBI) method proposed
specifically for railway ballast by Indraratna et al. (2005) was used
to evaluate ballast degradation. Since ballast breakage potential
varies with depth due to changes in stress along the depth of the
ballast layer, ballast mass was divided into top, middle, and bottom
layers and analyzed separately. These layers correspond to ballast
breakage governed by variations in stress and type of interface.
The top layer is the sleeper–ballast or USP–ballast zone, the middle
layer is the ballast–ballast zone, and the bottom layer is the ballast–
subballast zone. The fresh ballast aggregates directly under the
sleepers were color-coded to better quantify the degradation of
ballast in the three different zones; after testing, each layer of de-
graded ballast was separated according to color to evaluate its BBI.
Fig. 7(a) shows photographs of fresh and degraded ballast at the
top, middle, and the bottom layers. The BBI computed in this study
was based on overall ballast breakage at the completion of the tests
(i.e., at the end of 500,000 load cycles). The BBI for the top,
middle, and bottom layers are presented in Figs. 7(b and c) for
ballast tested with and without USP for 25- and 35-t axle loads,
respectively, at f ¼ 15 and 20 Hz.
As expected, ballast breakage was greater at the top layer be-
cause of higher interface and interparticle contact stress at the top;
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this was followed by the middle layer and then the bottom layer.
The BBI values obtained in this study were similar to those for
samples collected from the field prior to track maintenance: BBI
in the Bulli test track section (Ngo 2012) was 0.08–0.11, and
BBI in the Singleton track section (Indraratna et al. 2014b) was
0.06–0.17 for train speeds of about 70–80 km=h (approximately
10 Hz). The results of the present study indicate that ballast deg-
radation was significantly reduced by the USPs used under the con-
crete sleepers. On average, when all three layers are considered,
USPs reduced degradation by more than 50%. Considering each
ballast layer separately, the reduction for the 25- and 35-t axle loads
tested at 15 and 20 Hz frequency was in the order of 53%–63% for
the top layer, 51%–59% for the middle layer, and 48%–62% for the
bottom layer. The increased contact area due to USPs and the sub-
sequent reduction in the interface and interparticle ballast stress
is probably the main reason behind this substantial reduction in
ballast breakage.
Like plastic strain, ballast degradation also increases with train
speed (loading frequency) and axle loads. For the same axle loads
(25 or 35 t), increasing loading frequency from 15 to 20 Hz caused
an increase in the average BBI of all three layers in the order of
26%–28%. For the same loading frequency (f ¼ 15 or 20 Hz), in-
creasing axle loads from 25 to 35 t (such as from a passenger train
to a freight or coal train) increased the average BBI in the order of
34%–37%. Unlike vertical plastic strain, axle load has more influ-
ence on ballast breakage than loading frequency (i.e., train speed),
because a heavier load contributes more to ballast grinding, corner
breakage, and particle splitting. It can, therefore, be concluded that
increased train speed contributes more to plastic strain, whereas
increased axle load contributes more to ballast degradation.
Influence of USP on the Stress Distribution
The pressure cells placed at the sleeper–ballast interface, in the
middle of the ballast layer, and at the ballast–subballast interface
were used to measure the dynamically induced pressure variations
along the depth of the ballast layer. Fig. 8 shows the variations in
pressure with and without USPs. The load at the wheel–rail inter-
face produced by a moving train on a real track is greater than that
of the same train in a stationary state (Esveld 2001; Kerr 2003).
Consequently, the dynamic stresses induced at the sleeper–ballast
interface and stresses in the substructure layers below the sleeper
are also higher. In conventional railway engineering practice, the
dynamic amplification factor (DAF) is used to define the equivalent
dynamic stresses, in which DAF is a function of static wheel load
and train speed (Li and Selig 1998b; Esveld 2001). The amplified
stresses shown in Fig. 8 correspond to dynamic stresses measured
for static loads applied at frequencies of 15 and 20 Hz (train speeds
of 110 and 145 km=h, respectively), which are much larger than the
static stresses.
It is evident that the dynamically induced stresses in the ballast
increased substantially with axle load and more moderately with
train speed (loading frequency). When USPs were placed under
the concrete sleepers, there was a definite reduction in stress within
the ballast mass, because the dynamically induced stress was re-
duced by the softer interface between the ballast and the concrete
sleepers by the USPs. On average, the percentage reduction of
stress for a 25-t axle load varied from about 12% at the sleeper–
ballast interface to 10% at the middle of the ballast layer and to
about 9.5% at the ballast–subballast interface. For a 35 t axle load,
the reduction in stress was about 10% at the sleeper–ballast inter-
face, about 8.5% at the middle of the ballast layer, and about 8% at
the ballast–subballast interface. This reduction in stress was higher
in the zone near the USP–ballast interface. When a USP is used
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Fig. 7. (Color) (a) Color-coded fresh and degraded ballast from the top, middle, and bottom layers; and variation of ballast breakage index with
loading frequency and with and without USP for (b) 25 t; and (c) 35 t axle loads.

Fig. 8. (Color) Variation of ballast pressure with depth with and without USP.

with a concrete sleeper, the ballast aggregates make a more uniform
and increased area of contact at the sleeper–ballast interface,
which leads to a reduction in ballast stress. These results are in
agreement with the findings by Dahlberg (2010) and Le et al.
(1999), in which the authors found that an increased area of
interface (ballast–sleeper) contact when USPs were provided at
the base of sleepers leads to a reduction in interface stresses.
The vertical stress distribution obtained from the conventional elas-
tic analysis (Boussinesq’s method) has been included in Fig. 8 for
comparison. These data correspond to 25- and 35-t axle loads at a

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 frequency of 20 Hz under without USP conditions. The theoretical
elastic stress distribution obtained from Boussinesq’s method devi-
ates substantially from what was measured. It is noteworthy that a
significant amount of energy dissipates through particle breakage, a
fact that the conventional elastic analysis cannot capture.
Numerical Analysis
The stress–strain behavior of an integrated layered system con-
sisting of a sleeper (tie), ballast, subballast, and under sleeper pad
(USP) has been investigated using the finite-element method, for
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which the commercially available software ABAQUS (2012) was
used. The three-dimensional (3D) FEM model developed in this
study simulates ballast behavior with and without a USP attached
to the base of a concrete sleeper subjected to cyclic loading. The
model represents a plane strain condition by ensuring zero lateral
strain in the longitudinal direction (direction of train passage) as
explained previously. In this study, the dynamic explicit numerical
technique was used to simulate the repeated cyclic loading behavior
of ballast.
Model Geometry and Boundary Conditions
In the finite-element (FE) analysis, the unit cell of a rail track sub-
structure (prototype sample) replicated in the PSPTA used in the
laboratory was modeled. Fig. 9(a) shows a full-size model of the
unit cell and its dimensions. To optimize computational time, only
one-quarter of the unit cell was modeled in the FEM analysis by
exploiting the symmetry of the unit cell in each perpendicular di-
rection in the horizontal plane, as shown in Fig. 9(b). The boundary
conditions were applied by considering the geometric symmetry.
The interior vertical boundaries on either side of the axes of sym-
metry were restrained from lateral movement in their respective di-
rections and were only allowed to move in the vertical direction.
The bottom boundary was fixed for any movement in the vertical
direction to model a rigid boundary underlying the integrated sub-
structure layers. A plane strain condition was applied to the exterior
boundary in the longitudinal direction (intermediate principal
strain, ε2 ¼ 0), and the exterior transverse boundary was allowed
to move with a lateral confining stress of 15 kPa (minor principal
stress, σ3 ) applied on the right boundaries of the exterior elements
on the right side. The top boundary of the model was allowed to
move in the vertical direction (free boundary) under the application
of cyclic stress (major principal stress, σ1cyc ) at the rail seat surface
[Fig. 9(b)]. In this numerical analysis, 25- and 35-t axle loads with a
loading frequency of 15 Hz were simulated with and without USP.
Material Properties and Cyclic Loading
The ballast and subballast were modeled as an elastoplastic material
with nonassociative behavior obeying the Drucker-Prager yield
criterion (Drucker and Prager 1952). This yield criterion is com-
monly used to simulate granular materials such as ballast, because
its strength and yield characteristics depend on the level of stress and
the volumetric strain (Leshchinsky and Ling 2013; Biabani et al.
2016). The Drucker-Prager yield criterion, with a rounded yield sur-
face, is simple to use as opposed to the Mohr-Coulomb yield cri-
terion, with a sharp, hexagonally shaped yield surface around the
hydrostatic axis (Leshchinsky and Ling 2013). The material param-
eters for the Drucker-Prager model were obtained based on labora-
tory triaxial testing carried out on ballast and subballast materials
obtained from the Bombo quarry, New South Wales (Indraratna
et al. 2011b). For simplicity, the concrete sleepers and the under
sleeper pads were modeled as linear elastic materials. Table 1
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summarizes the material properties used for the FE simulation.
There are two forms of bulk viscosity (linear and quadratic bulk
viscosity) introduced in the ABAQUS/Explicit analysis to improve
the modeling of high-speed dynamic events. Therefore, a small
amount of bulk viscosity was included by default in the FE analysis,
which is appropriate for most models (ABAQUS 2012). Surface-to-
surface contact elements were used to model the contact between
two surfaces.
The cyclic loading was applied at the rail seat to simulate
25- and 35-t axle loads with f ¼ 15 Hz. The mean [σ1cyc;mean ¼
1 1
2 ðσ1cyc;max þ σ1cyc;min Þ] and amplitude [A ¼ 2 ðσ1cyc;max − σ1cyc;min Þ]
of the applied cyclic load was based on cyclic stress measured
through data-burst techniques at regular intervals during actual
laboratory testing. A periodic type of amplitude curve with a sinus-
oidal variation of stress with time was used under the ABAQUS
load module to apply cyclic stress on the rail seat surface. The
FE analyses were carried out only up to 10,000 load cycles for each
set of simulations in consideration of the time required for solving a
3D finite element problem under a large number of cyclic loadings
(Indraratna and Nimbalkar 2013).
Finite-Element Discretization and Element Type
The finite-element model was meshed using a structured pattern
consisting of 3D, 8-noded linear brick, and reduced integration
(C3D8R) hexahedral elements. The computation time for a coarser
mesh is quite small but generally underestimates the displacements,
whereas a finer mesh is computationally more time-consuming and
expensive but provides more realistic results. Thus, a sensitivity
analysis to compare the vertical deformation obtained from differ-
ent numbers of elements of the same model was carried out by sim-
ulating a 25-t axle load at f ¼ 10 Hz. The cyclic load of up to
1,000 load cycles was applied with USPs for different numbers
of elements in the mesh ranging from 672 to 79,200. Based on
the results of this sensitivity analysis, an FE model with 10,200
C3D8R elements (11,760 nodes) was selected for further cyclic
loading simulation. Fig. 9(c) shows the selected mesh with differ-
ent types of substructure layers. The vertical size of the USP ele-
ments were seeded locally to match the thickness of the USPs
(i.e., 10 mm); all the other elements were >10 mm or mostly equal
to 20-mm-thick cube elements.
Numerical Analysis: Results and Discussion
Vertical Deformation
Figs. 10(a and b) show the vertical deformation Sv of a 35 t axle
load simulated at a cyclic loading frequency f of 15 Hz up to
10,000 load cycles without and with USP, respectively. These fig-
ures represent the deformation contours of the full model and a
longitudinal section (a half-section along the middle of the sleeper)
in order to better understand the deformation behavior of the sub-
structure layers. The same Sv stress limits for the contour plots are
used for Figs. 10(a and b) in order to compare deformation under
two different substructure conditions (i.e., with and without USPs).
These figures show that maximum Sv occurs in the vicinity of the
loaded area of a sleeper. The ballast at the corners and longitudinal
edges of the unit cell showed a dilation behavior, because the crib
ballast was not confined from the top and was free to move in a
vertical direction (i.e., free boundary at the top). The magnitude of
Sv decreased along the depth of the substructure layers. These re-
sults also confirm that USPs placed under concrete sleepers sub-
stantially reduce vertical deformation of the substructure.
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Fig. 9. (Color) (a) Unit cell of a rail track substructure; (b) finite-element idealization of a quarter unit cell model showing loads and boundary
conditions; and (c) FE mesh for simulation and type of element.

To compare the vertical deformation Sv of ballast predicted by (with USP). The magnitude of Sv increased with the axle load, with
FE analysis with the laboratory data, the variation of Sv was plotted or without USP. The predicted value of Sv compares reasonably
against the number of cycles N for 25- and 35-t axle loads at well with the experimental results, at least at the initial stages of
f ¼ 15 Hz, as shown in Fig. 11(a) (without USP) and Fig. 11(b) loading cycles (N ≤ 1,000). Cyclic strain hardening appears in

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 Table 1. Material properties for FE analysis Sh with and without USP, the same stress limits were used in these
Material stress contour plots. The results from the FE analysis confirm that
the use of USPs under concrete sleepers decreases the lateral
Under
spreading of the ballast and subballast layers.
Concrete sleeper
Property Ballast Subballast sleeper pad As Figs. 12(a and b) show, the magnitude of Sh increased with
3
depth, and the maximum Sh occurred at a depth of 140–160 mm
Density, γ (kg=m ) 1,560 2,115 2,400 420 from the base of the sleeper and then decreased in the deeper part
Elastic modulus, E (MPa) 125 100 36,000 6
of the substructure. The maximum lateral displacement contours
Poisson’s ratio, ν 0.25 0.3 0.2 0.48
Friction angle, ϕ (degrees) 45 38 — — concentrated in the vicinity of one-half to two-thirds depth from
Angle of dilation, ψ (degrees) 15 9 — — the base of the sleeper. These results suggest that to reduce lateral
spreading, the optimum location for any geo-inclusions (geogrids
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or geocells) within the ballast layer would be at a depth between

the later stages of the loading cycles (N > 1,000); the predicted
deformation curve flattens after about 1,000 cycles. The degrada-
tion of ballast particles was not considered in this FE simulation,
and this, in addition to the simplifications and approximations
adopted in the numerical procedures, could be one of the reasons
for the difference in deformation between the experimental and
numerical results at N > 1,000, (Leshchinsky and Ling 2013;
Biabani 2015; Sun 2015). Nevertheless, the magnitude of Sv
was markedly reduced by USPs for 25- and 35-t axle loads simu-
lated at f ¼ 15 Hz, as captured well in this FEM simulation.
Lateral Deformation
Figs. 12(a and b) show the lateral deformation Sh of a 35 t axle load
simulated at f ¼ 15 Hz up to 10,000 load cycles without and with
USPs, respectively. For the purpose of comparing the variation of
one-half and two-thirds from the base of the sleeper. These obser-
vations agree with the findings of Oh (2013) and Ferreira and
Indraratna (2017).
The average lateral deformations Sh of the transverse boundary
of the FE model and laboratory experiments were compared by
plotting the variations of Sh against the number of cycles for 25-
and 35-t axle loads at f ¼ 15 Hz. Figs. 13(a and b) show the results
without and with USPs, respectively. The predicted Sh by FE analy-
sis confirms that increasing the axle load from 25 to 35 t increases
the lateral spreading of ballast with or without the use of USPs,
which is consistent with the laboratory findings. The value of Sh
predicted by FEM was comparable to the experimental findings
despite the fact that in the FE analysis, most of the lateral defor-
mation occurred at the initial stages of the cyclic load (N ≤ 1,000);
the laboratory results indicated an incremental lateral deformation
even after N > 1,000. As previously mentioned, the fact that ballast
breakage was not considered in the FE simulation could be one of

Fig. 10. (Color) Vertical deformation predicted from FEM (35 t axle load and f ¼ 15 Hz): (a) without USP; and (b) with USP.

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Fig. 11. (Color) Variation of vertical deformation of ballast with N: laboratory measurements versus FE model prediction (a) without USP; and
(b) with USP.

Fig. 12. (Color) Lateral deformation predicted from FEM (35 t axle load and f ¼ 15 Hz): (a) without USP; and (b) with USP.

the reasons for this. Nevertheless, the reduction of Sh was evident
from the simulation results when a USP was used with a concrete
sleeper for 25- and 35-t axle loads simulated at f ¼ 15 Hz.
Distribution of Stress in the Ballast
Fig. 14 shows the distribution of vertical stress in ballast, with and
without USP, obtained from the FE analysis for 35 t axle simulated
at f ¼ 15 Hz (1) for the full ballast layer, (2) for a longitudinal
section (along the center of the sleeper), and (3) for a transverse
section (across the center of the sleeper). These contour plots cor-
respond to the magnitude of the applied cyclic stress σ1cyc as it
reaches a maximum value σ1cyc;max . The stress contours indicate
that the sleeper–ballast interface stress concentrates along the edges
of the sleeper, which is consistent with the contact force distribu-
tions observed by Ngo et al. (2017a). As expected, the stresses were

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Fig. 13. (Color) Variation of average lateral deformation of ballast with N, laboratory measurements versus FE model prediction: (a) without USP;
and (b) with USP.
higher in ballast directly under the rail seat, where the wheel load is
applied. The average stress in the ballast decreased with the depth
of the ballast layer.
The contours of stress distribution presented in Figs. 14(a–c)
were captured at the end of the analysis (N ¼ 10,000). The ob-
served stress was slightly higher at the initial cycles up to about
N ¼ 500 and then stabilized and remained almost constant for the
remaining load cycles. Nevertheless, the distribution of vertical
stress with and without USP in Figs. 14(a–c) clearly shows the ben-
efits of using USPs with concrete sleepers. When USPs are used,
the highly concentrated stresses at the sleeper–ballast interface
(from a hard concrete sleeper) are distributed over a wider area,
which reduces the magnitude of the vertical stress at the sleeper–
ballast interface and within the ballast mass at particle–particle
contacts. The results indicate that a USP with a concrete sleeper
substantially reduces the stresses transmitted to the ballast. The ver-
tical stress at the edges of the sleeper decreases along the depth of
ballast; the stress along the center line of the ballast layer increases
to a point at which the concentrated stress contours at the sleeper
edges reach the center line of the ballast mass and then decreases at
greater depths [see transverse sections in Fig. 14(c)].
The maximum vertical stresses measured at the top (sleeper–
ballast interface), middle (ballast–ballast interface), and bottom
(ballast–subballast interface) of the ballast layer during laboratory
testing were compared to the stress distribution from the FE analy-
sis, as shown in Fig. 15(a) (without USP) and Fig. 15(b) (with
USP). The variation of stress in the ballast along the center line
and along the edge of the sleeper was plotted as depicted by the
cross-sectional view of the unit cell [see insets in Figs. 15(a and b)].
As explained previously, the stress along the edge of the sleeper
decreased from a maximum value at the sleeper–ballast interface,
while the stress along the center line peaks just above the middle of
the ballast layer [Figs. 15(a and b)]. The “FEM-Average” shown
in Figs. 15(a and b) is based on the average values of 10 elements
(5 elements each along two center lines), which cover a total area of
200 mm diameter to approximately match the pressure cell cover-
ing area of 230 mm diameter. The average ballast stress decreased
with the depth of the ballast layer.
The numerically predicted stress (FEM-Average) at the top
(sleeper–ballast interface) and middle (ballast–ballast interface)
© ASCE 04018068-13
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matched reasonably well with the laboratory data, but the stress
at the bottom (ballast–subballast interface) was overpredicted by
the FEM analysis. Ballast breakage during laboratory testing sig-
nificantly influenced the stress measured at the bottom, because,
when the corners and edges of sharp and angular ballast particles
broke into smaller pieces due to cyclic stress, they gradually moved
toward the bottom of the ballast and filled the voids (i.e., vibratory
compaction) and increased the interparticle contacts at the bottom
layer. This increase in contact area reduced the stress at the bottom
layer, as was evident from the experimental results. However, since
ballast breakage was not considered in the current FE analysis, the
stress predicted at the bottom of the ballast did not correctly match
with the experimental findings. Moreover, the type of element
(C3D8R) used to build the FEM mesh was a continuum element,
whereas rail ballast consists of a skeleton of aggregates, which dis-
tributes the stress via a discrete number of interparticle contacts
to larger areas toward the deeper regions of the ballast layer. Never-
theless, the decrease in stress in the ballast when a USP is used with
a concrete sleeper was correctly captured by the current FE analy-
sis, matching the experimental data.
Conclusions
The performance of ballasted track stabilized with under sleeper
pads attached to the base of concrete sleepers was evaluated by
experimental study and three-dimensional finite-element analysis.
A prototype track substructure consisting of rail, sleeper, ballast,
and subballast layers was integrated inside the prismoidal chamber
of the PSPTA and the performance of ballast was investigated with
and without USPs placed under the concrete sleeper. Two axle
loads of 25 and 35 t with loading frequencies f of 15 and 20 Hz
were tested under a large number of cyclic loading (N ¼ 500,000).
The experimental findings showed promising outcomes in the
reduction of stress, vertical ε1 and lateral strain ε3 and degradation
of ballast stabilized with USP. Vertical deformation decreased in the
range of 19%–29% for the 25-t axle load, and about 21% for the
35 t axle load. The lateral deformation of the ballast decreased in
the range of 9%–14% and 9%–11% for 25- and 35-t axle loads,
respectively, when USPs were used with the concrete sleepers.
Axle loads and train speed (loading frequency) have a significant
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Fig. 14. (Color) Comparison of the distribution of vertical stress in the ballast layer with and without USP for a 35 t axle load simulated at f ¼ 15 Hz:
(a) full ballast layer; (b) longitudinal section; and (c) transverse section.

influence on ballast deformation. The results at N ¼ 500,000 indi-
cate that when the axle load increases from 25 to 35 t, vertical
and lateral deformations increase in the order of 37%–43% and
53%–60%, respectively. When the train speed increases from 110
to 145 km=h (f ¼ 15 to 20 Hz), vertical and lateral deformations
increase in the order of 51%–57% and 27%–33%, respectively.
Train speed (cyclic loading frequency) has more influence on ε1
than on ε3 , whereas axle load has more influence on ε3 .
The USP leads to a significant increase in sleeper–ballast inter-
face contacts and markedly reduces the stresses in the ballast, es-
pecially at the top zone near the sleeper–USP–ballast interface
(10%–12%), followed by lesser reductions in the middle of the
ballast layer (8.5%–10%) and the bottom zone near the ballast–
subballast interface (8%–9.5%); these reductions lead to a reduction
in ballast degradation. Regardless of the axle loads, frequencies, and
USP condition, ballast breakage was greater at the top layer due to a
higher interface and interparticle contact stress at the top; there was
less ballast breakage in the middle layer and even less in the bottom
layer of ballast. Ballast degradation was reduced significantly when
USPs were used at the hard concrete sleeper-to-ballast interface. On
average, when all three layers are considered, USPs reduced BBI by
more than 50%. Considering each ballast layer separately, the reduc-
tion of BBI for the 25- and 35-t axle loads tested at f ¼ 15 and
20 Hz were in the order of 53%–63% at the top layer, 51%–59%
at the middle layer, and 48%–62% at the bottom layer. The average
BBI increased in the order of 26%–28% when f increased from 15
to 20 Hz, whereas the percentage increase of BBI when axle load
increased from 25 to 35 t was 34%–37%. Axle load had more in-
fluence on ballast breakage than loading frequency (i.e., train
speed), because a heavier load contributes more to ballast grinding,
corner breakage, and particle splitting.
Although the particle breakage behavior of ballast was not in-
corporated in the 3D FE analysis, the predicted vertical and lateral
deformation and the vertical stress distribution in the ballast layer
generally agreed with the experimental findings—particularly the
vertical and lateral deformation at N < 1,000 and the generated

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Fig. 15. (Color) Distribution of vertical stress in the ballast layer: laboratory measurements versus FE model prediction: (a) without USP; and
(b) with USP.

stresses at the top and middle of the ballast layer. The FE results
indicated that USPs significantly reduce ε1 and ε3 and the vertical
stress of the ballast. Based on this study, using USPs on concrete
sleepers is a favorable solution to reduce the stress–strain and deg-
radation of ballast, and, in a practical sense, to minimize the main-
tenance costs of ballasted rail tracks.
Acknowledgments
The financial support provided by Australian Research Council
(ARC) and University Postgraduate Award (UPA) by the Univer-
sity of Wollongong to conduct this research study is gratefully
appreciated. Continuous assistance provided by Dr. Sanjay
Nimbalkar and A/Prof. Cholachat Rujikiatkamjorn during the study
is appreciated. The assistance provided by senior technical officers,
namely Alan Grant, Cameron Neilson, and Ritchie McLean in
the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University
of Wollongong, is also appreciated.
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